Skip to main content

Full text of "Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution"

See other formats 


2 an ens re feces = rere 

y “ Rakennice eet a = 
Chae a OE LE Ne Ne : 
et een 


a = 
Se eee 
Ce eines 
ie Pa ee 


Kecceae 


— 


Sen ee = 


Pen, ae 

aren ok s S 

eo ee Ce a ag 

<a has seen a renee es 
> ee ee 2 
= a 


Se 
Se 











Aa 





1 














51st ConGRESS,) HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. ¢ Mis. Doc. 224, 
1st Session. t Part 1. 





ANNUAL REPORT 
OF THE 


BOARD OF REGENTS 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION 
OF THE INSTITUTION ; 


TO 


TIS Lay ot BS 9. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
TS 20. 


FIrTy-FIRST CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION. 


Concurrent resolution adopted by the House of Representatives May 27, 1890, and by the 
Senate, June 17, 1890. 


Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed 
of the Report of the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum for the years 
ending June 30, 1888, and June 30, 1889, in two octavo volumes for each year, 16,000 
copies; of which 3,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 6,000 for the use of 
the House of Representatives, and 7,000 for the use of the Smithsonian Institution. 


Il 





LETTER 


FROM THE 


SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


ACCOMPANYING 


The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of 
June, 1889. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C., July 1, 1889. 
To the Congress of the United States : 

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United 
States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit 
to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- 
dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1889. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. 
Hon. LEv1 P. Morton, 
President of the Senate. 
Hon. THomas Bb. REED, 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Li 


ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE 
END OF JUNE, 1889. 


SUBJECTS. 


1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 
1889. 

2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs 
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- 
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1888-89. 

3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations 
and condition of the Institution for the year 1888~’89, with statistics 
of exchanges, ete. 

4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs 
of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, 
teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. 


XV 





CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Resolution of Congress to print extra copies of the Report........--....--..-- II 
Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to 
Congress’ <-2=..- Wee stile cisie(oa we nice warecs Seis) Selle seins Racine staid accion nce aes IIL 
General subjects of the Annual Report .......--..--..---.- Pc aigta2 e Fe) eee IV 
Contents,of the Report..2...<:-----2---- cee eee SE ee ee ree Vv 
List of illustrations .......-..- pe ee ren ee ee ate ae aoa ene re 1S 
Members ex officio of the -Establishment...--. 2.2... 22-oms -2---- 5-00-5222 anon x 
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution ..-.....-.-.-.---.---.--- pitt oace 285 XII 
JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.......--.----- XU 
Beatedmecniie, January O, [6e0.... ..cute-ccolse a: ne ceiee sates 2 oo = XIII 
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE for the year ending June 30, 1889 -.- 
Condition of the funds aly: U1889 Foo e se ye ae ese == a2 eno tee XIX 
IRGeei temOls ONO VCale ae st seeree ee sca sane crete selec cic eia eis xX 
EP Spenaliures 100 INO -Voar > i0.-s200c seas cnn cew yeccies mee angsnlestomene XX 
Dales an CeneanyI ONS ei secre accre = = pete cre sees elem, nin oS ciel mai aad xx 
Appropriations for international exchanges...........--.------ese------- XXI 
Details of expenditures of same ......--- Mots a oto fala 'alel siniais/e ojeiare ote exe 
Appropriations for North American Ethnology ...--. ---.-.....---------- XXII 
Details'of expenditures: Ot Same. .2- 22-22 5- see ssc Sf an) nce ose oecnetenia XXIII 
Appropriation for Smithsonian Building repairs, and expenditures......-- XXIV 
Appropriations for the National Museum’ .......:---...-----i2--<-e1s.-s2- XXIV 
Details of expenditures of same .-.-.....----.-.- Be te Ae UR enisis Sane XXV 
(Cone ra ies UMIM ANY seoet.. ome omen eSonee <2 aackt seen cee swims ices XX 
Incomemvallable for ensuing. year ....-..-s22. --- e+ -2sslceee eeeme eiclaeie eee 
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution, 
National Museum, etc., for 1889 ...-.. ee Pace ee ce eeelacsicepaismecciere ss KRM TIT 
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ..-.....----- Mesee wacieeardaals sie Jota/sfefaiatare jateaioiere 1 
The Board of Regents...-.-....-.- Bee ee ee eeeela es Seer eee ee 1 
Changes of menibers of the Board! :.< oss s2.2 30.202 oe nceee- sacciew/ecccce 1 
MIM AN COS i reatore eloare cis a aisieiceetelera carwisais case cao d eeyecieeis Salis dese woe aes Smpais 1 
Justclaimsron the, Government. .---- 2.2 222.426 se Scie oe seed aie- oe oie 2, 
Present total endowment of the Institution.-...... sapetatole, Sateen arse 2 
Balance on hand July, 1, 1889. 225. hea Ss. sta cesciancc cm cin tn xe eteytt secs 3 
Appropriations committed to the care of the Institution..........---- 3 
Estimates for the next fiscal year, 1889-"90.......-.--.----.---------- 4 
Museum appropriations transferred to the Institution....-...---.---- 5 
Buildings .. 5:5. 52-2 eS ieee eee se eT is eae ee Ata ay cere weiats bee ieee 5 
Additional Museum building urgently needed ..-.... 000 eeeeee eee 5 


Vi 


VI CONTENTS. 


Page 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—Continued. 
Buildings—Continued. 
Recent accessions of material very large. sasactsanees Aah been eaes sane 5 
storage room quite insufiicient 22s. sees ee eee oe ccelen cece eaae 6 
Fire-proofing of the west wing greatly desired.........---...---.-.- a 
IR@SCarC ie te ae clea wise clan cia seen aiaals tetera aie cee ieinecleneine eee ee see aes a 
Astro-physical observatory contemplated ...............---.----..... 7 
Valuable apparatus lent to the Institution. ..........--.............. 8 
Explorations 22:25 sc .c2< a2 ooealee a sce te rece eee een eee eee eee eee 8 
Investigations in Northern Africa by Mr. T. Williams..............-- 8 
Investigations in Thibet by Mr. W. W. Rockhill ..-....-.....---.---- 9 
Collections from Egypt by Dr. James Grant Bey ...---...-..----..--- 9 
Expected collections from Indians of Hoopa Reservation by Jeremiah 
Curtin Sees Seeowe Does ee eee Se eee erate oe ee eee seie eee 9 
Expected collections from Russia and Finland -:......--..-2---.+--=:- 9 
Also tromvAlaska ossccssee nee see Newnes eee Sea. auistes Meee eee See eet 10 
Publications) ck Aisi s ee seco Siete ele eras Sera cen ees ere tere ale ere ener 10 
Classes of publication; 2222.0). | nase seo ton eer sont a ees 11 
Museum publications no longer included in the Miscellaneous Collec- 
CLOTS 235 SSeS ae NE ei eee SI ate Naar cee ee ee er 12 
General Appendix to the Annual Smithsonian Report a source of ex- 
PENSOVS ES re nits Ae ei Satara wiciere sere epee seine saa cle erent a rola eee eet 12 
A change in the character of the papers undertaken .-........-...----- 12 
Distribution of Smithsonian publications........ 2... .2.-2. s-00 ------ 13 
A small portion reserved for sale .........-...--..- sues obtslecsemiamece 14 
Facilities offered to others in publication ---..-:-.- 22222-2222 ---. cee 14 
Smithsonian exchange system. sakes hoes cee ae ee eee 15 
Death.of the curator, Dri J. He Kadders- ca sesse- coer ee eet eee ence 16 
Mr. William C. Winlock appointed his successor. ....--..---.-------- 16 
Magnitude of the exchange operations...... 222... 2.-..2-2.-+----+ee5 16 
Cost of the exchanges to the Institution. ....--3.2.2. 0.5.22. 22aee, 17 
Claim“for increased appropriations. 2-2-2 -2- =~ jee on eee 18 
Bstimateof amount. required’ sseee ete 2 er- ee eee eee 18 
Charge of 5 cents per pound made to the Departments ..--....--.---- 18 
[ts discontinuance recommended! <.---e.-e-- see aoe te ee eee 18 
Estimate of $27,500 for the fiscal year 1889-’90 ................-..-2-- 19 
Only one-third of Government publications received for transmission. 19 
Comparison of present and proposed plan..-..-..--..-.-.-.<<e.-ce-- 19 
Delay resulting from insufficient appropriations.......--....--.------ 20 
Convention between the United States and other powers...--.-- Seas 20 
Ocean steamers granting favor of free transportation .-.--..----.---- 21 
Whibparyiesne ols obs oie k oOo SR re es Sr a 21 
Separate halls desired in the new Congressional Library Building, for 
the:Smithsonian Wibrary, 2.<.s.er2 soso nae ae cee see eee 22 
Temporary quarters for the same suggested..........-.-.-..-.----.-- 23 
Improvement in the reading room of the Institution -.........-...---- 23 
Efforts to increase the number of periodicals by exchange........---- 23 
Lists of scientific periodicals furnished by correspondents... .---.----- 25 
Total addition of books received during the past year ...--..----.---- 25 
Department.of living animals! 2552. 22. oe) a ee eee 25 
Giftsof birds’and’quadrupeds’ 2. = 2222 eee oe ee 25 
Inconvenience resulting from limited accommodations...--.-.-------- 26 
Total number of living speeimens received during the year .---..---- 26 


CONTENTS. Vil 


age 

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—Continued. — 
OOO LIGA Ran kegels ae siee sa F eis 5 selena See ee nee ee eee Ne 27 
Report by the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds ..-.-..---- 27 
Amendment introduced to the District of Columbia bill.--.....---..-- 30 
This finally passed and made a law March 2 ......-.-.--....-.205---- 31 
Land on Rock Creek selected for the purpose ...--. ..---.-----.------ 31 
MISCOMINCOUS se eresae fae aioe aie eee see cine oe once ce Sac Scllsetnceeas 32 
Assionment of rooms for scientific work... ..2< 222. 222+... 25-552 see ae 
Ponemlecuurentu Md: se.> iso ceases ete sere ore es Ske es cise ee Se ye 
Grantsrand SUbDSCripblons.=.2.- one, ssccocs sae te seen ooo ees oo 
Privilege of the floor of the House of Representatives ......---..----- 33 
SMIGHSOMIAD CTOUNASece cease. soo fee stmte wich Sera enie ciate elem, Sern ees 33 
American Historical Association es code. 2o semue oo ete - toe coe Some 33 
Stereotype: Platessc eames nc ca stesees os oot eoece esa. Hemet ease cesses 33 
Temporary shed for astro-physical observations ......--.------------- 33 
HECEPULON tcc msao- cece ces eso e ee ea eek RA ree sce eae ears ree 34 
Worresponden Osis secs some cece cece nce cearec ceca ccs se ince yecee os ee 34 
LNILED, STATES -NATIONAIn MUSHUMsnciee oinciccccuciecee Sas ctea cael secce osne 34 
Classinediservice.of the Museum. 2-2 22222> s+. cesses csccesases- lessees 34 
pchedule of oflicers-and: employes. 2-2-2 2.c2h a ccmessiceo = seek cee easaconeee 36 
inicrease.ot tie collectione= es sc. =--- nse sane so seele ca) sees one bacco oe eee es Be 
Tabular statement from 1882 to 1889.............---. 22-22. wee, eee -- =e 40 
Ca talOomenenULlOspre cite tee sete eee eee cis othe Mee rnan sac se einees seat tee 42 
Principal accessions to the collections... .... -...~----. 2222 enon nn eee nae anne 42 
Co-operation of Departments and Bureaus of the Government.......-.---- 5 
Photographic exhibit.. <2 -- 2.225 ecco ce ccc ee Be era ee ieee Sac ee 45 
Distributionor duplicate specimens. sss. .s<s s222s-sse22<,s22e05 sees cone 45 
Accessions tothe Museum) Library. 2. -ss...-c250-ccncs eocecs-scculeact -eeeee 46 
Pobplicamons of the Musetini : 22.2242 .2 esc ces coe c ec edsdeccaseccescesconce 47 
MUUCCMES sanstemas: Same Seas foie ce acs Gem tcleac esac os sve teccs ch obecjscee se 49 
Special researches. .......--....- See ncaa apap eee eee 50 
Meennosrandilecunress.2.=.cos sce cee toe seas ale ee ee See es cee ctee cone sete 50 
ASEH OUS ste me eee aa cole ieee cis a See cee fee ces see aah cele os See 50 
WZOTSOUME lcteee eee eevee esc ntan seine cree eine ae soe ecco ne ome cleave eee dl 
BX LOTS HOUSte chee = see ook eee os sees ee he ee Gos Soe cae ee ee yeas cece ease is 
Centennial Exposition of the Ohio Valley and Central States. .........--- 51 
Marietta: Centennial Exposition’ 225. ..222.22cs5. ooce sone ec eect ce ccee eele op 
Injury to the collections by frequent transportation ...--.--...----.-----. 54 
Appropriation required to maintain and improve the collections ...-...... 54 
URE AU ORE REN OMGOGNe raya stcyseaisiecyeaeis cissieytie wee Shape ae wie Sree wie eiteicievnei tele ee ae Diy 
Bicld\ Wore S--eeese< sce eo eons mniwial Sets ais aieisre wie. poSierelsie cio ciated wice te ecenye cries 5D 
MON Omer OTAbLONG oats aqenieinve ce \e nemisie sic. #ce sierniniee weiserercisicjeceiieeciise 55 
Generali tieldistudies 2 a. masse ace iaja as an Soe mnoe eee ane Sen ceseeaooee 55 
Officer work: Ge socccr. Se Mee ee ia aeeye ee en ec icetae e SOye eee wee Lae 60 
Linguistic map of North America in preparation .............-.....-- 60 
Various linguistic researches in progress ........-...---.----.--+----- 61 
bist of publicationsio£ the Bureau =... .<2-scec2sencceces cocc coca s scec sess 65 
PATE Lee DOL GS ets sis ol own ebioe ee net eiaciate eile a ce5/csibe.« wsei-win cco 65 
Contributions :s2s.. s2c<c-.scee IER a ois Cente tiei Sen awe Sie Bie 65 
Introductions ..-......-- a et eas ome ty ee cs an aay stant ne A 65 
Bulletiny... 24 sss5-6 Be ne che core cee BRT MeO de scieeeeeeee 65 
NECHOROGY. och seats Conc eee oct OS Pe eo lca anaccedouds oe 66 
rete CLOMO pam lel Oke tan Tomei cook <crars See Ines ac. coniee ecceeeee 66 


Wier TIN ECRES COV. CNSON Eee oe ee ee SS oe. oc Alas 67 


Vill CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX p OB CRB TUAGY 9 hu P OR Mamta satya a/cleatstat inal ate laletetelar se rale\e oieiotaleta eter 
Ie eublicatronsrof tlrenye are ceee see selera einen stellate eiefe siete ieke rate le ela etee irene 

Ik; Reportion international exchanges 2c... ssocm cease vos cee mace els eee 

Te Reporbron the library cece ce cemises cece acc sacle aiaeteers eeeieteaets 


GENERAL APPENDIX. 


YANO T ETS ON OM beara ayays ata ayeot ala io lsat e eae Tote ale ed ole cleke alavalelev etal lalate Settaeeiereis 
The National Scientific Institutions at Berlin, oe Albert Guttstadt........---. 
Hertz’s Researches on Electrical Oscillations, by G. W. de Tunzelmann..-.....-. 
Repetition of Hertz’s Experiments, etc., by Frederick T. Trouton...........--. 
Progress of Meteorology in 1889, by George W. Curtis........:--.-.---..--.-- 
How rains) Hormed by HoH) Blantordss22 ia -clcece ooh see nee “aera eee 
OneAerialocomotion, by. He Wenham! 2 2. Sa2- 226 eacc asses =a ates see ane 
On the Movements of the Earth’s Crust, by A. Blytt.....--..----..----.--2-2- 
Time-keeping in Greece and.Rome; by F. A. Seely ..-2-..2- 2255 scec--ceeoee oe 
Botanical Biology, iby W. L.Dhiselton-Dyer 2 23522. cose wane oe cee eee eee 
Elementary Problems in Physiology, by J.S. Burdon Sanderson ......-...---- 
OneBoscovich’s Theory, byasir) William: Lhomsonses-s1.4cssooses-- eee eee 
The: Modern theory of Wight, Dy Oliver, J odees see. . ene a ee eels 
Michelson’s Recent Researches on Light, by Joseph Lovering............----- 
Photography in the Service of Astronomy, by R. Radau..........--...---.---- 
The Life-work of a Chemist, by.Sir Henry E: Roscoe. -- <->... 255.2 s-2-- «= 2 
Memoir of Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer, by A. Miiller ....-....---.----..----. 
Memoir of Gustav Robert Kirchoff, by Robert von Helmholtz........---.--.- 
OnHeredity, byssir Williamelurnens-=- terse miss aer eee = enae eee aera 
Anthropology in the Last Twenty Years, by Rudolph Virchow........--...-. 
Scandinavian Archeology, by Ingwald Unset .<--.... so2 226-222 once ca cen e 
Progress of Anthropology in 1889, by Otis T. Mason............---.-....----- 
The Last Steps in the Genealogy of Man, by Paul Topinard ...--.........---.. 
The State and Higher Education, by Herbert B. Adams ..-.....-..---...---:- 
The Molecular Structure of Matter, by William Anderson......-.......---..-- 
Auminwnd, i bynbes Cove ycosses commer ase octe cee eciinis «eis acete saree cee aiee 
Alloys of Aluminum, byzJ) HsDarcersssonersesicecins siemice ne ain enenie = il eee 
ihe: Hittel: Towenmsby: Gobittelis=sse. cence ste cease acc cere sees ee eee sore 
The Hittel Rower; by William, Av ddyeeeess <2. cestode sees sss eee eee 
The Great Terrestrial Globe at the Paris Exhibition of 1 880 ob Sueclsteeea snes 
Geographical Latitude; by, Walter BoSeaifen ccc c-scss socscsien eae meaiae eee 


On 


Se eww we kK 


© 


7? VY 4») ss) 
- 


CONTENTS. a Ix 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 





Page. Page, 

Hertz’s Electrical Researches: Trouton’s Electrical Experiments— 

Bip eee c eee a sae oaetess ee ae 147 Continued. 

WP ee seats cerca puaeann ce seae 148 DIG eo acer aan< eee ann eaaser 198 

fet anette eee ac22 ss ae 150) Bear heehee oudast eens ee 200 

Pi AM ec Ses at oe eek 151 eens Bas ns Bat oe tered 201 

Bigs, 5;6.ss02-- eee ee anee 154 | Progress in Meteorology: 

ss tie Poe anes he bone te Ak Ge . 155 Wigs lee tte Ss suse ns oo sk ee ease 241 

Bip eOee atic ieee < sass OSs nec 163 | Aerial Locomotion : P 

Be Gece sacs tog fo aes nabs es fe 166 PNG red een seat tae acne 319) 

IGG Ose cc ya haas sa esenine 169 Big ee ace Ce ee 320 

PO La agains oats ¢oe sees ost 73 Mag. GO sass Secs o asieacice 321 

TOL ream eeee er 3 see ee 185 | Movements of the Earth’s Crust: 
Trouton’s Electrical Experiments: Wioa i ae eaae tae aero eoe 352 

RUD Mle eas ciieoeian coe see ce cele 191 | The Terrestrial Globe at Paris Ex- 

EN OS serena nonce oes 193 position : 

TN ieee setae ea Se rae aleeocan oy 195 Ries le tctsoeseesatocne hae 746 

Med a eaae tee eae ce een eso 196 Big ere seagate sa soeeueeetee 747 


INDEX to the volume..........-. Hise weeat susan dee atomwen mada seke mea geeaeons 795 





THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ ESTABLISHMENT. 


(January, 1889.) 


GROVER CLEVELAND, President of the United States. 

JOHN J. INGALLS, President of the United States Senate pro tempore. 
MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. 
THOMAS F. BAYARD, Secretary of State. 

CHARLES S. FAIRCHILD, Secretary of the Treasury. 

WILLIAM C. ENDICOTT, Secretary of War. 

WILLIAM C. WHITNEY, Secretary of the Navy. 

DON M. DICKINSON, Postmaster-General. 

AUGUSTUS H. GARLAND, Attorney-General. 

BENTON J. HALL, Commissioner of Patents. 


REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. 


(List given on the following page.) 


OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. 
SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. 
Director of the Institution, and of the U. S. National Museum. 
G. BRowN GOODE, Assistant Secretary. 


WILLIAM J. RuHEES, Chief Clerk, 


REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, 
Title LXX11I, section 5580), ‘The business of the Institution shall be con- 
ducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the 
Regents .of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- 
President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of 
the District of Columbia], three members of the Senate, and three mem- 
bers of the House of Kepresentatives, together with six other persons, 
other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the 
city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some 
State, but no two of the same State.” 


REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1889. 
The Vice-President of the United States: 
JOHN J. INGALLS (elected President of the Senate pro tem. February 26, 1887) 
The Chief-Justice of the United States: 


MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancelior and President of the Board Jan- 
uary 9, 1889. 


United States Senators: ; Term expires. 
JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed February 21, 1883)...-..-....--.Mar. 3. 1891. 


SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed March 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1&89)-Mar. 3, 1895. 
RANDALL L. GIBSON (appointed Dec. 19, 1887, and Mar. 28, 1889).. Mar. 3, 1895. 


Members of the House of Representatives: 


SAMUEL S. COX (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, died Sept. 10, 1889)... .-- Dee. 26, 1889. 
JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed January 5, 1888).-...-.-.....--- Dec. 26, 1889. 
WILLIAM W. PHELPS (appointed January 5, 1888)...--.---..--- Dec. 26, 1889. 


Citizens of a State: 
HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan. 19, 1874)- Dec. 26, 1891, 
NOAH PORTER, of Connecticut (first appointed Jan. 26, 1878) ....Mar. 3, 1890. 
JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (first appointed Jan. 19, 1837)...Jan. 19, 1893. 
ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1883) -Feb. 15, 1594. 
Citizens of Washington: 
JAMES C. WELLING (first appointed May 13, 1884).............. May 13, 1890. 
MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS (first appointed December 26, 1885)-.-...Dec. 26, 1891. 


Executive Committce of the Board of Regents. 


JAMES C, WELLING, Chairman. HENry CoppEr. MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS. 
XII 


ee 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF 
THE SMETHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


WASHINGTON, January 9, 1889. 

The stated annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 
sonian Institution was held this day at half-past 10 o’clock a. m. 

Present: Chief-Justice MELVILLE W. FULLER, Hon. J. J. INGALLS, 
Hon. J. S. MORRILL, Hon. 8. M. CuLLom, Hon. R. L. Gipson, Hon. 5. 
S. Cox, Hon. W. W. PHELPS, Hon. Jos. WHEELER, Dr. HENRY 
CoppiE, Dr. JAMES C. WELLING, General M. C. MEIGs, and the Sece- 
retary, Mr. S. P. LANGLEY. 

On motion of Mr. Morrill, Mr. Ingalls was called to the chair. 

Excuses for non-attendance were read from Dr. Noam Por'TER and 
Dr. J. B. ANGELL, and the Secretary stated that Dr. A. D. WHITE was 
out of the country. 

The journal of proceedings of the Board of the regular annual meet- 
ing of January 11 and the special called meeting of March 27, 1888, 
was read and approved. 

The Secretary stated that since the last annual meeting the death had 
occurred of one of the most distinguished and useful members of the 
Board, Dr. ASA GRAY, and it was proper that some expression be made 
by hie Board in regard to the loss it had sustained. 

Dr. Coppée, in afew eulogistic remarks on the late Dr. Gray, portrayed 
his character and particularly his active usefulness as a Regent, and 
thought the expression of the feeling of every one of his associates 
should be placed upon the permanent records of the Institution. On his 
motion, it was 

Resolved, That-a committee of three be appointed, of which the Sec- 
retary shall be chairman, to prepare and record in our proceedings a 
resolution expressing the sentiments of the Board upon the loss of Pro- 
fessor Gray. 

The Chair appointed Prof. 8. P. Langley, Dr. Coppée, and Dr. Well- 
ing as the committee, which subsequently reported the following : 


THE LATE DOCTOR ASA GRAY. 


It israrely indeed that the departure from this life of any man pro- 
duces so profound and so general a sense of personal loss as has fol- 
lowed the death of our friend, Dr. Asa Gray, His associates in the 

xi 


XIV JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Board of Regents, his companions in scientific research, and the great 
body of younger men who looked up to him as their master, have all 
been made to realize that something has gone from the world which 
can ill be spared, and that their own lives have lost a part of that which 
made up their fullness. 

Upon the Smithsonian Institution his loss falls with particular 
weight, since his active interest in its welfare is almost continuous with 
its existence, for he was one of the Committee of the American Acad- 
emy of Arts and Sciences, the report of which upon the “ plan pro- 
posed for the organization of the Smithsonian Institution,” rendered in 
1847, has exercised so active an influence upon the subsequent history 
of this establishment. 

Appointed a Regent in January, 1874, to sueceed Prof. Louis Agas- 
siz, his efficient and active interest in the welfare of this Institution 
has been one of its most valuable possessions, and it is with deeper 
feeling than formal resolutions of regret unsually convey that we now 
endeavor to express some part of our sense of irreparable loss. 

Dr. Gray’s scientific reputation, while literally world-wide, was nat- 
urally greatest in his Own country, for it is he who has made the 
botanical world acquainted with probably nearly three-fourths of the 
forms that grow on this northern continent; and in this country, where 
everything was referred to his Harvard Herbarium and to his judg- 
ment and classification, as the final court of appeal, he occupied a 
unique position as priest and pontiff of American botany. His botanical 
labors are otherwise too familiar to need rehearsal here, but it is not 
perhaps so generally known that he was an honored sponsor at the 
birth of the Darwinian Theory. In this constant correspondence with 
its illustrious author, Dr. Gray elicited the frequent expression of an 
admiration as hearty as if was sincere;* and in Europe as well as in this 
country our friend was recognized rather as the colleague than as the 
disciple of the great English naturalist. 

As another distinguished botanist has said of him, in speaking on 
this same subject, ‘* Wherever it was known that Asa Gray saw noth- 
ing sinister, nothing dangerous, in the teachings of Darwin, those 
teachings were stripped of all their terrors. The impossibility that 
such a man, so eminent in science, so clear in his conceptions, so pure 
in his morals, and so steadfast in his faith, could pass judgment upon a 
work that he had not thoroughly examined, or favor a doctrine that 
could be productive of evil, was apparent to all who knew him, and to 
the full extent of Dr. Gray’s wide influence throughout the world, the 
works of Charles Darwin were stricken from the index expurgatorius 
and admitted into the family cirele as safe books for all to read. 

Rather with the desire that a permanent record shall be made of the 





* 7 said in a former letter that you were a lawyer, but I made gross mistake. I 
am sure that you are a poet,—no, I will tell you what you are: a hybrid, a com- 
plex cross of lawyer, poet, naturalist, and theologian! Was there ever such a mon- 
ster seen before?” (Darwin to Gray, September 10, 1860.) 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XV 


appreciation in which this Board holds its departed associate than in 
any expectation that formal action can adequately express its sense of 
the great loss that we personally feel, and that this Institution has 
experienced, your committee submits the following resolutions: 

Whereas the members of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian 
Institution have been called upon to mourn the death of their distin- 
guished colleague, the late Dr. Asa Gray, who has been actively inter- 
ested in the welfare of the Institution from its beginning, and who held 
for fifteen years the office of Regent, with great advantage to the In- 
stitution: Therefore, be it 

Resolved, That with a high appreciation of Dr. Gray’s most eminent 
labors in the development of all scientific truth, and especially in the 
advancement and popularization of the study of botany; with a grate- 
ful sense of the service he has rendered to the Smithsonian Institution, 
and with reverence for his pure life, we record our admiration of the 
Christian character in which the truths of science were all seen in the 
same light that shone on a life of steadfast faith. 

Resolved, That we mourn not only the great investigator, the teacher 
and the associate, whose single mind found outward expression in a 
manner so well remembered in its simple and indefinable charm, but 
that above all we grieve for the loss of a friend. 

Resolved, That this preamble and the resolutions be spread on the 
minutes of the Board in respectful tribute to the memory of our vener- 
ated colleague, and that a copy be transmitted to his family in token of 
the share we take in their bereavement. 

The Secretary stated that having learned from the widow of Dr. Gray 
that she needed about eighty copies of the second part of the “ Flora 
of North America,” by her husband, which had been published by the 
Smithsonian Institution, to complete the sets in her possession and ren- 
der them available, he had ventured in the name of the Regents to fur- 
nish these desired volumes, and had taken the occasion to express their 
continued interest in the result of the labors of their late colleague ; 
for which Mrs. Gray had asked him to express her very sincere thanks. 

The chairman announced the election by joint resolution of Congress, 
approved by the President February 15, 1588, of Dr. Andrew B. White, 
of the State of New York, as Regent for the term of six years, to fill 
the vacancy occasioned by the death of Dr. Gray. 

The chair then announced as the next business in order, the election 
of Chancellor. 

On motion of Mr. Cox, Chief-Justice Melville W. Fuller was unani- 
mously elected Chancellor of the Institution. 

Mr. Fuller, in accepting the office, after thanking the members of the 
Board for the compliment, expressed his desire to promote the objects 
of the Institution, in whose welfare, he was well aware, the late chan- 
celior, Chief-Justice Waite, had such great interest, and he earnestly 
hoped that he should be able to discharge his duties with as much fidel- 
ity and success. 

Dr. Welling, chairman of the Executive Committee, presented its 
annual report for the year ending June 30, 1888; which was read and 
accepted, 


XVI JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


On motion of Mr. Cox it was— 


Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year end- 
ing June 30, 1890, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to 
be expended by the Secratary, with the advice of the executive com- 
mittee, upon the basis of the operations described in the last annual 
report of said committee, with tull discretion on the part of the Secre- 
tary as to items of expenditures properly falling under each of the 
heads embraced in the established conduct of the Institution. 

The Secretary presented his annual report, which in accordance with 
the rules of the Board had been printed and distributed in advance to 
the members. He expressed his readiness to make additional explana- 
tions or remarks in regard to any part of the operations of the Institu- 
tion. 

Mr. Culiom inquired as to the Zoological Park, and the prospect of 
its establishment. He expressed great interest in the project and hoped 
it would speedily be realized. 

The Secretary briefly urged the importance to science of the measure, 
as the means of rescuing from speedy extinction some of the animals 
which formerly inhabited this continent in vast numbers, and ex- 
pressed his fear that if the land was not now secured (which in its nat- 
ural state was pre-eminently fitted for the Park) within a year, so-called 
‘‘improvements” would entirely destroy its character and adaptability. 

General Meigs stated that thirty years ago he had pointed out to the 
Government the desirability of securing the Rock Creek region for a 
public park, and the land could then have been procured for an insig- 
nificant sum. 

After a general expression of opinion by the Regents in favor of the 
proposed Zoological Park, the members of the Board in the Senate and 
House were requested to urge the passage of the bill by Congress as 
speedily as possible. 

The Secretary stated that a reference had been made at the last an- 
nual meeting of a bill introduced in the Senate December 12, 1887, for 
the erection of a bronze statue of the late Professor Baird. This bill 
had passed the Senate unanimously February 9, 1888, and was referred 
in the House to the Committee on Library, which had not made a re- 
port. 

Mr. Cox stated that if the bill came up for action in the House he 
had no doubt it would be favorably acted on. 

The Secretary made the following remarks: 

The Smithsonian contribution to the Library of Congress now con- 
sists of over a quarter of a million titles, forming a collection of its 
kind absolutely unequaled in the world, created mainly out of the 
Smithsonian income and practically a donation to the General Govern- 
ment. Further, nearly a quarter of the Smithsonian yearly income is 
indirectly devoted to the increment of this great collection. 

It had been hoped that this collection would have been kept in a hall 
distinct from other books in the Library of Congress, but the exigen- 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XVII 


cies of the demand on the Librarian have caused it not only to be 
crowded into insufficient space, but in an inaccessible room, so that the 
collection is not seen and in no way recalls the source of its contribu- 
tion, and to the general public its very existence is unknown. 

In the new Library of Congress building atdlequate space will pre- 
sumably be provided for its preservation and increase, but if if seems 
fit to the Regents that a distinct hall or halls shall be devoted to it, 
and that they shall also in their construction and decoration not only 
be worthy of the contents, but recall that the collection is due to the 
Smithsonian fund, the following resolution is submitted : 

Resolved, That since the Smithsonian deposit now numbers over 
250,000 titles, and is still increasing at the cost of the Institution, it is, 
in the opinion of the Regents, desirable that in the new building for 
the Library of Congress sufficient provision shall be made for its 
accommodation and increase in a distinet hall or halls, worthy of the 
collections, and such as, while recalling to the visitor the name of 
Smithson, shall provide such facilities for those consulting the volumes 
as will aid in his large purpose of the diffusion of knowledge among 
men. 

On motion of General Meigs, the resolution was adopted. 

The Secretary called the attention of the Board to the act recently 
passed by Cungress (approved by the President, January 4, 1889), to 
incorporate the American Historical Association, and providing that 
said association shall report annually to the Secretary of the Smithson- 
ian Institution its proceedings, ete., who at his discretion shall com- 
municate the same to Congress, and further authorizing the Regents of 
the Institution to receive on deposit the collections, papers, etc., of the 
said association. 

On motion of Mr. Cuilom, it was 

Resolved, That the American Historical Association be and hereby is 
permitted to deposit its collections, manuscripts, books, pamphlets, and 
other material for history in the Smithsonian Institution or in the Na- 
tional Museum, in accordance with the provisions of the act of incor 


poration, and that the conditions of said deposit shall be determined 
by the Secretary, with the approval of the executive committee. 


On motion of Mr. Cullom, the Board adjourned sine die. 


H. Mis. 224——11 





REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS 
OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


(For the year ending 30th of June, 1889.) 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : 

Your Executive Committee respectfully submits the following report 
in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- 
gress for the National Museum and other purposes, and the receipts and 
expenditures for the Institution and the Museum for the year ending 
June 30, 1889: 


Condition of the fund July 1, 1889. 


The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the 
Treasury of the United States, according to the act of Congress of 
August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of 
Congress (act of February 8, 1867) the residuary legacy of Smithson 
and savings from annual income and other sources, $134,831. To this 
$1,000 have been added by a bequest of James Hamilton, $500 by a 
bequest of Simeon Habel, and $51,500 as the proceeds of the sale of 
Virginia bonds owned by the Institution, making in all, as the perma- 
nent Smithsonian fund in the United States Treasury, $703,000. 


Statement of the receipts and expenditures of the Smithsonian Institution 
July 1, 1888, to June 30, 1889. 

















RECEIPTS. 
Cashyon hand! Jalycl 1888 vssscind. f oietsc. cere ve cces scwmndecee ee. $4, 809, 23 
Interest on fund July 1, 1888 ..-... 2.222... ....---. $21,090. 00 
Interest on fund January 1, 1889 ........ 2... wcecce 21, 090. 00 
—- 42, 180. 00 
— $46, 989, 23 
Cash from sales of publications.............22. Eaeietex siete) s areye 431. 82 
Cash from repayments of freight, etc ........ .200--- eee eneees DS, oeee aL 
——. | 3,760.52 
Motalia=.c2tevee Mactele spas atcislenetie’aanenion ceeerinn cee ees ahaa 50, 749, 76 


XX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


EXPENDITURES. 





Building: 
Repairs, care, and improvements ....-.......... $2, 896. 11 
HMurniture and txvures)- cscs ccc scwisee <cicicee 1, 147. 09 
——- $4, 043. 20 
General expenses: 
MIG NITES) Gabe gode oonocongaoobbocecoaedd bo saeded 212. 00 
Postareanw teleoraphin.ce se sias\-cl2 aleisiciele teeisee 387. 71 
NLATLON OLY see ears eit mone sioiete oem Saisie eineietaterieieiete 707. 98 
FeNneral Printing). 5c senmjcsiciens re Seereemeeiece 602, 11 
Incidentals (fuel, gas, stable, etc)......-.-..--.. 2,118.11 
Library (books, periodicals, etc) ...-....---...--- 1, 350. 33 
Salaries ssacicicce hos See succwiew cleiote aie wie niwiaretleieaiereis 18, 820. 74 


--— 24,198.98 





Publications and research: 





Smithsonian Contribubions'.-sc2...c-sc-. <2 eness=5 $99, 22 
Miscellaneous Collections ....-.-...-.22..-...-. 4,240.14 
REPOLUS eterccc sce ee ecioee cine sis ale sicteseicies meine 1, 034, 20 
Lab Oratonyioese sone siesiee se else cisarecisic ce oimateleter 6, 68 
AP PATA TUG. cial2 co syaciclecte's sreisicle c a.sleferisiisisisjamseicieite 1, 842. 62 
EX pPlorations eco. 5. tenis ae" el soseieiae cil lewis 329. 21 
Museum ..... Sense rwleia re eia\ iC eleratisteia ere eiews hl oeteteyciercte eis 868. 05 
-—— 8,420.12 
Literary and scientific exchanges..... syoamin finest eer teniseies 2, 329.99 





Totalhexpen ditunesmess asec sce see ses orice ae eee eee eee eee eOS oo eRoO 








Balance unexpended June 30, 1889 ...--..... Sigs cuiseeieems Dooce ee ple TOG Ad 
} ’ 


The cash received from sales of publications, repayments for freight, 
etc., is to be credited on items of expenditure, as follows : 


Postage and telegraph ....-. av blac Sane Sa erchstteictars Sates oo Se eC Ren C es SO $0. 67 
incidentals: ss otet. 2s see cee Sales sacitan elem se Mee oats aeleie erecta eee eee 81. 00 
Library (books, periodicals, ae Ve ied Setreeeasios Says Sala heteas canta eee eee 55, 20 
Salartesi=-.-o--tssses Sis Sacer Se ete ee te eee Se ea eee ete See etein ce uoremng -cee 745. 00 
Smithsonian Contributions seseceseeseeek nce cesses cee eee eee ae $91. 03 
Miscellaneous Collectionsreecescees eee eee ee ei cemiee eee LOGS 
SMIbHsOnIAn Lop Ortsiecs ce. seissic eres Cisse hiss cee wlewiate eee Rcieee 24. 11 


—-—— 431.82 
MAUS OUI eile, co cig ersis sci eiejnre ope ot Beare Cyn aia SIS are leis be clase See te mes are Sieh cio one ae heen Ot eRe, 
IXCHAN PES). . se aw we ceseiis ols lee teeta sso SER e else seiee eet = Sree iota ene Leo arehc: 


$3, 760. 53 





The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 
1889, were therefore $35,231.76, or $3,760.53 less than the gross ex- 
penditure, $38,992.29, as above given. 

In addition to the aggregate of $18,820.74 paid for salaries as shown 
in the above statement, the following amounts were paid for salaries 
or compensation for services : 








Hore bulldinoese- sees case ceyaanc sce ee ee aA EY Pe a $1,500. 00 
Horcexchan ges =. ie. a eae seis sew ae Sal Oe a CREE SEIS See Senta Eee 187.50 
MOLD TARY? sis sciele c:Acinjse wis Canis sea seie wise se aes ee sek Eee See Re EEE 413. 36 

2, 100. 86 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXI 


All the moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from inter- 
est, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, 
are deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of 
the Secretary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his 
checks on the Treasurer of the United States. 


Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to 
appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted to the care of 
the Smithsonian Institution by Congress : 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, ‘ for 
expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United 
States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian 
Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- 
ployés,” fifteen thousand dollars. (Sundry civil act, October 2, 1888; 
POURS Udi venice) ec te ee he ee eet aor Fat tc at ore epee eee tare tea els olnyeici= sare $15, 000 00 


Expenditures during the fiscal year 1888-89. 


Salaries or compensation : 


1 curator, nine months eight days, at $175 per month -.... $1,621. 67 
1 curator, one month seventeen days, at $208.33 per month .- 322. 58 
I clerk, twelve months, at $150 per month ...-...---..-.-- 1, 800. 00 
1clerk, six months, at $110 per month; 1 clerk, six months, 
Diy LOUREIRO Wine ee ae ce meer eee icies a) eee See sce 1, 260. 00 
1 clerk, six months, at $80 per month; 1 clerk, six months, 
Tae oe DOE MONG Oh esses use oS araace ane rele eure Sear toes 930. 00 
-1 clerk, nine and one-half months, at $75 per month.-.-.-..- 712, 50 
1 clerk, six months, at $70 per month; 1 clerk, six months, 
A POO POGOe ase cosets ceiccs ease se ececiemseia ce cece = 780, 00 
1 clerk, six months, at $75 per month ; 1 clerk, six months, 
BiggOo Per WRONG we ene ec ceca a eee cecreacte ame Se 840. 00 
1 clerk, twelve months, at $60 per month............-...- 720. 00 
1 clerk, three and one-half months, at $65 per month .-..- 227,50 


1 messenger, six months, at $30 per month; 1 messenger, 
two and one-half months, at $25 per month; 1 messenger, 





three and one-half months, at $20 per month ..-..-/...- 312. 50 
1 packer, twelve months, at $75 per month..........-.-.-- 900. 00 
1 packer, twelve months, at $50 per month ............-.- 600. 00 
1 laborer; 6 months, at $40 per month..+................-- 240, 00 
agent (Germany), six months... -..- <<. <- wecwes coscee 500. 00 
1 agent (England), twelve months...............--..----- 500. 00 
AEULANS ALOT CSPECIAN ifieer. seen caceae ea ead calcaise cece eee 5. 00 

Total salaries or compensation .......... 222... ---- --0-- 127 2¢1..75 

General expenses : 

POTS Gs era teen oe ose cds a bace Some Ghiah anubemedaes ss 1, 327. 42 
Packsim P= DONOS soak area aes ui ciclsines “tise tetdaloccclecicdec ace seis 512. 00 
PEM IN Oe. ee aS pe oot cals ay oct Sata ne Doe tewetiw ake ties ce 177. 92 
POSUAD Gemecais 2 teeter \— ie wtscic hese es cia We Siatoie srcles ccrsie oe” 130, 00 
Bindin OPT6COTC SaaS eee se eo iw oo ctoiee 97. 50 
Date stamps and stencils........2.. 2.20. c2-- we ones woeeee- 86. 75 


HRumniturerandshsburests.) oe =. a. cetec civclke boc s wec's voce = 106. 36 


XXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Stationery, wrapping paper, twine, and miscellaneous sup- 








PleSee ee sssicde coosais ome moa eee eect eacee aeseomeeee $268. 50 

Notalexpendibure’.:: sesj2ecet sos seein, oe oe cee tee Reece cet ee anes pl anoneseU 
Balance unexpended Sully) VS89s seco em. eens eo eee ee eee 21. 80 
BalancerremaininioyJulyall) W888i ce em sa ces eater eee 50. 17 


The cost of the international exchange system since July 1, 1886, 
has been as follows : 








Biscalivear: 1886— 87, 22 os 2. tccc once octemec nsec ines ae cane seas $14, 683. 11 
Miscal: year 1887283 2. 32 SF sce sas css nso she soiste taoeeinsteee eee s eceisee eee 15, 113. 46 
Piscail year, 1888— S09) a ac actssote cece sec ns omisieicmap =e nite mies aetna 17,329.99 

Total costic'. a7seu, eRsske te ee aise Conse oeveeee ieee cieeae $47, 126, 56 


For the payment of this expense the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion has received the following sums : 
Fiscal year 1886-’87 : 


INOMIC ONOTESS gare erates ines setae eon taiie se haynceptometeeinacieisicieiaresteesiekeisiae 10, 000. 00 
Kromsother sourcesiaccee asec cate sews oeeaieiss can aise emaeeeetecer eae 696, 48 
Fiscal year 1887-’88 : 
HromiC on eress si. ets sisal nin civiete sieves seiscient = sneiteine mineral iseictesae 12, 000. 00 
BrOmvOGHCrBOUTCES Aso scunce clase ceceeise eee staec ecco coaster enim aetecieys 205. 75 
Fiscal year 1888-’89 : 
BLOM CONCTCSH sas aeion cce.c es oc oars season Senet ooo ee te sein eie cele 15, 000. 00 
Promvother:sOurees: cose ce cece enone oe chee Seer ee Eee tes nae eneeees 2,189. 52 
Total:recéipts:< <cccecrsete sce ee - tee saeneee eo eainee cssemteiaat soseate 40, 091. 75 
Showing a balance due the Institution, July 1, 1889, of......---..--..--- $7, 034. 81 


As this amount has been expended by the Smithsonian Institution 
in carrying on the system of exchanges over and above the amounts 
heretofore appropriated for its support by Congress, your committee 
respectfully recommends that Congress be requested to make appro- 
priation to re-imburse the Smithson fund. 

Your committee also refers to the last report of the Secretary, which 
states that up to 1880, inclusive, the Institution had paid $92,386.29 
for exchanges, of which it is estimated that more than two-thirds were 
on Government account, for which the Government paid nothing 
whatever. Since the year 1880 the service has cost $96,065.85, of 
which the Government has paid $57,500, leaving nearly $40,000 of the 
cost to be borne by the Smithsonian Institution, and this exclusive of 
the rent of the rooms, which represents about $3,000 a year in addition. 


NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, ‘‘ for the purpose 
of continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians under the direc- 
tion of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compen- 
sation of all necessary employés” (Sundry civil act, October 2, 1883; public 307, 
eet Pee ik aed epee MMB re ee wikis eerie carci ielelofe alee w= See Seon a nee roms UN COUMOU, 


The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by 
the Secretary in the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Geo- 
logical Survey. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. SEL 


The following is a classified statement of all expenditures made dur- 
ing the last fiscal year from this appropriation: 


Classification of expenditures (A). 


(a) Salaries or compensation : 











1 ethnologist, per annum........--...-.-c.seceess scesescceee te eeee $3, 000. 00 
2 etbnologists, at $2,400 per annum.-.-....----...--+- -----+-------- 4, 800, 00 
2 ethnologists, at $1,800 per annum.......--.---.------ see--- - +--+ 3, 600. 00 
1 ethnologist, at $1,800 per annum, seven months-.....---.---------- 1, 050. 00 
1 ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, three months..-.-.-.------------ 375. 00 
4 assistant ethnologists, at $1,200 per annum.........-...----------- 4, 800. OU 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, ten months-.-....--.---- 1, 000. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, six months. ....---.---- 600. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, $1,500 per annum, two months.......-------- 250. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, six months..-.--.--- a 750. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, per annum ..-......-... ----2- +. 2-2 - eee e eee =e 1, 000. 00 
2 assistant ethnologists, at $720 per annum.............------------- 1, 440. 00 
2 copyists, at $600 per annum... ..--.. ..---- .-- 2-2 eee ne cece ee snes 1, 200. 00 
demogellers atOoUO Per ANNUM Sc. sis ace cals s ssi simile ese oe sae 592.52 
1 messenger, at $600 per annum.... -...0..--.22------s euoniioweersece 600, 00 
25: 07.52 

Unclassified and paid by day, job, or contract........---.-.----.-------- 4, 488, 68 
Total salaries Or COMPENSALION ,2o-0ssse2 2 wees wos s~ === aoe = e\= $29, 546, 20 


(b) Miscellaneous: 











Travelling OxXPensesS.. 2... soecce cocnns cocenncscecs serene cccece iaeees 3, 243. 45 
Transportation of property...-.. .----2 + es .s0. cence e coc ces cece ns eee 128, 05 
Wiel@ SUPPliGs sic cen ce caw o sasis peewee acim sate ee eein|seesienitens veeces 47.00 
SCRUM OM GS ame seleteleteate otsie <1ceih-\a-.- Bee eae ele = tee nisin cai aiste> sean 16. 00 
MAD Orsrery IA tClalee.orecaetc se Jocinseaeslcsas Sead saree cicne che. ne 95. 60 
Photographic. material ---. 1.2.0.0 se osceeees sere scree sewcas semen cese 44, 20 
BOOKS 10K LIDTADY asec ts ee ote ataloa sisi os Sclnro Sain ao aloe sein vies aij ocisini= =inmin 202. 39 
Stationery and drawing material........-.-.-.-- ---------- +--+ e--e- 59, 36 
MMUStrAplONsuOETe POLtenmaccs's esses ocice =e le= = mast aw oes laine 114. 00 
Mii COmUINLLULO se eceeeesice tess seme ree. Se eiscic se sidecln en win seveso acme 92. 50 
Office supplies and repairs..-.- Bee See cater one tae ceitsaaels dee ciss 218.75 
Correspondence (telegrams)........---- --25 eee ee cece ee ene cee eeee- 4.17 
SCCIMNONS< 2--\cw ees enis oes ese0 sa sinwnswemcceemstc Me ncaecte cece 500 00 
34, 311. 67 
Bonded railroad accounts settled by Treasury. ..--.....---+- ---. ee-- oes 61.19 
otal te eee tect eeta caidas secs Com. KO De ee $34, 372. 86 
Reclassified by subject-matters (B). 
Sign language and picture writing.....--.----------++-++ e+e. a eacasecies 4, 863. 68 


Explorations of mounds, eastern portion of the United States...-..----. 7,426.18 
Researches in archeology, southwestern portion of the United States.... 4,348. 11 





Researches, language of North American Indians...--..-.-...-------+--- 12, 013. 26 
Balance, OmiceiOl GUC DITOCON. « <2<0 ves nme awe nec us so eeleciecene= ee =s tance . 2,790. 00 
WMilustrations for reportiec=. «ccs. cosees soeajesec'e SB Masee eee es oncisiees cee 515, 85 

34, 311. 67 
Bonded railroad accounts settled by Treasury ......-.2. .ae--- -2---- eee 61.19 





oa iem enc feel dia dve- teed oeetene odes scveeesiedivecheoes pO a oleae 


XXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


RECAPITULATION (1888-’89). 














By appropriation for North American ethnology ..........-....-...-.--. $40, 000. 00 
To amount expended to June 30, 1889, as per foregoing detailed 
statement ofiexpendibures ssc scnccincce cto eee $34, 311. 67 
To amount of bonded railroad accounts settled by Treasury. -. 61.19 
34, 372, 86 
Balance on hand from this appropriation to meet outstanding 
Males! ets are oS cciers oie <aeerre clic lam see ie rontiotem oe iememarecins 5, 627.14 
—-— 40,000. 00 
SUMMARY (1887-’89). 
It appears from the last report of the committee that, at the close of the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1888, the balance then on hand of previous ap- 
propriations:for thisiobjectiwas=ics-cc.cecsssseise tes coe ace ere anice 7, 847. 08 
Amount credited to appropriation because of disallowance by the Comp- 
eNO WC Tyee seats ys ae seca aya yeretoleeiamnlete cloteintorsamimetaiere eee tere a eeteterertniseiee 17. 00 
Appropriation by Congress, October 2, 1888. ... 2... 1.5.2. wc eee. scone e onne 40, 000. 00 
Total available for the year ending June 30, 1889................-- 47, 864. 08 
Expended during the year ending June 30, 1889...........--...... 34, 372, 86 
July 1, 1889, balance to meét outstanding liabilities...................-. 13,491. 22 
Which balance on hand is deposited as follows: 
Wathidisbursing clerk2 55 acess aac =a Jaco siein) slain lsensanloiinisnicele iatereretete 4, 847. 92 
With special disbursing agent.......... J Raisteicis siecle steele tates aeeateee 600. 00 
inthe United States Dreasury =2.--.ccoscecccs occ resco Sulcleistaels soaeRONO4oroO 
18, 491, 22 
SMITHSONIAN BUILDING REPAIRS. 
Appropriation by Congress ‘‘ for urgent and necessary repairs to central 
and western portions of the Smithsonian Institution building” (sundry 
Civiliact,, March 3, .1887...-Public,.148.p.A)naecacameecoe comes sik cutecisers $15, 000. 00 
Hxpended to duly, 1, 18835 os coe cnwismisel ianlewma oeintahe mameeree cine erry 12, 719. 96 
Balance, July )-lsesiasiper last meportisss-ses scace ates ot eon eeece 2, 280. 04 
Expenditures from July 1, 1888, to June 30, 1889: 
Paimbsvandspaim oi poe teem tee oe talelerohs = alot eisicleitoey sect $1, 525, 51 
Carpenters and miscellaneous work <2... 5. (cece: «22 --- 53. 71 
/ NR REO BOOSD DODO Gabo UOUOIC 500 OO NEOU DOGO GDOCES Doueuc Scone 700. 00 
— = 2, 279. 22 
Balance deposited in United States Treasury to credit of the appro- 
priation,; to;elose the7account, July wl, 1889 Soe see scsiccne oeaeioe . 82 


NATIONAL MUSEUM. 
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, JULY 1, 1888, TO JUNE 30, 1889. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, ‘‘for 
the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collections from the sur- 
veying and exploring expeditions of the Government, and from other 
sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés” 
(sundry civil act, October 2, 1888. Public, 307, page 28) ............-- $125 000.00 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXV 


Classification of expenditures : 














Salaries or compensation ...........-.-..-..- eee ane $108, 495, 66 

SUD CS ee fee se te tae Seale ators ain PUSS tense ia eisise 3,759.79 

WUALIONELY sosetes suse < > eile sete s ot ocieaivceeess ccc %s na 1,580. 43 

MS DOCING OS wet se merce ccttere ae icne eae stein s ctels ats foe's eect 2,891. 74 

SO Oe Sieretereie eee etren alee ctelays af scan ise te ier ae eae reisics oe eae See 1, 087. 05 

EDA L Meera Soles sata a ae eae ee cave eames clase 580. 41 

HTCIO Mt aN OsCANlaP Owes ae ..c ss: coe mes Gas cicnis Me testooncte oa. 2, 409. 58 
Total expenditures to June 30, 1889.......-.-..- 2-22-22 eee ee 120, 804. 66 
DACORUM ye Loe LOco mms tiaiclateraeis ae ca Saicetccticies acisie see eae cee sene seer as 4,195. 34 
Disallowance on a bill for travelling expenses..................---.---- 3.00 
Balance July 1, 1889, to meet outstanding liabilities.....--....---...---. $4,198. 34 


ANALYSIS OF SALARIES AND COMPENSATION PAID FROM THE APPROPRIATION FOR 
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1888-’89—JULY 1, 1888, TO JUNE 30, 1889. 


{All these persons were employed by the month or day, and many for part of the year only.] 


Direction: 
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution, in charge U.S. National 
Museum, three months at $300; nine months at $333.33 per month... $3, 899, 97 
Scientific staff: 


SICULALONS. (Hermon tM iateeen sececo seca ea acats sete ema oss $200. 00 
2 Curators, (Pe month) atc. s220- 4 eee sarees Soom eee See cee 175. 00 
i-curatorG@per month) ati 2c... 2 tes - asses ase cee 166. 66 
SICULALOTS (PEL MONUM) Al. -2201<.-. 2k, ccwl se Slewiecemeeetecon ce. 150. 00 
1 acting curator (per month) at-..-.-...-....--....--:------ 150. 00 
i CULatLOl (perMmmMOnth) abi 22 cee cece eae o ees ce see ciseceeines 125. 00 
iscurator (permonth) at. s2oc5.secce ce bam woe - oa wees sce 100. 00 
3 assistant curators (per month) at ...-...........--------- 1338. 33 
1 assistant curator (per month) at..............-...-------- 50. 00 
IASsIStalu (Pe IMONbh abe oses ss. See Sle gee eee Seco se 115. 00 
IFASSISTATO (DED MOMUM) bre eeco.02528 ae co ctsc.nrnciee cic ieieie) oe, = 100. 00 
Igcollectom(Gper Monthiyrat 22. -252552 2 ccc. Jose poeece ste.  LOOFO0 
Warde@perimonthy ath eccccl-- tes etic secs see wee cise 87. 50 
PAANAS (HOLM OMIM \heit «aye iciwta sates cee elec ncscieeet se cepel-< ec 75. 00 
(Paid (per Month) tah ace ee seems eee eee hace Seca coer 60. 00 
Ieaide (Her MONGM)) ah aacce eee eee come ac acu ce exci ciel nee cee 58. 33 
AIS! (MELIMOUTH Ab sose cee eines see ceo ose cbc cea oe tei. 50. 00 
MPA Oe( POIs WONG) Ab gs se sch meee eae cant eee oc pts ners, <i = ces 40. 00 


—-—— 32, 000.55 
Clerical staff : 


L-ehiefscierk (per mionth) aAt=..:..00-. .--- .<-s.s02ss-seeees 175. 00 
1 corresponding clerk (per month) at...--..-....---.------ 158. 33 
irecistrar, (pemmonth) ate: a... -cce-. +. 22-5 se ee eceecees 158, 33 
1 disbursing clerk (per month) at........---..------..---- 100. 00 
draughtsman: (per month) at.....------<:--25-..2--52--05 83. 33 
1 assistant draughtsman (per month) at -.-.-....--. ----. 30. 00 
IiclerieGpersmonth Rab. ces oes ee ee Sere es oe oe oe 110. 00 
AiCleLKSn(MELIMOMUM) mais eee eee eee oo. 2 Pl kc sae 100. 00 
lkclornke(per’monthisatecct sae cee. See. SRE See ct bos oon 90. 00 


Isclerks (per monpMpatsees see ees es ok cee ers rcccnc.< esses 87. 50 


XXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Clerical staff—Continued. 


1 clerla@péer month) fates ea eee eee Cee ee eres $30. 00 
(rclerle(perimonth) late: ose Seems e ae cee kaos ei neeeeeee 75. 00 
2 clerksi(persmonbhiabece=-ee ess > soe te eee ea eee renee eee 60. 00 
luclerks (persmonth)) ate. =. so - cee eee ee meee ene eae 58. 33 
4 clerksi(per month) iat.e--ss2-2-- 2 se =< eee eee ae eee 50. 00 
Vtypewriter (per month): at c55cosse6 2. = =) ete eee 45. 00 
2 copyists(permonth)) ates... soso eect ere 55. 00 
ATcopyists|(permonth) ats. 5 o<c8 ae ae eee eee cence a= 50. 00 
Zcopyists (permonth ate. 2562 oe eee ees. Leer 48. 33 
MVCOPVISh (Mer MO Mtl) leah re se ee een ee ere res eee 46. 66 
ifcopyist:(permonth)iataeaes-eeoceee aes eee eee eee 45. 00 
HS COpyistss(permonbh) satnescceeeee ae eee see eee eee ee 40. 00 
icopyist (per: month) ats... cas. +- csc eeeese et ee ee eeeeee eee 35. 00 
2 COPyists (per MOnvh))abeoe see soe ee oe Ooo a cies eels 30. 00 


———-— $27, 136. 27 
Preparators: 


artist) (per-month) jatesansecece ees ae es sarsere oes ieee 110. 00 
iephotorraphers@per month)-ati-ss- a. oe seen eee cee eiee ees 158. 33 
istaxidermist:(persmonth)ratess=-ss cee sesso aces 80. 00 
ittaxidermists(persmonth)jateoese seco eae eae eee eee 706. 00 
1 assistant taxidermist (per month) at ...................- 60, 00 
1 assistant taxidermist (per month) at ...........---...---- 35. 00 
ismodgsllors(permonth) aba.cecon ae toes. he ee neeeeee 125, 00 
ismodelleri(perdiem)iateseoeces- ose 5 SA ceemecieeeeiseeeee 4.00 
ijpreparator(per;month) ate ess. see ee peace 100. 00 
ipreparator,(permonthyvatmesscesssicessee es ee isee ee ae 80. 00 
ié¢preparator (per month) at cesses eoe se eceiseeep ecto ee 75. 60 
dpreparaton (per mombh)\ ate se =.seseet- ase ene eeea ees 65. 00 
iprepatator (per month) jateo-4os--seeese seas ses eee eee 60. 00 
i preparator (per month) ates ee eeeenee See einsciewe cine ciae 50. 00 





—— 13,462. 24 
Buildings and labor: 


1 superintendent of buildings (per month) at...........--- 137. 50 
1 assistant superintendent of buildings (per month) at.-... 85. 00 
Mewatehmeni(perimonth)\atesossace cas ieee eealcei ace tee eats 50. 00 
A skilled Taborers.@persmonth)jatecess sc. <= oes see ee. eee 50. 00 
1 skilled laborer (per diem) at ...... Re iolafere eiscietor eiiteleeeeie es 2. 00 
iMaboreri(permonth)) atsocesess ooo oe ces eeiee ce Serre 45. 00 
flaborersi(per Month) abeeanccins voccsenn icc cease accemecee es 40. 00 
ISilaborerss( per, diem) vabas-ceec- ee elec meee someon ee 1.50 
(laborer (per month )iati-cecess sacs -e-eece ee cece eee 25. 00 
flaborers(per diem) ates ss se cosecese cee oni cere eeeeeeee rile 
deattendant(perimonth) "tess as esce eats eee ee cree eae 40. 00 
2 avtendants (per monthitatese esas cces sea eeee ee eae ceeee 35.00 
iattendant(permonth) ateesssessaece oeeeen eaeeen cae eee 30. 00 
ovcleaners((per month) aitijeseecae sete cee ociee eee eee eee 30. 00 
l:cleanen(perdiem)ateltseasc- 2 ee ener eee seen 1.00 
iimessenven (per month) ata-oc coc neosee eee ae eee aoe eee 45. 00 
lemesseneeri(per month) atic-ess s-eccee see eee eee eee 35. 00 
SIMESsseneersi (Per Month) ah eeea ces ace saa seeeeeee eee 25. 00 
iihmessenver(permonthiatiaae.--scess tec eeeceeceesueceer 20. 00 
1 messenger (per. month) atic... 222. ccccce 6 Soon serenscas 15. 00 


30, 019, 23 

















REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXVII 
Temporary help: 
G@opyistsSs--ceececsses scot ane cs eee ayeatciceoeaee ce core $390. 19 
BEB DATALOUS eset ects ietss Rea dee See Sccyt essa rien oc) cocieheniiee’s 255. 11 
WW OLCLS! qemies sicees occ ccelcce cee Waserecee sche ticeteaews MAR ES eS 10308 1e 
—- $1, 679. 03 
DEC alCOULLACUEWOL Meas am eae a ncaese sane c ons Se eiclenises Sloan cm clsleie eae er- 278530 
TN ea Ao eee eee a ee ae ee $108, 495, 66 
SUMMARY—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1889. 
Directiou—Assistant Secretary ~ s..s0 22-2 .<se<6 cs. e ces sce aces tsee se eces 3, 899. 97 
CLEMbNC Statesmen: Seen) eta ees oe 5s ke arte cic ae 32, 000. 55 
RO A et eee eee pies s a ene rh ecnees ies e aaa Sse 27, 136. 27 
STG) MCA COS meee eerie este pcnnare aa oot ercianacie eras 2/212 ~ ia woke en OR apse: Slane aia. 13, 482. 24 
UML PSkan OwlaDOLeaas seaci coca se Mca sc) wcicis «Sa cstqeie cine cists Pesce cai 30, 019. 23 
eM POLAnyel AVG ssa rece cokes eect oes atns ce ddbe sce tade scons 1,679.03 
Special contract work............. Mewicia tae hace cose iwieivisiels Sohail. 278. 37 
Motalspatdtoriservices.>..cae + Ss aes oS cea Shondeck ecw eae eeecescsek $108, 495. 66 


FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, JULY 1, 1888, to JUNE 30, 1889. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1859, ‘ for 
cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and 
safe keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including sal- 
aries or compensation of all necessary employés” (sundry civil act, 
Octobenz, 1888) Public. 307,,p: 28) <ccocc- seen cco cess scice Bice cine oe coe crie $40, 000. 00 


Classification of expenditures. 
Salaries or compensation : 














1 engineer of property, at $150 per month........-...-2... $1, 800, 00 
tieclerk (permonth)) ater. - oo. c5ccckes teen c aca $58. 33 
I copyish (per month) atec-ssce1coccae cea occ 58. 33 
Iecopyist (per Month) Abi.co.-- soc c-cucsces Sane 45. 00 
ALCOMVIStS, (PO MONCH) Ab socc seewcs <icin eon ccccce 40. 00 
1 copyist (per month) at....... Bis eslaapeatesoneee 30. 00 
— 2, 274. 96 
1 cabinetmaker (per diem) at.........-.....---. 3. 00 
iecarpenter (per diem) /at..2-5. s.s2e01/--52- 2226" 3. 5U 
6 carpenters (per diem) at..................---- 3. 00 
2 carpenters (per diem) at.......cs2- ..-25 sec 2. 00 
ees 7,179.75 
1 painter (per diem) at..........--.ees00. ------ 2.50 
1 painter (per month) at............ ....-.-.--.. 50. 00 
Zepainters (‘per diem) at..--..io.c. --.cdcesce. eee 2. 00 
— 1,918.73 
2 laborers (per month) at......-.-.---. ....-... 50. 00 
i Jaboreri(per: month) ats... cc2.- ccc esos once : 40. 00 
Ggaborers(per diem) Ata. .vecccrecdacesacceccois 1,50 
———_ 2, 954.75 
EP cleaner*(per month) ate. ...5.c22ccecceces osee 30. 00 360. 00 
Extra temporary help: 
6 carpenters (per diem) at...... coco. .s-0s-s00 3. 00 
LO laborers: (per: diem))rat.--.-.secsctecue o2ce' 22> - 1.50 
i painter (per diem) Abicwsce .ccccs Sees s scecs. 3. 00 
PPCODYING) CPOE MONTH) AU: sace veecesca+a cscs cess 40. 00 
— 1,176.11 





17, 664. 30 


XXVIII REPORT OF 


Materials, ete. 


Eh DIONE CASOS (05 -tszicc se cisee cose seseee erect $7, 933. 35 
Designs and drawings for cases.........-..-.--- 170. 00 
Drawers; trays. DOXCS)a2-- ese saree eerae aeeeeee 832. 03 
Frames, stands, blocks, miscellaneous woodwork 1, 966. 92 
(HES) sacSres actos ocod es aser sora tesa sas caoccs GeOrS 
HMardiwarerandstoolstcss-..c eS = erick Oe neem 1, 253. 83 
Cloth, plush, cotton (lining for cases and screens) 98. 54 
Gilasspars ses atcysce oasis terse ee rer eee eters 17,70 
Chemicals, photo supplies, and instruments...-- £90. 21 
eum Der 42 Vere eee ee ee eee a area 1, 966. 83 
Paints soil, varnish pbrushes|qace se tassios = ssl 861. 61 
Office furniture, desks, mats, ete ....--- se ciswwievatale’s 356. 57 
Claires ((forphialll) tae erccs tao ete a ls smeleta seeaeerise 154.50 
Metal work, iron, brass, tin, ete..2.52 2.52... --.- 1, 076. 07 
Slates bricksastone, plaster s---o5-cteac erie eet 395, 11 
Rubber’voods; hose, ‘ete. =. 5522. soc cee ace oo ce ne 421. 88 
Fire-proof safe for disbursing clerk .-..-.......- 412. 12 
Pravellin exXpensesies ce seoae secisistiom coins \eleoes 16. 02 
— $19, 512. 48 
Total expenditure July 1, 1888-June 30, 1889......-....-...----$37, 176. 78 





THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 








Balance July 1, 1889, to meet outstanding liabilities........-... 


HEATING AND LIGHTING, ETC., JULY 1, 1888, TO JUNE 30, 1889. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 


o 


1889, ‘‘for expense of heating, lighting 


, and electrical and 


telephonic service for the National Museum” (sundry civil 
act, October 2, 1888, Publie- 207, p28) ose. eto ce eee eee $12, 000. 00 
Appropriation by Congress ‘ for expenses of heating the U.S. 
National Museum for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889” 


(deficiency act, March 2, 1889, Public 153, p.5.).-...-.-.-.-- 
4 


Classification of expenditures. 


Salaries or compensation: 
| engineer, at $120 per month 
1 chief fireman and machinist, at $65 per month. 
5 firemen, at $50 per month 
1 telephone clerk, at $55 per month 
1 telegraph clerk, at $40 per month 


ee ee 


General expenses: 

Coalfand: wood 122-2 -).0--- Beenine ee ones aetatenets 
Telephones 
Electric work 
Rentalof call- boxes! 5... .---- 15. cece 
Heating Tepairsi cece sects snieiccs 


ee 


i 


Total expenditure July 1, 1s88-June 30, 1889.-..- 
Balance July 1, 1889, to meet outstanding habilities-.........-.. $1, 089. 33 


$1, 440. 00 
130. 00 
2,950. 00 
660. 00 
255. 00 





4,188. 43 
fatale 
600. 16 
AT, 24 
110. 00 
418.73 


ae ae eee LOS G7 


1, 000. 00 


—-——— 13, 000. 00 


5, 435. 00 


6, 475. 67 





REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX 


OTHER MUSEUM APPROPRIATIONS. 


The balances remaining of the following appropriations, as stated in 
the last report of the committee, were carried under the action of Re- 
vised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department, to the credit 
of the surplus fund, July 1, 1889: 


BEeseLy allOn On COlleCtIONS, [SS0ies = 52-2. occ wisnemcecs « scice cons «scene econ PL 60 


Preservation of collections, 1987 . 22.2.2. 2.2) .2s220 eseacel cere eee cee ccsece cece . 02 
Burniiburevand fixtures; L886) .-.-5--t. ces cmeccc eeceew eeSece 12 ccs ssccce esse 45. 05 
MUMNIbUTe AMA XTUneS LEST 55 ooo eas Fok ec eo ow See yas basi eelec Seed cacheciours 74. 97 
PACOSDEV AION | ALINOMV)y LSC stata vaswenickeemss or auce<n wos ecceoneness sone! a9 a 08 
Heating and lighting, 1887.............--- area ee aici ee aCe a pusmeenine 18. 54 


PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1887-’88. 


The balance of $10,345.05 remaining July 1, 1888, of this appropria. 
tion, as stated in the last report of the committee, has been expended, 
during the year 1888-89, as follows: 








Balancememainino sly Lo lSSen..coce aces ccs costs, sone oeeseeeeeee oss SLO, 345, 05 

HalArlesOmCOMPeCUsaulOMcc ces. ce sce eies ose ceiseem cece. $982. OY 

SS ete ete nae eee ene we eee ce oe oi Sei a 818. 67 

Stationery .......... Eisyes cei cae smersia cma aes naa aise etasawatehte ns 487. 36 

BSA eo eae leet eon meen eee ee ere 6, 758. 94 

BOOK Ggae erences «eee Mae ie fle siaeisie’s Jac cen ieteis! sia Steeda) se at 289. 25 

UT ie en are een ee ete army ata ol ole cero 163. 66 

HOV OM ee siete cies a cies) aceic seS~ os eesti aulsetiee so tise chose ects Sue 802. 39 
MCMC O mea. fee oes win coisa Secs eS oes Same tot eee es 10, 302. 36 
Balancer) UiyelmleSu: eae e gee ae one cee loe ciel Maes «ose oe Se fe 42. 69 


The classification of the total expenditure of this appropriation is as 
follows: 











PMOUNG AP PLOPLIAleN ioe ac pees was Sem ohn ease cles Rivie os Se cate ewes mer $116, 000. 00 
Expended: 
SS PIATICS acre sere ase dawns icine saemeincstis cece cise Sees $97, 493. 52 
SUG Stare earn teie ens ora eee ctetere = Sine fan mete mee ences 3, 427. 05 
SS CAULOMC INV erent eed ee ayaa se ciare ata tsdae Secs) cisise esis 2, 279. 56 
SC CIMOM Stee eeieeunaiainins soles via) Noise cis. so sie He's ar cicisieveiciaci=s 8, 797. 59 
OOS ies et he tee yao yaan ois ninectetse eo) saine eaine-t2s< se cesaee 739. 61 
Pave lee niet eee cu Sec aisnsiaye cnn sac.e so sa sa,a'o a's oid, 32 8a: Scie. g die 986. 51 
GIO Mises ce eee oe oie sae cers mci Sei tacione.c vwierahem, bese ctsene 2, 183. 47 
Motalexpenditurerc.--2s0 tc ceseimeee tes sce ec can, stetechaccce aon 115, 957. 31 
Balance Ul yal WSO! 22s wemie en mae) Saree eciticieciee oeieciels: cise ose 6 42, 69 


FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1887-88. 
The balance reported July 1, 1888, of $1,716.96, of this appropriation 
has been expended during the past year as follows : 


Balance uly: le lesser ccmcames: soc me at eos sane so5 < fzee ceew neces ce eee $1, 716. 96 
MISS erent AS wee in savaye aeepne tes Sr Se Ue oe See oon ce bei $6482 05 
Mra Wels pclavs DOXCS) ClCs9aa sae seme Rook aes a dase (clceeeic be some 208. 87 


IAEONV ATS ANG Tht GS hots ocd s ina! see oce > Docc vesicle ecidee cess 259. 03 


XXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 








Glass jaret sos soe oie sists ego cte le ein sae a a eee eae Seen eeraers --- $51.20 
Chemicalsyand apparatus \cceces. es erie -ueisseeee neem cena cd ao 
umber ysscis oasis cepa cele wins sstiseilsec ome aie nets cdlacee ce ese sti 184, 71 
Paints *andoilis sac Slate osc St soem pssiciaw seinietas isos soe een atic 32. 00 
Officefurnitwre).(S2.- ssl. cesses sees ce eeieseessice Sones ectes seiseeees 275. 00 
Plumbing, tin, lead, etc. ...-.. Sree ewalee ele elena eater nialecieie eae ee 15. 05 
Pi xpen dite. s. 2s. .2ccloe seen Soe s mee eee eenee Py a a at Fac -- $1, 698. 25 
Balancer July: 2 So ree crsseersee a soe ee eee ae ee eee eitseletete 18. 71 


The following is a classification of the total expenditure of the appro- 


priation : 


AMOUNUAPPLOPLIAVC Acre scions:scsete sete aoeslons aioe electsenee sie cee eee $40, 000. 00 


EXPENDITURE. 
Salaries or compensation : 


Engineer of property, clerks, and copyists...-... $3,970. 00 


CAaLPeNUCLS maces: oes weet saree a aisle ves\jatee ete 7, 807.75 
RalMbLs vetoes sina e ees sleet ae ae renee 2, 020. 00 
WADOLCLS® : sare sie eve wists aims Sate wlove o isiessic wise mle cieyainle 4,926. 04 
Cle anerss2, ac ssana-- Sas sesnise siiecccisaisceeeeecse 480. 00 


—— $19, 203. 79 





Materials, ete.: 




















xhibibionicasetrames:.s-os. .2ss5eeceee oracess $7, 383. 44- 

Designs and drawings for cases. ..---..-.------- 305. 00 

Glass hace ctecanasige ce woos ce saSee sem sieheayse eetsaoe 3, 438. 16 

Drawers; tlays, DOXCS; ObCisaeseclsciacis saeeeel tacts 804. 01 

Hardware and fittings for cases .-.....----.---- 1, 133. 94 

Ironibracketsee cscs es eer ees eeacere eer 126. 30 

Cloth, cotton, felt (lining for cases)-...--.--.-.-.- 420. 24 

Glass jars and containers for specimens......-.- 274, 49 

Chemicalsrandsapparatusatenscecen secs. as eae 402. 67 

PMI Ons eee tia Se abe ceane sree ae emie eee fete 2, 325. 69 

MOONS) ses ci secmrsiewinad este sore winter eee es eee cis 191. 68 

Paints and 7oilsisse asec cee oiets sie ae se eee es 781. 99 

Office furniture and other fixtures......-.-.---. 2, 059. 75 

Piombinotin lead etcosc.« --octsese oe nesinae 904, 59 

Slate; tiles; setereiern = ao cystocele ne ee cicic oee ereiete 29. 50 

Brushes, brooms, pitchers ene 2-2-1 cs ecicece 111. 47 

HP BOD tasoe raion ebeiata seis aye eral eine eepete aterstatete arerete 49. 50 

Mrayellincvexpenses secs) .ae-idoceen cee = eseieeee 30. 08 

20, 777. 50 

Totaliexpenditurercaecascee eae elec aa eeleeie ee efcfelsoine tate sensei 39, 981. 29 
Balan Ce sn cirs <5 sinc ceisiese sisie oie wieie Sine is sin telo eto’ emit eee see se tener 18.71 
Credit by disallowance on travel account.... ....-. 2.2.6. cee0 cence Se 
Balance) July Veo. cc cscs ete wos ohesterneale <a inlnieloisie ss eee seers $21. 96 


HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1887-’88. 


The balance reported last year (July 1, 1888), of $755.89 has been ex- 


pended during 1888~89, as follows: 


Balanced Wliy, IWS SS ie se emer ore soles cio eie ee siete ete eieietetele oe tec 
Gaisvec.. 3. ME CRERSS scat eites ise eat woes Denese esl oer eeeee $155. 89 
Step OMCs i btn coe es sete oe wate ieee te Se et wid ogion seetoe 183, 00 


REPORT OF THE. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, XXXI 




















MIGCHIIG WOrkyceeee ieee oa Faaaas sncia secs gsc aceces Waselccoecc voce $143. 30 
Rental oneal bOxestre-s,.. cs tesco -secteccc se scsee slices erezcecste 20. 00 
GAIN oe CD ALL Smee cco cece scec cman cece ccccessccccseciocn cose 250. 00 
Ee pen UGULe merle cess cesicok ccielael Sess eee eacjlcs “one ewcece Sase $752. 19 
TEREAUICRE Dek LOOM aoe cele Ne 2 eae EOe oi emia de bate Sa Caen awen ems 3. 70 
The total expenditures of this appropriation have been as follows: 
Amount appropriated. cc... .ccccicwoe cass ces. voemsscce deromine ce slau cals $12, 000. 00 
EXPENDITURE. 
Salaries or compensation : 
PM OME OM we ceeee acme e Aoicieanis oso oe ce ~--- $1,440. 00 
Telegraph and telephone cler ies Sea ee eee ee 1, 140. 00 
Piremen and machinists... c<scceecew ecco ssr--~ Oy 4i3.00 
— $6, 053. 36 
Supplies: 
Coaltand wood 4oseec0<cc osc casi Nels emerseeesnn sae 3, 014, 08 
Cases as sole sieac Mac ste sates weiarsieote seis ics e cee 950, 98 
MIO DUONCS Serene nts we cctucccancce nasa ss does e 771. 65 
MIGCURIC- WOK 2 c\swale nin sine eieielae meee co aa 2e6 436. 50 
Hono) OL Call VORCHF= oo sc sacecee eset snses 130. 00 
PICAUINS TepalEs esac e cncinetia sem cvacses weee rece 639. 73 
=== 5, 942, 94 
Ola wex PODGUIMTONE cn caclilseiinie se cecisciet seo siatenice ces ear 11, 996. 30 
Balance) Ulivale | SSO cece cle ciate ete ea em sicmicwie - noe ne cen eeis $3, 70 
RECAPITULATION. 


The total amount of the funds administered by the Institution during 
the year ending 30th of June, 188), appears, from the foregoing state- 
ments and the account books, to have been as follows 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 





From balance of Jast year, July 1, 1888.....-.....-.-....... $4, 809. 23 
From interest on Smithsonian fund for the year........-..--- 42, 180, 00 
Brom) sales of publications. 2222 2-22-cccee son's $431. 82 
From repayments for freight, etc............---- 3, 328, 71 
as S960, 58 
Motalesass-sacicses soc sc oce stocaate see Natale messi eisiersie cis © a cauce Sere $50, 749. 76 


Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Institution. 


International exchanges: 
Plan COMlSSS sess, cc mae. w-daresiwcicicis eaeeeses oe $50. 17 


Ben eae 8G. 6.7 en eee te oan twsdancs 15, 000. 00 
—— $15, 050, 17 





North American ethnology: 
Balance plessee sone tee leas aces. os anes -aace $7, 847. 08 


HMOrslSSS— (BO io. socio iatecnreete arto seals orebiemee ne 40, 000. 00 
——— 47,847.08 





Smithsonian building repairs: 


Balances Sh Syser sserect ots. ee een te anise see we oe ates 2, 280. 04 
Preservation of collections: 

Balance, 1888 Se. o saree eerie cess ote 2s eS oe 10, 345. 05 

HOTISES=SON a5 Fae eee See eect see ees 125, 000. 00 


——-— _ 1985, 345, 05 


XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Furniture and fixtures: 














Balance elses essen: conqisisiwers is cisisinc ce sioiesiete $1, 716. 96 
MOV BBS=69 reacts coencaciesiomnmieioisistencieeenemiaiers 40, 000. 00 
——— $41,716. 96 
Heating, lighting, ete.: 
Balance miSSSee see cresccc clcnwaineeleeio asia 755. 89 
OTH SSS SO) wa sminekestcle stcloticiciers cisisversicloneclareiste 13, 000. 00 
-—— 13,755.89 
MD OUAL Sos era ctensei sje ro) wa) oye leialavwieresseve 5 2 alee) sjteloa a nove ie Ne note steers arte $255, 995. 19 
Grand total =.c- asccied Scotts s Sa seioeeetnisine eeoces eee es acevo ae $306, 744. 95 


The committee has examined the vouchers for payments made from 
the Smithsonian income during the year ending 30th June, 1889, all of 
which bear the approval of the Secretary of the Institution, or, in his 
absence, of the assistant secretary as acting Secretary, and a certifi- 
cate that the materials and services charged were applied to the pur- 
poses of the Institution. 

The committee has also examined the accounts of the “international 
exchanges,” and of the ‘National Museum,” and finds that the bal- 
ances above given correspond with the certificates of the disbursing 
clerk of the Smithsonian Institution, whose appointment as such dis: 
bursing officer was accepted, and his bonds approved, by the Secretary 
of the Treasury. 

The quarterly accounts-current, the vouchers and-journals, have been 
examined and found correct. 

The abstracts of expenditures and balance sheets under the appro- 
priation for ‘‘ North American ethnology” have been exhibited to us; 
the vouchers for the expenditures, after approval by the Director of 
the Bureau of Ethnology, are paid by the disbursing clerk of said Bu- 
reau, and after- approval by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion are transmitted to the accounting officers of the Treasury Depart- 
ment for settlement. The disbursing officer of the Bureau is accepted 
as such and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
The balance available tu meet outstanding liabilities on Ist July, 1889, 
as reported by the disbursing clerk of the Bureau, is $13,491.22. 


Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian fund, to be available for use in the 
year ending June 30, 1890. 





Balanceron hand: June 30), (S80 eeraas aoe ee ee eee enone aera $11, 757. 47 
Interestidueland-receivable July: llS89e asses eae cine sete cee ener 21, 090. 00 
Interest due and receivable January 1, 1690: 222 -25.-2- 22 2. csc sce eee 21, 090. 00 

Total available for year ending June 30, 1890........---.........- $53, 937. 47 


Respectfully submitted. 
JAMES C. WELLING. 
HENRY COPPEE. 


M. C. MEIGS. 
WASHINGTON, October 15, 1889. 


© 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, NATIONAL MUSEUM, ETC. 


(In continuation from previous reports. ) 


[ Fiftieth Congress, second session, L888—’89. | 
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES—SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION: For ex- 
penses of the system of international exchanges between the United 
States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian 
Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- 
ployees, fifteen thousand dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes, 
XXV, p. 952.) . 

NAVAL OBSERVATORY: For payment to Smithsonian Institution for 
freight on Observatory publications sent to foreign countries, one hun- 
dred and thirty-six dollars. 

(Legislative, executive, and judicial appropriation act. Approved 
February 26, 1889. Statutes, xxv, p. 733.) 

UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE: For purchase of books, and ex- 
penses of transporting publications of patents issued by the Patent 
Office to foreign Governments, three thousand dollars. 

(Legislative, executive, and judicial appropriations act. Approved 
February 26, 1889. Statutes, xxv, p. 737.) 

WAR DEPARTMENT: For the transportation of reports and maps to 
foreign countries through the Smithsonian Institution, one hundred 
dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
XXV, p. 970.) 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: For the purchase of nec- 
essary books for the library, and the payment for the transmission of 
public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, five thousand 
dollars; in all four hundred and three thousand dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2.1889, Statutes 
XxV, p. 960.) 


NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. 


For the purpose of continuing ethnological researches among the 
American Indians, under the direction of the Secretary of the Smith- 
soniap Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary 
employees, forty thousand dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
XXV, p. 952.) 

H. Mis. 224——111 XXXII 


- 


XXXIV ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 
NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


HEATING AND LIGHTING: For expense of heating the United States 
National Museum for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen 
hundred and eighty nine, one thousand dollars. 

(Act to supply deficiencies. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
KV) P09.) 

HEATING AND LIGHTING: For expense of heating, lighting, and elec- 
trical and telephonic service for the National Museum, twelve thousand 
dollars. 

PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For 
the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collections from the 
surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, and from other 
sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, 
one hundred and forty thousand dollars. 

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For cases, 
furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe- 
keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries 
or compensation of all necessary employees, thirty thousand dollars. 

PosvAGE: For postage-stamps and foreign postal-cards for the Na- 
tional Museum, one thousand dollars. 

(Sundry civilappropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
XXV, pp. 952, 953.) 

PUBLIC PRINTING AND BINDING FOR THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: 
For printing labels and blanks for the use of the National Museum, 
and for the “Bulletins,” and annual volumes of the “Proceedings” of 
the Museum, ten thousand dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
MK Vs p- 979.) 

FisH Commission: For altering and fitting up the interior of the 
Armory Building, on the Mall, city of Washington, now occupied as a 
hatching station, for the accommodation of the offices of the United 
States Fish Commission, and for general repairs to said building, inelu- 
ding the heating apparatus, and for repairing and extending the out- 
buildings, seven thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be neces- 
sary, the same to be immediately available and to be expended under 
the direction of the Architect of the Capitol; and for the purpose above 
named the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution is hereby required 
to move from the second and third stories of this building all properties 
except such as are connected with the workshops hereinafter named, 
under his control; and the workshops now in the second story of said 
building shall be transferred to and provided for in the third story 
thereof. And the Architect of the Capitol is hereby directed to ex- 
amine and make report to Congress at its next regular session as to the 
practicability and cost of constructing a basement story under the Na- 
tional Museum Building. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes 
XXV, p. 953.) 

ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


SEc. 4. For the establishment of a zoological park in the District of 
Columbia, two hundred thousand dollars, to be expended under and in 
accordance with the provisions following, that is to say: 

That in order to establish a zoological park in the District of Co- 
lumbia, for the advancement of science and the instruction and recrea- 
tion of the people, a commission shall be constituted, composed of three 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXV 


persons, namely: The Secretary of the Interior, the president of the 
board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and the Secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution, which shall be known and designated 
as the commission for the establishment of a zoological park. 

That the said commission is hereby authorized and directed to make 
an inspection of the country along Rock Creek, between Massachusetts 
avenue extended and where said creek is crossed by the road leading 
west from Brightwood crosses said creek, and to select from that district 
of country such a tract of land, of not less than one hundred acres, 
which shall include a section of the creek, as said commission shall deem 
to be suitable and appropriate for a zoological park. 

That the said commission shall cause to be made a careful map of 
said zoological park, showing the location, quantity, and character of 
each parcel of private property to be taken for such purpose, with the 
names of the respective owners inscribed thereon, and the said map 
shall be filed and recorded in the publie records .of the District of Co- 
lumbia; and from and after that date the several tracts and parcels of 
land embraced in such zoological park shall be held as condemned for 
pubiic uses, subject to the payment of just compensation, to be deter- 
mined by the said commission and approved by the President of the 
United States, provided that such compensation be accepted by the 
owner or owners of the several parcels of land. 

That if the said commission shall be unable to purchase any portion 
of the land so selected and condemned within thirty days after such 
condemnation, by agreement with the respective owners, at the price ap- 
proved by the President of the United States, it shall, at the expiration 
of sucb period of thirty days, make application to the supreme court 
of the District of Columbia, by petition, at a general or special term, 
for an assessment of the value of such land, and said petition shall con- 
tain a particular description of the property selected and condemned, 
with the name of the owner or owners thereof, and his, her, or their 
residences, as far as the same may be ascertained, together with a copy 
of the recorded map of the park; and the said court is hereby author- 
ized and required, upon such application, without delay, to notify the 
owners and occupants of the land and to ascertain and assess the value 
of the land so selected and condemned by appointing three commis- 
sioners to appraise the value or values thereof, and to return the ap- 
praisement to the court ; and when the values of such land are thus 
ascertained, and the President shall deem the same reasonable, said 
values shall be paid to the owner or owners, and the United States shall 
be deemed to have a valid title to said lands. 

That the said commission is hereby authorized to call upon the Super- 
intendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, or the Director of the 
Geological Survey to make such surveys as may be necessary to carry 
into effect the provisions of this section; and the said officers are 
hereby authorized and required to make such surveys under the direc- 
tion of said commission. 

(Appropriation act to provide for expenses of the government of the 
District of Columbia, etc. Approved March 2, 1889. Statutes xxv, 
p. 808.) 
AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 


Cuap. 20.—AN ACT to incorporate the American Historical Association. 


Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That Andrew D. White, of 
Ithaca, in the State of New York; George Bancroft, of Washington, 


XXXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 


in the District of Columbia; Justin Winsor, of Cambridge, in the State 
of Massachusetts; William F. Poole, of Chicago, in the State of Llli- 
nois; Herbert B. Adams, of Baltimore, in the State of Maryland; Clar- 
ence W. Bowen, of Brooklyn, in the State of New York, their associates 
and successors, are hereby created in the District of Columbia a body 
corporate and politic, by the name of the American Historical Associa- 
tion, for the promotion of historical studies, the collection and preserva- 
tion of historical manuscripts, and for kindred purposes in the interest 
of American history and of history in America. Said association is 
authorized to hold real and personal estate in the District of Columbia 
so far only as may be necessary to its lawful ends to an amount not ex- 
ceeding five hundred thousand dollars, to adopt a constitution, and to 
make by-laws not inconsistent with law. Said association shall have 
its principal office at Washington, in the District of Columbia, and may 
hold its annual meetings in such places as the said incorporators shall 
determine. Said association shall report annually to the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution concerning its proceedings and the condi- 
tion of historical study in America. Said Secretary shall communicate 
to Congress the whole of such reports, or such portion thereof as he 
shall see fit. The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution are authorized 
to permit said association to deposit its collections, manuscripts, books, 
pamphlets, and other material for history in the Smithsonian Institution 
or in the National Museum, at their discretion, upon such conditions ard 
under such rules as they shall prescribe. 
(Approved, January 4, 1889, Statutes XXv, p. 640.) 


SPECIAL MEETING OF THE REGENTS. 


WASHINGTON, D. C., November 18, 1887. 

A special meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution was held this day at the Institution at half past 10 o’clock 
A. M. 

Present, Hon. Morrison R. Warr, Chief Justice of the United 
States, Chaneellor of the Institution; Hon. Jonn J. INGALLS, Presi- 
dent of the Senate of the United States ; Hon. JusTin S. MoRRILL, Hon. 
SHELBY M. CuLLom, Hon. WILLIAM L. WILSON, Prof. ASA GRAY, 
Prof. HENRY COPPEE, Dr. JAMES C. WELLING, Gen. MONTGOMERY 
C. MErGs, Prof. JAMES B. ANGELL. 

The Chancellor stated that the present meeting had been called in 
accordance with the provisions of the act of Congress organizing the 
Institution, at the request of three of the Regents which had been 
made to the Acting Secretary in the following communication : 


Sirk: Ata meeting of the Executive Committee of the Board of Re- 
gents of the Smithsonian Institution, November 3, 1887, the following 
preamble and resolutions were adopted : 

Whereas, the death of Professor Baird, the honored Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, occurred at a time in the last summer when 
frcm the absence of certain Regents in Europe, and from. the dispersion 
of others in different parts of the country, it was found impracticable 
to summon the Board of Regents in extraordinary session, that if might 
take appropriate action in the premises under the immediate pressure 
of that deplorable event; and 

Whereas, the time bas now come when such an extraordinary meet- 
ing is practicable, and is believed to be required alike by the proprie- 
ties and by the possible exigencies of the situation resulting from the 
lamented death of the late Secretary: Therefore be it 

Resolved, That the Acting Secretary of the Institution be requested 
tocall a special meeting of the Board of Regents to be held on Friday, 
November 18, at 10:30 A.M. 

JAMES C. WELLING. 
HENRY COPPEE. 
M. C. MEIGS. 

The Chancellor read the following letter from Dr. Noah Porter, one 
of the Regents : 

YALE COLLEGE, November 14, 1887. 

DEAR Str: I had made all necessary arrangements to be present at. 
the meeting of the Regents which has been called for the 18th instant, 
when I was summoned to respond to another engagement of long stand- 
ing, the time for which was fixed on the same day. I regret that 1 can 

XXX VII 


XXXVIII JOURNAL OF PROCHKEDINGS. 


not be present at Washington as it would give me very great satisfac- 
tion to honor the memory of our late distinguished Seeretary for the 
singular fidelity, forecast, and devotion with which he has discharged 
the manifold duties of this office, and the eminent success which has 
crowned his enterprising labors. Under his administration the Smith- 
sonian Institution has enlarged its sphere of usefulness and activity 
and has established itself most firmly in the confidence and esteem of 
the American people. The direct services which the late Secretary 
rendered to the wealth and welfare of the American people through 
his connection with the Fish Commission and the honor which he 
gained for his country abroad are too well known to need any com- 
ment, while his personal simplicity and integrity are above all praise. 

Very respectfully, 

NOAH PORTER. 
S. P. LANGLEY, Esq., 
Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


The Chancellor, Chief Justice Waite, then madethe following re- 
marks : 

GENTLEMEN OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS: It is my sad duty to 
announce to you the death of Spencer Fullerton Baird, LL. D., the 
Secretary of the Institution, at Wvod’s Holl, Mass., on the 19th day of 
August last. Professor Baird was appointed by the lamented Professor 
Henry, while Secretary of the Institution, on the 5th of July, 1850, 
under the authority of this Board, to the office of Assistant Secretary 
“in the department of natural history, to take charge of the Museum, 
and to render such other assistance as the Secretary may require.” 
He entered at once on the performance of his duties, and until the * 
death of Professor Henry, nearly 28 years afterwards, filled his place 
with great ability, and to the entire satisfaction of his distinguished 
chief and of the Regents. 

Professor Henry died on the !3th of May, 1878, and on the 17th of 
the same month Professor Baird was unanimously chosen his successor 
as Secretary of the Institution. From that day until he died he was 
faithful to every duty of his high office, and devoted himself untiringly 
to giving effect to the will of our munificent founder by the * increase 
and diffusion of knowledge among men.” 

As his death occurred when some of you were absent in Europe, and 
others away in different parts of this country, it was found impracti- 
cable to get an extraordinary meeting of the Board to take action upon 
the deplorable event at that time. We have now met for that purpose 
and I invite your special attention to the subject. 

Senator Justin 8, Morrill moved that Prof.S. P. Langley be appointed 
to fill the vacancy in the office of Secretary created by the death of 
Professor Baird. 

It having been represented that the Executive Committee had pre- 
pared a minute of proceedings to be submitted to the Board, and that 
paper having been called for, it was read by the chairman, Dr. J.C. 
Welling: 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XX XIX 


“The Executive Committee beg leave respectfully to represent that in 
the preamble and resolution accompanying the call of the Acting Secre- 
tary for the present extraordinary meeting of the Board of Regents, they 
suppose themselves to have sufficiently set forth the reasons why this 
eall has been so long delayed ; the reasons which dictate the expediency 
of holding an extraordinary meeting at the present time, and therefore 
the objects which may properly engage the attention of the Board in 
view of the proprieties and exigencies of the situation resulting from 
the lamented death of the late Secretary. 

Cherishing for the late Professor Baird the profound regard inspired 
by his talents, by his great attainments, by his life-work in the cause 
of science, and by his distinguished services to the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, and not doubting that this sentiment is shared by every mem- 
ber of the Board, your committee have thought that it was due alike 
to the memory of the departed Secretary whom we all held in high- 
est honor, and to our own sense of the loss which the scientific world 
In common with this Institution has sustained in his death, that we 
should proceed, at the earliest practicable day, to take that appropri- 
ate action in the premises which is dictated by our intimate official and 
personal relations with the departed Secretary, and by a sincere desire 
on our part to testify and record our heartfelt admiration of the great 
and good man whose death we deplore. 

With regard to any exigencies, actual or contingent, resulting from 
the death of the late Secretary, it does not need to be said that first im 
order and first in importance stands the electing of a Secretary. Though 
the transactions had by the Board at the last annual meeting, in the 
appointment of the Assistant Secretary, who is now the Acting Secretary 
of the Institution, may have simplified the solution of this problem so 
far as we are concerned, yet there are obvious considerations of delicacy 
which, in the case of a sensitive and refined nature like that of the 
eminent man in question, must preclude him from acting with official 
freedom, and with a full sense of executive authority, until the mind of 
the Board shall have been definitely declared with regard to the sue. 
cession in this most responsible office; and in the mean time he natu- 
rally shrinks from doing aught in his office which may seem to conclude 
the final action of the Board in the premises. 

As to any possible exigencies which may have arisen in consequence 
of the multiplied engagements of the late Secretary, who, besides his 
duties as the executive officer of the Smithsonian Institution, was also 
charged with the direction of the U.S. National Museum, of the Bu- 
reau of Ethnology, and of the U.S. Fish Commission, we beg leave to 
say that certain important questions of future policy, deeply concern 
ing the prosperity of the Institution and the cause of American science, 
may possibly be thrust upon the Board at this juncture in a way to cali 
for careful consideration, if not for immediate decision. 

It is known to us all that Prof. Joseph Henry, the first Secretary and 


XL JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


the organizer of the Smithsonian Institution,entertained the settled opin- 
ion thatits operations“ should be mingled as littie as possible with those 
of the Government ;” that the funds of the Institution, being specifically 
devoted by theterms of Smithson’s bequest to a prescribed object,should 
not be diverted to other objects, and that consequently the activities of 
the Secretary should not be engrossed by other engagements which, from 
their nature or from the administrative cares incident to their manage- 
ment, might be judged to impair the distinctive singleness and highest 
efficiency of the Institution in laboring for ‘the increase and diffusion 
of knowledge among men.” He a'so held that the necessity laid upon 
the Institution of making annual appeals to Congress for the support 
and extension of adjuncts not essential to the conduct of its own special 
operations is a necessity which should be avoided as far as practicable 
in the interests of a dignified and single-minded administration of the 
Smithson trust; and hence he thought it desirable that some more defi- 
nite distinction should be made between the Smithsonian Institution and 
the National Museum, if on the whole it should be judged best to re- 
tain them under a common jurisdiction. His own judgment inclined in 
favor of their entire separation. In the presence of additional engage- 
ments so vast, multiform, and important as those involved in the con- 
duct of the Fish Commission, it is obvious that these opinions of Pro- 
fessor Henry would have gained an added emphasis. 

The late Secretary, Professor Baird, while acquiescing in the strict 
views of Professor Henry with regard to the precise terms of the Smith- 
sonian bequest, and while faithfully working, within the proper sphere 
of the Smithsonian Institution, on the general lines laid down by his 
predecessor, did not, it is presumed, entirely share Professor Henry’s 
opinions as to the reflex influence and effect exerted by the adjuncts in 
question upon the normal function and legitimate fame of the Smithson- 
lan Institution. Endowed with a wonderful capacity for administrative 
detail, and capable of inspiring his subordinates with enthusiam in their 
work and with loyalty to their official chief, he doubtless saw in these 
manifold adjuncts of the Institution only so many auxiliaries to its be- 
neficent design (“ the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men”), 
and therefore only so many additional accessories to its usefulness and 
glory. 

Set as your committee are to execute the will of the Regents and not 
at all to define the scope or policy of the Institution, if would obviously 
be impertinent on our part to essay any prejudgments on the questions 
that may be raised by the existing attitude of the Institution consid- 
ered in the kind or degree of its relations to the National Museum, to 
the Bureau of Ethnology, and to the Fish Commission. The former 
two of these adjuncts are parts and parcel of our jurisdiction, while the 
latter from its inception was placed under the responsible management 
of the late Secretary, and is now under the direction of Assistant Sec- 
retary Goode. 


- JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XLI 


But while we can not venture on any definitions of policy (all ques: 
tions of policy having been left by us in abeyance), we may properly re- 
call to the recollection of the Board one great leading principle which 
has prevailed in the administration of the Institution from its begin. 
ning down to the present day; that principle is, that the Secretary 1s 
charged with plenary power in his office, and therefore with an entire 
and undivided responsibility for the right and proper administration 
of the Smithson trust. That trust gives to him the reason of his offi- 
cial being, and it is conferred by the Regents, without restrictions of 
their own, because of the confidence reposed in the ability, integrity, 
and discretion of the Secretary. Hence any change of policy which 
should require a division of responsibility because of a multiplicity or 
heterogeneity of operations, would work an entire change in the theory 
of our administration, would break up the continuity of our history, 
and might seriously jeopard the efficiency of the Institution by marring 
jts harmony and unity. This harmony and this unity of operations 
would therefore seem to require the establishment of a permanent and 
definite line of policy to be pursued by the Institution as far as pos- 
sible without break and without chasm because of changes occurring 
in its executive head. 

It is obvious that anything like a fundamental revision and reconsti- 
tution of the proper work and proper relations of the Institution re- 
curring periodically at the death of each Secretary would be fraught 
with serious detriment to its usefulness and to its fame. But if the 
specific nature and at the same time the ensemble of its general opera- 
tions can be maintained, it would seem that those operations may re- 
ceive any addition or undergo any extension which shall be found 
compatible with prudent and efficient administration under a single 
head. + How far, therefore, the ties which now bind the Institution to 
the National Museum, to the Bureau of Ethnology, and to certain sei- 
entific aspects of the Fish Commission, should be tightened or loosened 
is a question of expediency to be determined by a careful analysis and 
a deliberate weighing of all the elements involved in the problem set 
before us—that is, by considering and judging how far each and all 
of these adjuncts may be made ancillary to the proper work of the 
Smithsonian Institution under the conduct of a single responsible ex- 
ecutive officer. 

It is with these general convictions, and with the view of bringing 
more definitely before you the subject-matters which would seem to 
call for deliberation at this extraordinary session, that we venture tosub- 
mit the following resolutions to your consideration, some of which, it 
will be seen, are suggested as mere starting points for discussion : 

1. Resolved, That a committee of three Regents be appointed to draft 
resolutions expressive of the exalted admiration cherished by the Board 
for the late Spencer F. Baird, LL. D., our gratitude for the long, faith- 
ful, and abundant labors which he performed in the service of this In- 
stitution, our reverence for his memory, and our profound sense of the 
loss which the cause of science has sustained in his lamented death, 


XLII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


2, Resolved, That this Board do now proceed at once to the election of 
a Secretary to fill the vacancy created by the death of Professor Baird, 
and that the rights, powers, aud duties of the Secretary thus elected, 
as well as his salary and emoluments, shall be the same as those pre- 
scribed by the existing regulations. 

3. Resolved, That the newly appointed Secretary is hereby requested 
to make report in writing at the coming annual meeting, on any changes 
which may seem to him desirable in the organization of the Smithsonian 
Institution considered in its relations to the National Museum, to the 
Bureau of Ethnology, and to such scientific aspects of the Fish Com- 
mission as he may deem germane to the proper theory of the Institu- 
tion, avd which shall be capable of reduction under its wise and effi- 
cient administration—thatis, to consider and report how far the existing 
relations between all or any of these adjuncts and the Smithsonian In- 
stitution should be increased, altered, diminished, or abolished in order 
the better to promote the original and organic design of the Institution 
as established by Congress. 

4. Resolved, That a committee of three shall be designated by the 
Chair, to be composed of one Regent appointed from the Senate, one 
Regent appointed from the House of Representatives, and one Regent 
appointed from the States, whose duty it shall be to investigate and 
consider all the questions that may be suggested by the nature or ex- 
tent of the relations now subsisting between the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and anyor all of the other objects and adjuncts which are now 
more or less definitely and completely under its administration, or un- 
der the personal administration of its Assistant Secretary; that the said 
committee, in maturing their views, be invited freely and frankly to 
acquaint themselves with the opinions and judgments of the Secretary, 
who, to this end, is hereby requested to communicate to the said com- 
mittee, in the first instance, any recommendations which he shall sub- 
mit in pursuance of the preceding resolution ; and, finally, that the said 
committee be instructed to report to the Board at the annual meeting 
appointed to take place on the 18th of January next, a digest of any 
additional plans, policies or methods of administration which they shall 
judge expedient in order to meet any adjustment of relations that shall 
seem to be required by the best interests of the Institution committed 
to our charge.” 


The first resolution in the foregoing series was then taken up for con- 
sideration, and on motion of Dr. Gray it was adopted. 

Messrs. Gray, Ingalls, and Welling were appointed a committee to 
draft resolutions in honor of the late Secretary, and that committee, 
through its chairman, Dr. Gray, reported the following preamble and 
series of resolutions : 


Whereas in the dispensation of Divine Providence, the mortal life of 
SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD was ended on the 19th of August last, 
the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, now at the earliest practi- 
cable moment assembled, desire to express and record their profound 
sense of the great loss which this Institution has thereby sustained, 
any which they personally have sustained, and they accordingly re- 
solve— 

1. That iv the lamented death of Professor Baird the Institution is 
bereaved of its honored and efficient Secretary, who has faithfully and 
unremittingly devoted to its service his rare administrative abilities for 
thirty-seven years; that is, almost from the actual foundation of the 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XLIil 


establishment, for the Jast nine years as its chief executive officer, under 
whose sagacious management it has greatly prospered and widely ex- 
tended its usefulness and its renown. 

2. That the National Museum, of which this Institution is the admin- 
istrator, and the ‘ish Commission, which is practically affiliated to it— 
both organized and in a just sense created by our late Secretary—are by 
this bereavement deprived of the invaluable and unpaid services of their 
indefatigable ofticial head. 

3. That the cultivators of science, both in this country and abroad, 
have to deplore the loss of a veteran and distinguished naturalist, who 
was from early years a sedulous and successful investigator, whose 
native gifts and whose eXperience in systematic biological work served 
inno small degree to adapt him to the administrative duties which 
filled the later years of his life, but whose knowledge and whose interest 
in science widened and deepened as his opportunities for special investi- 
gation lessened, and who accordingly used his best endeavors to pro- 
mote the researches of his fellow naturalists in every part of the world. 

4. That his kindly disposition, equable temper, singleness of aim, 
and unsullied purity of motive, along with his facile mastery of affairs, 
greatly endeared him to his subordinates, secured tohim the confidence é 
and trust of those whose influence he sought for the advancement of 
the interests he had at heart, and won the | high regard and warm affece- 
tion of those who, like the members of this ‘Board, were Officially and 
intimately associated with him. 

5. That without intruding into the domain of private sorrow the Re- 

gents of the Institution would respectfully offer to the family of their 
late Secretary the assurance of their profound sympathy. 
6. That the Regents invite the near associate of the late Secretary, 
Professor Goode, to prepare a memorial of the life and services of Pro- 
fessor Baird for publication in the ensuing annual report of the Institu- 
tion. 

The resolutions were seconded by Dr. Coppée, who made the following 
remarks: 

Mr. Chancellor, I rise to second the resolutions. 

As IT have been to some extent associated with Professor Baird as 
Regent since 1874, when I found him here as Assistant Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, to which post he was appointed in 1850, it 
may be proper that I should ask your patience while I add a single 
word to the eloquent tribute of just eulogium offered to his memory 
in the resolutions of Professor Gray and the committee. 

When the distinguished Professor Henry was called to his rest and 
reward in 1878, amid tokens of grief in yonder Capitol, there was a 
hearty concurrence of voices in the Board of Regents to appoint Pro- 
fessor Baird to the vacant place. At that time, sir, it seemed, in con- 
tradiction of the maxim of the French philosopher, that he was a neces- 
sary man. His large scientific scope, his great knowledge and success 
as a specialist in natural history just when that branch of science 
needed particular attention to meet its expanding claims, his wonder- 
ful industry, his intimate acquaintance with the system and the details 
of the Institution, his thorough and brotherly sympathy with its scien- 
tific workers, and, withal, his great and increasing reputation, formed; 


XLIV - JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


in the view of the Regents, the strongest grounds for his appointment. 
Without making comparisons, he was eminently worthy to succeed our 
earlier and illustrious scientist and Secretary. 

Earnest, courteous, painstaking and exact, he allowed the Institution 
to suffer no detriment at his hands. It is specially significant of his 
unremitting care for it, that, last year when he was suffering from nerv- 
ous prostration, in his eagerness to provide for its future welfare he 
asked the Board to appoint an assistant, who should aid him in his 
onerous labors, and who, in the event of his permanent disability or 
death, should assume the government of the Institution until the Board 
of Regents could take action. 

Sir, the sad necessity came far too soon. It has called us together 
to-day to mourn his loss, recall his virtues and merits, and fill his 
vacant place. 

The Smithsonian Institution, which had but one Secretary betore 
him, will in the flight of time have many. Let me conclude by express- 
ing my conviction that among them there will not be a more excellent 
Secretary than he, nor a nobler character than that of Spencer Fuller- 
ton Baird. 

The resolutions were then unanimously adopted by arising vote. 

The second of the foregoing resolutions was then adopted, and im- 
mediately thereupon Senator Morrill renewed the nomination of Pro- 
fessor Langley as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 

The motion was seconded by Dr. Welling. 

In rising to second the motion, Dr. Welling said that he had it in 
charge from Professor Langley to make to the Board on his behalf a 
certain representation which seemed to him (Professor Langley) to be 
due in order that the pending question might be considered with entire | 
eandor and freedom on all sides. Dr. Welling said that it was well under- 
stood that Professor Langley had been nominated by the late Secretary 
as an assistant secretary of the Institution because of the eminent 
ability he had shown and the distinguished reputation he had already 
gained as an original investigator in an important branch of physical 
science. The achievements which Professor Langley had made in astro- 
nomical physics were of a nature to shed luster on his name and do high 
honor to American science. It would bea great loss to the cause of 
science and a great loss to the best interests of this Institution if the 
capacity for original research thus demonstrated by Professor Langley 
should be smothered by the mere drudgery of official cares and admin- 
istrative details. It might be proper to state that Professor Langley 
had brought himself to entertain the proposition now pending before 
the Board only after much misgiving on his own part, and after much ear- 
nest remonstrance on the part of the friends who knew him best as a 
scientific worker, and who feared that in accepting this office, dignified 
and inviting as it is, he might be making a mistake for the interests of 
science and for himself by sacrificing even higher duties and foregoing 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XLV 


even higher honors than those awaiting him as director of this Insti- 
tution. 

Now however that the question of the succession in the office of the 
Secretary had been precipitated at an earlier date than we all had ex- 
pected when he was chosen an assistant secretary, Professor Langley 
held that it was due to the Board and due to himself that he should 
frankly state the understanding with which he had finally brought him- 
self to the belief that it was his duty to accept the office of Secretary if 
it should be conferred upon him by the Board. This understanding was 
that while, if called to such a responsible trust, he must needs give with 
all fidelity and with all conscientiousness the full measure of time, 
thought, and care which shall seem to be required by the Institution 
and by its adjuncts, he did not construe this obligation as precluding 
the possibility of sometimes giving to himself that physical rest and 
mental diversion which should come to every man whois burdened 
with the discharge of an exacting office. Professor Langley had 
doubtless observed that the first Secretary of the Institution, Professor 
Henry, had sougit such rest and such diversion in the change of labor 
brought to him by the chairmanship of the Light-House Board, and in 
the performance of this function we all knew that Professor Henry had 
done good work for the cause of science (as wituess his researches in 
sound and in the economies of light-house illuminants), and therefore a 
work which had redounded to the honor of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Professor Langley had also observed, we may presume, that the late 
Secretary, with the approval of this Board, had engaged in great and 
useful labors connected with the Fish-Commission, and that hence in 
our judgment there was no incompatibility in the pursuit by our Secre- 
tary of certain labors extraneous to the immediate precinets of the In- 
stitution, if they could be pursued without detriment to its best efficiency 
and to the full development of its capacity for usefulness. It was in 
this view that Professor Langley begged leave to represent that he, too, 
might sometimes wish to find rest and refreshment in a change of labor 
from the ordinary routine of official administration in connection with 
the Institution, and he would naturally look for such rest and refresh- 
ment in the further pursuit of his favorite scientific researches, so far, 
and only so far, as that pursuit could be made consistent with his para- 
mount duty to the Smithsonian Institution. 

Dr. Welling then added that, speaking for himself as a member of the 
Board, he felt free to express the conviction that these “ leisure labors” 
would serve to enhance the title of Professor Langley to the Director- 
ship of an Institution which had for its object “ the increase and diffu- 
sion of knowledge among men;” and while the statement thus made 
at the instance of Professor Langley might have seemed to be required 
by an honorable frankness on bis part, the Board would be likely to 
find in this frankness a further ground of confidence in the high sense 
of honor and duty which he would bring to the discharge of his respon- 


XLVI JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS, 


sible office. We might therefore trust with the full assurance of faith 
that the Institution in his case, as in the case of his distinguished 
predecessors, would be only the gainer by such intervals of rest as he 
might seek in the interest of his health, and by such vicissitudes of 
labor as he might seek in the interest alike of this Institution and of his 
chosen studies. Such intervals of rest, orat least such variety of labor, 
were especially necessary to a man who is placed under stress and pres- 
Sure of heavy administrative cares, like those devolved on the Directcr 
of this Institution, and the Board had in the character of Professor 
Langley the best possible guaranty that he could be freely trusted to 
decide all such questions of duty according to a delicate and conscien- 
tious sense of right. 

The Board then proceeded to ballot for the election of Secretary. Ten 
votes were cast, all of which were found to be for Professor Langley, 
who was thereupon declared by the Chancellor to be duly elected as 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 

After some discussion upon the remaining two resolutions in the fore- 
going series as reported by the executive committee—a discussion par- 
ticipated in by Messrs. Morrill, Welling, Gray, Coppée, and others— 
ihe resolutions were withdrawn. 

Dr. Welling was appointed to inform Professor Langley of his elec- 
tion, and having done so, he was introduced to the Board, and in a few 
remarks expressed his acceptance of the office of Secretary with a solemn 
sense of the responsibility devolved upon him, and high appreciation 
of the honor which had been conferred. 

Dr. Welling offered the following resolution, which was adopted: 


Whereas the remains of the late Prof. Spencer F. Baird have not yet 
been committed to their last resting place; and 

Whereas this solemn ceremonial has been postponed at the request 
of members of this Board and others, that the friends of the late Secre- 
tary in Congress might have the opportunity of testifying by their pres- 
ence at his grave the respect in which they held him while living, and 
their reverence for his memory now that he is no more: Therefore be it 

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Institution, after conference with 
Mrs. Baird, be requested to issue public notice of the time and place 
which shall be appointed for these funeral services, and to send a spe- 
cial notice to the members of the Smithsonian Establishment and of 
the Board of Regents. 


On motion of General Meigs it was— 

Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to call the annual meet- 
ing of the Board for the present year at the time fixed for the funeral 
of Professor Baird. 

On motion of Dr. Coppée it was— 


Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to purchase the oil por- 
trait of Professor Baird, painted by Henry Ulke, now exhibited to the 
Regents, at a cost not to exceed $300. 


The Board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary. 


REPORT OF 8. P. LANGLEY, 


SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1889. 


To the. Board of Regents of the Smithsonian I nstitution: 

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present the report upon the oper- 
ations of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1889, 
together with the customary summary of the work performed by the 
Bureau of Exchanges, the National Museum, and the Bureau of Eth- 
nology. 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 


As the Annual Reports of the Secretary are intended to present a 
history of the affairs of the Institution, it seems proper to state that by 
the appointment of the Hon. Melville W. Fuller as Chief Justice of the 
United States, the latter became ev officio a regent of the Institution, 
and that at the annual meeting of the Board of Regents, held on the 
9th of January, 1889, he was unanimously elected its chancellor. 

The Hon. Levi P. Morton has become a Regent by his election as 
Vice-President, the holder of that high office being ex officio a Regent 
of the Institution. 

The terms of Senator 8S. M. Cullom, appointed March 23, 1885, and 
Senator R. L. Gibson, appointed December 10, 1887, having expired on 
March 3 of the present year, those gentlemen were re-appointed by the 
President of the Senate. 

The Board has lost from its number by death the Hon. 8. 8S. Cox, long 
connected with the Institution; but this event having occurred since the 
expiration of the year which forms the subject of this report, the re- 
marks called out by this great loss will be more properly made in a later 
communication. 

FINANCES. 


{ have in my last report referred to the fact that owing to the chang- 
ing value of money, the purchasing power of the Smithsonian fund, in 
the language of a committee of the Regents— 

‘“while nominally fixed, is growing actually less year by year, and of 
less and less importance in the work it accomplishes with reference to 
H. Mis, 224 af l 





2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


the immense extension of the country since the Government accepted 
the trust ;” 

so that it seems most desirable that the fund should be enlarged, if only 
to represent the original position of its finances relatively to those of 
the country and institutions of learning, and nothing has occurred in the 
course of the last year which does not rather increase than diminish the 
force of such an observation. It is on the Congressional Regents that 
the Institution must largely depend for making its wants known to 
Congress, and with reference to the suggestion that the Smithsonian 
fund should be enlarged by re-contribution from the Government as well 
as from contributions from private individuals, I desire to repeat the 
remark of Professor Henry, made in 1872, to the effect that the Govern- 
ment, in equity, should then have paid the Institution $300,000 for the 
use of the present building. This building, erected wholly out of Smith- 
sonian funds, at the cost of over half a million dollars, has, with the 
exception of a small portion, continued to be used rent free by the 
Government ever since that time. 

I recall briefly in this connection the well known facts that the will 
of James Smithson was made on October 23, 1826, and that by an act 
of Congress approved July 1, 1836, the bequest was accepted, while 
under the act of August 10, 1846, a definite plan of organization was 
adopted, and that finally, by the act of February 8, 1867, the Regents 
were authorized to add to the Smithsonian fund such other sum as they 
might see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest, the 
sum of $1,000,000. 

The original bequest and the sums since added are as follows: 


Bequest of Smithson, 1846 ..--...----- -----+ -- 2220 eee ee oe teen eee eee $515, 169. 00 
Residuary legacy of Smithson, 1867-..-....--------------- teats metieaeerete 26, 210. 63 
Deposits from savings cof income, etc., 1867 .-....--2+-----+---- +--+ +--+ 108, 620. 37 
Bequest of James Hamilton, 1874 ...-.-- Be ete et ete feral e (eee eka ett tie 1, 000. 00 
Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1680. ..-. Sesh Bene eye nate iste Set ere eae 500. 00 
Deposit from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881..---.---.-.-----+---+-- +--+ 51, 500, 00 





Total permanent Smithsonian fund in the Treasury of the United 
States, bearing interest at 6 per cent. per annum........---.---- 703, 000. 00 
There may, therefore, be added to the fund nearly $300,000, on which 
the Institution is entitled to receive 6 per cent. under the act of February, 
1867, while it has received in bequests only the insignificant sum of 
$1,500. This is in striking contrast to the liberality which is understood 
to have endowed more than one American institution of learning within 
this time with something like ten times the amount of the entire Smith- 
sonian fund. No institution in the country, it is believed, enjoys wider 
measure of public confidence or is more universally known, and it would 
seem that some action might well be taken to bring these facts before 
those who are seeking a trustee for the disposition of means intended 
for the advancement of knowledge. 
In this connection, however, it seems proper to invite the attention of 
the Regents to the circumstances of the bequest of James Hamilton, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. o 


who donated $1,000 to the Institution in 1874, the interest on which was 
to be appropriated biennially for a contribution, paper, or lecture on a 
scientific or useful subject. Your former Secretary, Prof. Joseph Henry, 
in bis report for 1874, states that— 

“The first,installment of interest on the Hamilton bequest has just 
been received, and will be appropriated in accordance with the will of 
the testator at the end of next year, and so on continually at the end of 
every two years.” 

And he adds— 

‘A statement of the manner of spending this income will be given in 
the accounts of the operations of the institution with due credit to the 


donor. His name will therefore appear from time to time in the annual 
reports and thus be kept in perpetual remembrance.” 


Professor Henry continues, in this connection: 


‘“*When the public shall become more familiar with the manner in 
which the income of the additional bequests to the Smithsonian fund 
is expended, with the permanence and security of the investment, and 
with the means thus afforded of advancing science and of perpetuating 
the names of the testators, we doubt not that additions to the fund in 
this way will be made until it reaches the limit prescribed by law of 
$1,000,000.” 

Owing, perhaps, to the small amount of this bequest, the intent of 
the Secretary does not appear to have been fulfilled. No contribution, 
paper, or lecture seems to have ever been furnished, biennially or other- 
wise, and with the exception of the exploration of certain bone caves, 
mentioned in the report of the Secretary for 1876, the income has 
remained unexpended. 

I shall have elsewhere to speak of the great loss the Institution has 
sustained in the death of Dr. J. H. Kidder, curator of exchanges; but 
I refer to it here only in connection with a bequest made by him, con- 
stituting the Institution one of his residuary legatees. This bequest, 
the terms of which are still awaiting the consideration of the Regents, 
will be more properly described, in detail, after their action upon it, 
which can not well form a portion of the present report. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year the balance on hand of the income 
from the fund was $4,809.23. The interest has been $42,180, while 
from miscellaneous sources $3,760.53 have been received. The total 
expenditures have been $38,992.29, leaving on July 1, 1889, $11,757.47, 
a somewhat larger balance than usual, which has been retained to meet 
certain delayed expenditures. 

The Institution is charged by Congress with the disbursement of 
sundry appropriations through the Secretary, as follows: 


ROMMCeENAvlON ALEX CHAN OS CSince ae 5 semis genie Saiseecs ecieceisecc cet Cacia ce nasecs $15, 000 
HorebonolovicaliresGanches soccctus oct eite scien coos janie cece bact cece secs ccces 40, 000 
For preservation of collections, National Museum .........----.----.------ 125, 000 
For furniture and fixtures, National Museum .........---.-.-.---- one woes 40, 000 


For heating and lighting, National Museum ......-... 2-0. .---- eens eee 12, 000 


4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The vouchers for the expenditures from the appropriations are passed 
upon by the executive committee of the Board of Regents with the ex- 
ception of those for ethnological researches. The disbursements from 
the latter appropriation are made under the direction of Major Powell. 

The estimates prepared to be submitted for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1889, were as follows: 


Internationaliexchangesto2.--2s ss oo ae ee ce eraee se aeieeiieeseteeae $27, 050 
Hthnologicalijresearch esiqs< ac ate = 1 nn latsiewtereeeieles seater teeeise ene aie 50, 000 
Preservation of (collections... 22. sa5cse cies sce Cee ine coemeen icin peer 150, 000 
Rurniture and fixtures: sj cok Gece ee cin eictoinie aie sje yee ian eee ie erases emavciciee eee 40, 000 
eatin svandili oh ting a cices tie sate cose wenaeane teins avs =iatesicleferseteie aisle esses lo 000 


For which Congress appropriated as follows: 


Internationaliexchangessess si sacs ss sia eae ine wine ela eiaiet deme seisieink sciatica 15, 000 
Hthnolocical researchese sa: 2a4-cieieisiecis wetaiieee ies oeecleacissiccsiaee setae 40, 000 
Preservation“ Of collechiOns c= ses-ccse acess ee cee ss ae cen Boe wena eect eere 125, 000 
ULM bUTe TAM TeX bUTOS tis sec oe ene ne cae a ee ee ine teas ane eet erartateraze 40, 000 
Heatingeand dohting: tts 2 cco ee seceresiss memes nate seen ane eee ieeies 13, 000 


Of the first of these items, that of international exchanges, urgent rep- 
resentations were made to Congress to the effect that though it had as- 
sumed the charge of this, the expenditures of the Bureau (whose work 
largely consists of the transportation of Government documents) con- 
tinue to be met, in part, from the private fund of the Institution, but, as 
will be seen, no change in this respect has been made. 

The estimates prepared to be submitted for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1890, were as follows: 


International exchanges.—Twenty-seven thousand and five hundred 
dollars was asked for; the House committee reported $15,000; the Sen- 
ate committee $20,000; and the amount finally appropriated was 
15,000. 

North American Ethnology.—The appropriation asked for this service 
was $50,000. The House reported $40,000 ; the Senate made no change 
and the amount of the appropriation remained as reported by the House. 

Preservation of Collections, U. S. National Museum.—The appropria- 
tion asked for this service was $160,000. The House committee reported 
$135,000; the Senate committee $145,000. The amount finally appro- 
priated was $140,000. 

Furniture and Fixtures, U. S. National Museum.—An estimate of 
$35,000 was submitted. The House committee reported $30,000; the 
Senate committee also reported $30,000 and this amount was appropri- 
ated. 

Heating and Lighting, U. 8S. National Museum.—The appropriation 
asked for this purpose was $12,000. This amount was agreed to by 
the House and Senate committees. There is a deficiency of $1,000 for 
the purchase of coal. 

Living Animals, U. S. National Museum.—An estimate of $5,000 was 
submitted for this service. The House did not report the same. 

Postage-Stamps and Foreign Postal-Cards, U. S. National Museum.—An 
appropriation of $1,000 was asked for this service. ‘The same was 
reported from the Senate favorably, where it originated, and passed 
the House. 

Publications, U. S. National Musewm.—An estimate of $15,000 was 
submitted for this service. The House reported $10,000; the Senate 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 


committee reported $12,000; and in conference the amount as reported 
by the House was agreed upon. 

In my last report I stated that it was desirable that the appropria- 
tions for the Museum should be made under the direction of the Insti- 
tution, and no longer under the Department of the Interior, and I gave 
a correspondence with the honorable the Secretary of the Interior upon 
the subject. I am happy to state that the Seeretary’s assent being 
given the appropriations were transferred by Congress to the care of the 
Institution, and are now disbursed under direction of the Regents by 
a disbursing clerk in the Institution, whose bonds have been accepted by 
the Treasury Department. 

A detailed statement of the expenditures for the fiscal year 1889, 
under appropriations for International Exchanges, North American 
Ethnology, and the National Museum is given in the report of the Ex- 
ecutive Committee. 


BUILDINGS. 


. 


It will be remembered that the Board of Regents in their meeting 
January 17, 18853, recommended to Congress the erection of a new 
building planned exclusively for museum purposes, and tie steps taken 
in pursuance of their instructions were laid before the Regents in my 
last report, but I regret now to be unable to report any further progress. 

The necessity for additional space for the storage of collections, inde- 
pendent of that demanded for exhibition purposes, is constantly be- 
coming greater, while the assignment by the last Congress to the Fish 
Commission of the principal parts of the rooms occupied by the Mu- 
seum in the Armory building has still further aggravated the crowded 
condition of the Museum exhibition halls and storage rooms, and I 
deem it my duty again to urge the necessity of the erection of a new 
building, if only for such requirements of storage as may be inferred 
from the following statements : 

Since the erection of the present Museum building there have been 
nearly 14,000 accessions to the Museum, chiefly by gifts, such ‘‘acces- 
sions” representing frequently collections, and the collections including, 
in many cases, thousands of specimens. From the year 1859 to 1880 
the accessions numbered 8,475. It is thus evident that during the last 
nine years the accessions have exceeded by more than 5,000 those of the 
previous twenty-one years. 

Among the more recent collections are several of very great extent, 
such as the bequest of the late Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, which con- 
tains 20,000 specimens of shells, besides minerals and other objects; 
the Jeffries collection of fossil and recent shells of Europe, including 
40,000 specimens; the Stearns collection of mollusks, numbering 100,- 
000 specimens; the Riley collection of insects, containing 150,000 speci- 
mens; the Catlin collection of Indian paintings, about 500 in number ; 
the collection of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, for the 


6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


transportation of which to Washington several freight-cars were re- 
quired; the Shepard collection of meteorites; the Wilson collection of 
archeological objects, nore than 12,000 specimens ; the Lorrillard col- 
lection of Central American antiquities, and very many others nearly 
as extensive. 

In addition to these are the extensive collections obtained at the close 
of the exhibition in Berlin, London, and New Orleans, the annually in- 
creasing collections transferred to the Museum by the U.S. Geological 
Survey, the U. S. Fish Commission, and the Bureau of Ethnology, be- 
sides numerous contributions resulting from Government expeditions 
as well as those made by officers of the Army and Navy, and other 
Government officials. 

The storage Sheds contain many hundreds of boxes of valuable ma- 
terial which we have not room to unpack, and the great vaults under 
the Smithsonian building, and many of the attic and tower rooms are 
similarly crowded. 

The growth of several of the most important departments in the 
Museum is seriously retarded owing to the fact that no exhibition space 
is available for the collections, and that there is not even storage room 
where incoming material can be properly cared for. 

The collection of birds, which so far as North America is concerned, 
is the finest in the world, and now numbers nearly 60,000 specimens, is 
very inadequately shown, and requires double the case room now avail- 
able. 

The collection of mollusks, which is one of the most complete in the 
world, and contains nearly 470,000 specimens, is at present almost en- 
tirely unprovided for. 

The collection of insects, now numbering over 600,000 specimens, is 
so far as North America is concerned, equally perfect, but is practically 
without any exhibition space. 

The same is equally true in regard to the collections of birds’ eggs 
(more than 50,000 specimens), of reptiles (nearly 30,000 specimens), of 
marine invertebrates (more than 515,000 specimens), of invertebrate 
fossils (more than 160,000 specimens), and of fossil and recent plane 
(nearly 50,000 specimens). 

Many v waluaiole collections elsewhere than in Washington are at the 
service of the Museum, but lack of space has compelled us to decline to 
receive them. 

It should be borne in mind that under the roofs of the Smithsonian 
and the new Museum buildings are grouped together collections which, 
in London, Paris, or any other of the European capitals, are provided 
for in different museums, for the accommodation of which a much larger 
number of equally commodious buildings is found needful. 

The necessity for additional space then is constantly becoming greater, 
and there is the further reason that by the action of the last Congress 
the Armory building, assigned to the uses of the Museum in 1876, and 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ; q 


for several years past occupied in part by the U. S. Fish Commission, 
as a fish-hatching station, was assigned to this Commission for head- 
quarters. It has been refitted as an office building, and is now almost 
entirely relinquished by the Museum, four apartments on the third floor 
being retained for the use of a part of the Museum taxidermists. 

From the inadequate exposition of our needs just made, it will be 
apparent that an extensive additional building is needed, if only for 
storage, and where purposes of immediate exhibition are not in ques- 
tion. 

Irrespective of the construction of this proposed building, however, 
I beg tourge the necessity of improving the lighting of the second floor 
of the main hall of the Smithsonian building, and more particularly the 
indispensability of fire-proofing the west wing, which I have already 
urged upon the attention of the Regents, and concerning the latter of 
which, one of their number, Senator Morrill, introduced a bill in the 
Senate on June 12, 1888, which is referred to in my last report, and on 
which no further action has been taken by Congress. 

In regard to erections of minor importance, it may be mentioned that 
it is intended to put up a small wooden building of one story, of a tem- 
porary character, immediately south of the main building, as a cover 
for the instruments, which at the same time will render it possible to 
make certain observations pending the building of the proposed physi- 
cal observatory, and this is more particularly alluded to under the fol- 
lowing head of Research. 


RESEARCH. 


In my last report I spoke of the preparations made by the late Secre- 
tary for securing an astro-physical observatory and laboratory of re- 
search, and [ mentioned that through his action some friends of the 
Institution had already offered to give the means for the erection of 
the simple structure needed for the accommodation of such a special ob- 
servatory. I added that the site would necessarily be suburban on ac- 
count of the special need of seclusion and the absence of tremor in the 
soil. 

I have elsewhere referred to the collections of the Institution in con- 
nection with the purchase by Congress of a zoological park, which it 
would appear to have been the first intent of Congress to place under 
the care of the Regents. It had been my hope in that case to place this 
observatory somewhere in the park, but in view of the long delay which 
has already arisen, and of the indefinite further delay which may occur, 
I have thought it better to put a wooden structure of the simplest and 
most temporary character in grounds immediately south of the Institu- 
tion, although this site is quite unsuitable for a permanent building. 
Such a shelter will probably be erected before the coming winter, and 
will, while serving as a store-house for the apparatus, enable observa- 
tions to be commenced. 


8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The promotion of original research has always in the history of the 
Institution been regarded as one of its most important functions, and 
the proper object of the personal attention of the Secretary ; and I shall 
be very glad to do something in this direction on the most modest scale, 
rather than incur the chance of indefinite farther delay. 

In this connection I desire to say that a valuable collection of recently 
constructed apparatus, most of it exactly suited to the wants of the 
proposed laboratory, and which was the property of the late William 
Thaw, of Pittsburgh, has been, by his wish and the consent of his ex- 
ecutors, loaned to the Institution for use in this direction. 

Comparatively few of the collections of the Institution or of the Museum — 
have reference to the physical sciences. The apparatus collected by Pro- 
fessor Henry, together with some few archaic instruments illustrating 
the early history of methods of precision which I have added, are now 
being placed in the south hall of the main building, and it will gratify 
me to see this lead to accessions in illustration of the history of research 
in all branches of science. 


EXPLORATIONS. 


The Smithsonian Institution has during the year enjoyed the valu- 
able assistance of several persons who have expressed their willing- 
ness to prosecute special researches in its behalf, or have generously 
offered to allow the Museum to share in their results. 

In embracing these opportunities it has been the policy of the Insti- 
tution to endeavor to obtain information and, when possible, to secure 
specimens, in regard to subjects in which the Museum collections 
were most deficient, and thus to fill some of the most important gaps 
in special collections rather than to obtain large collections of miscel- 
Janeous material. 

Mr. Talcott Williams, of Philadelphia, visited the northern part of 
Africa early in the present year, and, before going, kindly offered to make 
special inquiries in regard to the civilization of the modern Arabs and 
the natural history of the region, and to collect, if possible, linguistic 
specimens. It was his intention to journey direct to Tangiers, thence 
to Fez and Mequinez, continuing, if time permitted, as far as Mogador 
and Morocco. Mr. Williams is familiar with the Arabic language, 
which will greatly facilitate his investigations in that country. The re- 
gion has rarely been visited by naturalists, and the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution will no doubt obtain very important information, and probably 
also some valuable collections. The special studies to which Mr. Will- 
iams intends to devote himself are botany, geology, and archeology. 
At the time of his arrival the North African flora was in flower, so that 
his opportunities in the first direction were excellent. The geology 
of Northern Africa is poorly represented in the National Museum, and 
characteristic rocks and photographs of feature of physical geology 
will be very acceptable. The subject of most importance to the Smith- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 


sonian Institution, however, is the archeology of this region, and it is 
to this that Mr. Williams has been requested to chiefly direct his atten- 
tion. It is his intention to visit El] Kutel, one of the most striking 
monolithic remains in Northern Africa, and other ruins of equal inter- 
est. Photographs and measurements will be obtained, for which pur- 
pose a photographic outfit has been furnished to Mr. Williams, who is 
thoroughly competent to conduct investigations of this kind. The 
Smithsonian Institution has also provided an outfit of instruments for 
taking observations of temperatures and altitudes, and he has been 
requested to obtain musical instruments of all kinds, as far as the lim- 
ited sum of money placed at his disposal from the Museum fund will 
enable him to purchase them. 

News has already been received of Mr. Williams’s arrival in Africa. 
He has secured a complete series of musical instruments, from the rudest 
whistle to stringed instruments of skillful manufacture. In each in- 
stance the native names and names of the parts have been ascertained, 
the proper pitch of each string taken, and a native melody, as played 
on each kind of instrument, has been noted in our musical notation. 
He has also succeeded in obtaining a varied collection of objects illus- 
trating the domestic life of the people. 

Mr. W. W. Rockhill, of the German legation of Pekin, has for several 
years made himself familiar with the customs of the natives of Thibet, 
and having recently undertaken a journey through that country, will 
make a special study of the ethnology of the region. He has been 
supplied by the institution with a barometer and other instruments 
desired by him for his journey. His previous investigations have re- 
sulted in an exceedingly valuable collection of objects illustrating the 
religious practices, occupations, and amusements of various peoples in 
different parts of China, Thibet, Turkestan. 

Dr. James Grant Bey, who some years ago established a sanitarium 
in Cairo, Egypt, and attended the International Medical Congress held 
in Washington in 1887, became much interested in the work of the 
National Museum, and has since his return to Egypt devoted his leisure 
time to special studies of the arts of the ancient Egyptians. Several 
valuable collections have already been received from him. 

During the summer, the Bureau of Etlinology decided to send Mr. 
Jeremiah Curtin to Hoopa Reservation in California for the purpose of 
studying the languages and mythology of the tribes of Indians inhabit- 
ing the reservation. The Smithsonian Institution was fortunately en- 
abled to secure the assistance of Mr. Curtin in investigating their arts 
and industries also, and a small sum of money was placed in his hands 
for the purchase of objects of Indian manufacture. 

Dr. John M. Crawford, U. 8. consui-general at St. Petersburg, has 
kindly offered to allow the National Museum to participate in the results 
of his ethnological researches in Russia and Finland. Dr. Crawford is 
well known in the United States as a philologist and a student of Scan- 


10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


dinavian antiquities, and as the author of the English translation of 
the Finish epic “The Kalevala.” His appointment as consul-general 
at St. Petersburg was made with a special view to enable him to 
carry on his studies of the traditions and antiquities of the Finish race 
and related peoples. He has offered to make collections for the National 
Museum, and in order to facilitate his work, the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion has provided him with letters of introduction to several of its cor- 
respondents in Russia and Finland. These will no doubt be of great 
service to him in enabling him to carry out the object which he desires 
to further. 

Rey. Frederick H. Post, an Episcopal clergyman of Salem, Oregon, 
has recently undertaken missionary work in Alaska, and has taken up 
his residence at Anvik, on the Yukon River. He has entered into cor- 
respondence with the Smithsonian Institution, and has offered to col- 
lect information relating to the tribes of the Upper Yukon. He has 
also proposed to make meteorological observations at Anvik. This 
offer has been referred to the Signal Office. It is probable that an out- 
fit of alcohol, guns, and ammunition will be sent to Mr. Post next year 
to enable him to collect the mammals and birds of that region. 

Lieut. J. IF’. Moser, commanding the U. 8. Coast Survey steamer 
Bache has continued his explorations for the Museum, and has trans- 
mitted a collection of fishes, mollusks, insects, and marine invertebrates 
from the vicinity of Cape Sable, Florida. 

Prof. O. P. Jenkins, of De Pauw University, Indiana, has made 
arrangements to visit the Hawaiian Islands for the purpose of col- 
lecting fishes, and has expressed his intention of presenting a duplicate 
series of specimens to the National Museum. The Smithsonian Institu- 
tion has supplied him with seines and has furnished him with a letter 
of introduction to the curator of the national museum in Honolulu. 

Ensign W. L. Howard, U. S. Navy, has kindly offered to collect 
zoological and ethnological material in Alaska, and has been supplied 
with collecting apparatus and supplies for use in trading with the In- 
dians. 

A large outfit of tanks, bottles, and alcohol was supplied to Mr. W. 
A. Stearns, of Cambridgeport, Mass., for use in vollecting specimens of 
natural history in northern Labrador. No collections have yet been 
received from him. 


PUBLICATIONS. 


Under an arrangement made by the late Secretary, Prof. E. D. Cope 
was engaged at the time of my last report in completing and preparing 
for publication an investigation upon the Reptilia and Batrachia of 
North America, which has been in progress, under the direction of the 
Smithsonian Institution, for more than twenty years. The monograph 
on the Batrachia, mentioned in my last report as having been received, 
is now in type, though not yet published, but that on the Reptilia is still 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ET 


delayed. I have positive assurance from Professor Cope that it will be 
completed within the present year, but the expense entailed in the pub- 
lication has continued to prove far greater than the late Secretary had 
anticipated, and I am sorry that the expectation of its completion dur- 
ing the past year has not been fulfilled. 

I have referred in my last report to the demand for greater economy 
in publication, and to the probability that some change would be re- 
quisite in the form of the annual reports. It will be remembered *.at 
the Smithsonian Institution has three classes of publications: 

The Contributions to Knowledge. 

The Miscellaneous Collections. 

The Annual Reports. 

A brief review of the past and present condition of each of these 
publications may here be made, with special reference to the latter. 
For details concerning these different classes, and for the matter 
actually presented under each, reference may be made to the appendix. 

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—The first work of original re- 
search published by the Institution was the well-known treatise by Messrs. 
Squier and Davis, in 1848, on Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi 
Valley. This was the commencement of the quarto series entitled 
‘“ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” which now numbers 
twenty-five volumes. This series is designed to record the results of 
original research, offering positive additions to human knowledge, either 
undertaken by agents of the Institution or encouraged by its assistance. 
In general character these contributions correspond somewhat with 
the more elaborate transactions of learned societies. From causes 
briefly adverted to in my last report, original memoirs deemed worthy 
of a place in this series have been much rarer in later years than in the 
earlier portion of the Institution’s history. 


Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—In 1862, a second series of pub- 
lications was commenced by the Institution, in octavo form, with the 
Meteorological and Physical Tables of Professor Guyot, under the title 
of “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.” This series embraces 
papers or treatises of a more practical character than those of the Con- 
tributions, including résumés of existing knowledge in special depart- 
ments, systematic lists or classifications of species in the animal, 
botanical, or mineral kingdoms of nature, tabular collections of natural 
constants, scientific bibliographies, and other summaries, of value to 
the students of physical or biological science. These collections now 
number thirty-three volumes. 

Among the subjects heretofore included in this series have been the 
proceedings or transactions of several scientific societies of Washington 
(the Philosophical, the Anthropological, and the Biological), which were 
organized under the auspices of officers of the Smithsonian Institution. 
To promote their usefulness the stereotyping of their several published 


12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


journals was undertaken by the Institution and a large extension of their 
distribution was thus effected by including their re-issue in the Miscella- 
neous Collections, of which series they constitute three volumes. These 
societies having now severally attained a highly successful and self-sup- 
porting condition of active membership, it has been thought that this 
form of patronage might well be withdrawn without detriment to the 
welfare of the societies and with advantage to the Institution. These 
publications are accordingly no longer stereotyped by the Institution, or 
included in its issues. 

The Bulletins and Proceedings of the U. 8. National Museum, pub- 
lished by an appropriation of Congress, have also been heretofore re- 
printed by the Institution and this supplementary edition has occupied 
five volumes of the Miscellaneous Collections. It has been decided in 
like manner to hereafter omit these publications from the series. 


Smithsonian Annual Reports—A provision of the act of Congress or- 
ganizing the Smithsonian Institution (Revised Statutes, Title 73, Sec. 
5593) requires that ‘‘the Board shall submit to Congress at each ses- 
sion thereof a report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of 
the Institution.” These annual reports have been accompanied with a 
“¢ veneral appendix,” giving summaries of lectures, interesting extracts 
from the correspondence, and accounts of the results of explorations 
undertaken by the Institution or aided and promoted by it, as well as 
of new discoveries in science. In the annual report for 1880 and the 
following years my lamented predecessor undertook to give a more 
systematic character to the history of discoveries, by engaging a num- 
ber of able collaborators in various fields of knowledge, to furnish a gen- 
eral summary or record of scientific progress for the year. Appropri- 
ate as the scheme appears, it has not been found to work as satisfacto- 
rily as is desirable, and as had been hoped for. It has seldom been 
possible to collect as complete summaries as were originally contem- 
plated; and the delay of publication deprives the record of much ofthe 
freshness and interest it would otherwise possess, while in all these the 
rapid increase of scientific literature demanded such a corresponding 
increase in the corps of reporters and such a correlatively increasing 
expenditure as the fixed Smithsonian fund was growing quite unable 
to afford. It will be remembered that of this appendix there are dis- 
tributed through members of Congress as many as 9,000 copies, form- 
ing the larger part of the whole edition, and that it is thus incumbent 
on us to observe that it reaches a large class of readers unable to follow 
the work of specialists in original memoirs. 

After serious consideration it has been finally determined to restrict, 
if not forego, the scheme of a general annual survey of scientific litera- 
ture and progress, and to recur in large part to the system of Henry 
of selecting memoirs of a special interest and permanent value, which 
have already appeared elsewhere and which are sufficiently untechnical 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 


to be readily apprehended by readers fairly representative of the intel- 
ligent and educated class among the constituents of the members of 
POHSEOSS, by whom they are chiefly distributed. 

If, as [have already suggested, Congress sees fit to make a small 
appropriation for the editing as well as the publication of this appen- 
dix, so as to enable it to include, for instance, information relative to 
the progress of scientific discovery and its useful application in the 
United States, such a record would bein keeping with the objects of 
this Institution, and would maintain for this report the popularity and 
the educational character just referred to, while promoting industrial 
interests in the country... 

In this connection I beg to repeat the remark that it would be de- 
sirable to have the supplementary matter of the report placed under a 
special clause for the avoidance of all question as to the “ necessity 
and entire relation to the public business” of such information, a ques- 
tion which has arisen by the construction given by the Public Printer 
to the act of Congress of August 4, 1885. 


Publications of the National Museum.—These publications (already 
referred to as being issued by Government appropriations) comprise 
two series: First, the ‘Proceedings of the National Museum,” consist- 
ing of short essays giving early accounts of recent accessions, or newly 
ascertained facts in natural history, and promptly issued to secure the 
earliest diffusion of the information, of which series ten annual volumes 
have now been issued; and secondly, the “Bulletins of the National 
Museum,” consisting of more elaborate memoirs relative to the collec- 
tions, such as biological monographs, taxonomic lists, ete., of which 
series thirty-six numbers have been issued. These bulletins vary 
greatly in size from pamphlets of fifty pages to works of many hun- 
dred pages. 


Publications of the Bureau of Ethnology.—The principal publication of 
this Bureau is the “Annual Report.” This series consists of large royal 
octavo volumes, detailing researches relative to the aborigines of North 
America, handsomely printed and illustrated with numerous cuts and 
lithographie plates. The fifth Annual Report has been issued during 
the year, and the series may be referred to, as at the same time credita- 
ble to the Government and as fitted to engage public attention by mat. 
ter of an interest beyond what is ordinarily found in any Government 
document, 


Distribution of Smithsonian Publications.—It is manifestly impossible 
for the Institution, with its fixed and limited income, to keep pace in its 
issues and their distribution with the increase of popular interest in 
scientific productions. The ordinary edition of 1,500 copies of each of 
the Smithsonian publications which has been produced from the be- 
ginning, cannot be enlarged without seriously impairing the efficiency 


14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 


of the fund for other services ; although it wonld be a great satisfaction 
to be able to supply more liberally the growing demand for the works 
as published. The impracticability, however, of furnishing these to all 
interested in scientific pursuits, has required the adoption of more for- 
mal regulations to secure the most judicious application of the available 
stock of publications. These are presented, first, to those learned socie- 
ties of the first class which give to the institution in return complete sets 
of their own publications; secondly, to colleges of the first class furnish- 
ing catalogues of their libraries and students, and publications relative 
to their organization and history; thirdly, to public libraries in this 
country having 25,000 volumes; fourthly, in some cases to still smaller 
libraries, especially if no other copies of the Smithsonian publications 
are given in the same place and a large district would be otherwise un- 
supplied; lastly, to institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion 
of particular branches of knowledge, such of its publications are given 
as relate to their special objects. These rules apply chiefly to distri- 
bution in the United States. The number sent to foreign countries, 
under somewhat different conditions, is about the same as that distrib- 
uted in this country. 

A small number of copies not otherwise disposed of has been usually 
reserved for sale; although such returns have of course contributed 
but little toward the cost of production. As an experiment (which had 
been tried in the early history of the institution), | have placed a small 
edition of one of our works in the hands of a large publishing house, 
the well-known firm of MacMillan & Co., of London and New York. 
The work selected for this purpose is the newly revised “tables of 
specific gravity for solids and liquids,” by Prof. F. W. Clarke, Chemist 
of the U.S. Geological Survey. This being a valuable work of refer- 
ence for all practical chemists, as well as for many others, was thought 
to be a very suitable subject for trial as to its commercial success. An 
edition of 1,000 copies having been reserved for the regular gratuitous 
distribution, 500 copies were prepared with the imprint of Messrs. 
MacMillan & Co. on the title page, to be disposed of as one of their 
own publications, and by their regular business methods. 


Facilities afforded to others.—A few instances of assistance in the 
direction of printing, etc., granted in special cases, may here be men- 
tioned. The widow of Dr. Asa Gray having about 80 imperfect copies 
on hand of her husband’s “ Flora of North America,” desired, in order 
to complete her sets and render them available for sale, a correspond- 
ing number of covies of the first part of the second volume. The re- 
quest was cheerfully complied with, and Messrs. Wilson & Son, of 
Cambridge, Mass., were authorized by the Regents to print the desired 
small edition at the expense of the Institution. 

Prof. M. W. Harrington, of Ann Arbor, Mich., made application for 
the use of the stereotype plates of Professor Henry’s meteorological 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 


essays (included in his published scientific writings), with a view to the 
publication of a cheap popular edition of this treatise. In the belief 
that such a republication would be in the interests of science and its 
wider diffusion, permission to use the plates was readily granted. 

A similar request was made by Dr. George H. Horn, of Philadelphia, 
who, as joint author with the late Dr. John L. Le Conte of a work of 600 
pages on the “Classification of the Coleoptera of North America” (pub- 
lished by the Institution in 1883, and now out of print), desired the use 
of the stereotype plates, from which to print an edition of the book. 
This request was also favorably entertained, and the Pree. sought 
was conceded. 

The Eighth International Congress of Orientalists, appointed to be 
held at Stockholm and at Christiania, in September, 1889, solicited 
through its officers the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution. In 
furtherance of its laudable aims the Institution undertook to print and 
distribute in this country 1,000 copies of its circular of announcement 
and information. 

In compliance with the request of Mr. Sylvester Baxter, secretary of 
the Hemenway Expedition of exploration, the privilege of the Smith- 
sonian exchange system was granted for the distribution of the report 
of the expedition, giving an account of its researches in the Southwest. 

These various allowances are believed to be in the spirit of the Smith- 
sonian foundation, and of its ancient maxim— Co-operation, rather than 
rivalry or monopoly.” 

Storage of the Smithsonian Stereotype Plates.—The stereotype plates of 
the Smithsonian publications now constitute a very large collection, 
and as the printing of the works had been done in various cities, as 
appeared most economical or convenient, a considerable portion of this 
material had been stored in Boston, and especially in Philadelphia. 
As the fire-proof renovation of the eastern portion of the Smithsonian 
building furnished a safe and suitable depository in the basement rooms, 
these plates have now all been collected within its store-rooms. 


THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGE SYSTEM. 


The international exchange system was established early in the 
history of the Institution, at first purely as a channel for the interchange 
of scientific publications and specimens, and therefore as a direct means 
for “the diffusion of knowledge,” a means which has proved to be a 
great benefit to the scientific institutions of the world, and incidentally 
to Congress in building up the unequalled collection of works of refer- 
ence deposited in its Library. 

Of late years, however, the Government, having dxsanien the charge 
of this system, has made the Institution its agent not only for this 
scientific distribution but for the much larger distribution of the publi- 
cations of the United States Government abroad, and also for the re- 
ceipt and transmission to the Library of Congress of the publications 


16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


of other countries sent in return. In this twofold service it is now per- 
forming an important public duty, for which such inadequate provision 
is made, that in spite of the efforts for an economical and efficient ad- 
ministration of this department the best interests of the Government 
as well as those of the Institution are seriously suffering. 

In reviewing the past year it is necessary to mention first of all the 
serious loss in the death of Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, which however has 
been more fully referred to elsewhere. At the date of his death, which 
occurred on the 6th of April, 1889, owing to the efficient condition of 
the division due to the hearty co-operation of all in it with the labors 
of its lamented chief, the office was free from any parcels whatever, and 
was ready to close its book accounts completely for the first time. 

I regret to record, also, the death on June 17, 1889, of Mr. George Hill- 
ier, Superintendent of the New York Custom-House. Mr. Hillier had for 
more than thirty years attended to the transmission of Smithsonian ex- 
change packages, rendering the Institution most valuable and efficient 
service without compensation. In response to a request made to the 
Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Quackenbush, chief entry clerk of the 
New York Custom-House, has been designated to receive and transmit 
cases addressed to the Smithsonian Institution in future. 

Dr. Kidder was succeeded as curator of exchanges by Mr. William C. 
Winlock, who was appointed May 15,1889. The curator’s report to the 
Secretary, containing the usual statistics for the fiscal year, will be found 
in thé appendix. 

In order to convey an idea of the present magnitude and character of 
the exchange transactions it may be stated that during the year, 17,218 
packages were mailed to correspondents in the United States and 693 
boxes, containing 58,035 packages, were shipped to our agents abroad 
for distribution to correspondents in nearly every civilized nation of the 
earth. The total number of packages received was 75,966, of which 
34,996, or nearly one-half, were governmental exchanges.* The services 
ofelevent clerks and packers have been required in handling and account- 
ing for this material and in conducting the extensive correspondence 
that such a business involves. The societies and individuals upon the 
exchange list now number 13,130. 

The entire expense of “international exchanges” for the fiscal year 
was $17,152.10.t Of this sum $15,000 were appropriated directly by 
Congress, $1,363.54 were repaid by several of the Government Depart- 





*It should be noted that almost from the very beginning of the exchange system 
the publications of several of the scientific bureaus of the Government were volun- 
tarily transmitted by the Smithsonian Institution; but it was not officially desig- 
nated for the service till 1878. 

tIt is not superflnous to repeat that these are engaged in addition to the proper 
personnel of the Institution, the services of whose officers are given without charge. 

t The items $2,329.99, under the head of expenditures for exchanges, and $2,189.52 
repayments, in the report of the executive committee, include receipts and expendi- 
tures made on account of the preceding fiscal year. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1 


ments to which appropriations had been granted for payment of freight 
on publications sent abroad through the Institution, leaving «a deficit 
of $788.56, which was paid from the Smithsonian fund. 

With reference to this deficiency let me observe that in the history of 
the Government’s connection with the exchanges three periods may be 
distinguished. The first was in 1867 and 1868, when, after twenty years 
of useful work in the interests of knowledge, a new duty was imposed 
upon the service by acts of Congress* which established for the benefit 
of the Congressional Library an international exchange of works pub- 
lished by the Government and made the Smithsonian Institution the 
agency for this exchange. The second was in 1878, when the Institu- 
tion was distinctly recognizedt by the Department of State as the agent 
of the United States in the exchange of all Government publications 
(including exchanges for the benefit of Bureau libraries) and also in the 
exchange between learned societies. 

The Institution possessed unequalled experience and facilities for 
such work, and though the new class of beoks brought to the exchange 
department was partly foreign to its original object, the propriety of 
its assuming such a service, if the Government’s interest could be pro- 
moted by this experience, is evident. It certainly, however, was not to 
have been anticipated that the Institution should conduct a purely ad- 
ministrative work of the General Government out of its private funds, 
as it appears to have done for thirteen years, from 1868 to 1881, when 
the first appropriation of $3,000 was made by Congress. 

In the actt of March 3, 1881, making this appropriation it appears to 
have been the intent of Congress to apply the amount indifferently to 
all exchanges, whether to those which it undertakes for the Library of 
Congress, to those of Governmental bureaus, or to other literary and 


* Statutes at Large, vol. 14, p. 573, Thirty-ninth Congress, second session, resolution 
55. Statutes at Large, vol. 15, pp. 260,261, Fortieth Congress, second session, resolu- 
tion 72. - 

tLetter from Hon. Wm. M. Evarts, Secretary of State, to the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Annual Report for 1881, p. 785. 

t‘‘International exchanges, Smithsonian Institution, 1882: For the expense of 
exchanging literary and scientific productions with ail nations by the Smithsonian 
Institution, $3,000 (act March 3, 1881).” This was changed in 1883 to the follow- 
ing: “International exchanges, Smithsonian Institution, 1883: For expenses of the 
international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, in ac- 
cordance with the Paris convention of 1877, including salaries and compensation 
of all necessary employés, $5,000 (sundry civil act August 7, 1882),” and in 1586 
it again was changed to “ International exchanges, Smithsonian Institution, 1886 ; 
For expenses of the system of internatioual exchanges between the United States 
and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, includ- 
ing salaries or compensation of all necessary employés, $10,000 (sundry civil act 
March 38, 1885).” 

H, Mis, 824-2 








18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


scientific objects, thus constituting a third change* in the relations of 
the Smithsonian to the Government in regard to the Exchange Bureau. 

An approximate estimate of the cost of the exchange for the Library 
of Congress from 1868 to 1878, together with the cost of the ‘‘Govern- 
mental” exchange (the Congressional and Departmental) for 1879 and 
1880, shows that about $20,000 were paid from the Smithsonian funds 
for handling Government property alone. Regarding the whole ex- 
pense of international exchanges since 1881 as a charge on the Govern- 
ment, the entire amount paid out of the funds of the institution on ac- 
count of the General Government is somewhat over $50,000, exclusive 
of office rent and minor expenses. 

In the report that [ had the honor to submit to the Board of Regents 
at their last meeting the expenses and needs of the exchange depart- 
ment were dwelt upon at some length, and it was stated that a revised 
estimate of $27,050 had been submitted through the Secretary of the 
Treasury for the purpose of meeting the expenses of contemplated im- 
provements in the service during the fiscal year 1888—’89. The amount 
finally appropriated was $15,000, an increase of only $3,000 over the 
sum appropriated for the year preceding. As I have already remarked, 
in spite of efforts for an economical and efficient administration of the 
department, slow transportation and free ocean freight, this was $2,- 
152.10 less than the service actually cost, and the interests of both the 
Government and the Institution suffer from the entire inadequacy of 
the appropriation. 

Although all of the Government bureaus that have occasion to trans- 
mit their publications through the Institution are not provided with 
funds available for defraying the cost of the service, it seems to have 
been the intention of Congress that its specific appropriation for the 
exchange business should be supplemented by special appropriations to 
some of the bureaus and departments of the Government, so that the 
charge of 5 cents per pound weight imposed by the regents in [878 
might be met by them. The average amount annually repaid to the In- 
stitution in this way during the past eleven years has been about $1,400, 
and does not represent all the cost to the Institution which has been 
made up from its private fund. 

It has been repeatedly urged that this procedure, for which sufficient 
reasons existed at the time of its adoption, may now be discontinued as 
no longer advantageous or economical. 

By the present system the cost of the service is actually larger than 
appears in the specific appropriations for exchanges, and as the specia 
appropriations to the different departments vary from year to year, and 
are often omitted altogether, a burden which can not be accurately fore- 
seen continues to be imposed upon the Seay fund. 


ie Reine Gin, atw hich the United States was eee was concluded at Brus: 
sels March 15, 1886, for establishing a system of international exchanges of the 
official documents ane of the scientifie and literary publications of the states ad- 
joining thereto, 





REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 


In order to effect the change contemplated, that is, to collect in a 
single item the entire appropriation for international exchanges and 
at the same time to make allowance for a needed compensation to the 
ocean steam-ship companies for freight and for like necessary expenses, 
tending to secure to the United States a return of many times what 
they now receive from foreign governments, with a prompt delivery, 
an estimate of $27,500 was submitted for the fiscal year 1889-90, 

It should be premised that only about one-third of the Government’s 
publications are actually received from the office of the Public Printer 
and elsewhere for transmission abroad, and that while special applica- 
tion on our part might call out the remainder, we can not undertake to 
do this while only partly paid the actual outlay for the portion we 
carry already, while a sufficient appropriation to justify the employ- 
ment of a special exchange agent in Europe, as has been frequently 
and earnestly recommended by the Librarian of Congress, would bring 
back in return probably about eight times what we now receive. <Ac- 
cordingly, in the subjoined estimate of what could be done if Con- 
gress paid the actual cost of efficient service (the services of the officers 
of this Institution being given without charge), more packages appear 
under the new plan than under the old. 


Statement of exchanges during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1889, together 
with estimates for proposed new departure. 


I. Amount of exchanges sent abroad. 


New 
| resela9, [Plan (esti 
| ~~" | mated). 


WOM PYOSSIONG) tec aac ne panes vemsiaee eben toe cadens ancien cede meds 22, 673 40, 000 
We aeiMentaloseca-lea.ra ce asecletince occas ceebes waist chce cece 2, 998 | 30, 000 
DOCICUYPAN GC PVIV ate: .o-- Sec ccc wi cinec Meee Coeee Sees ncsce beeese 32, 364 35, 000 

58,035 105, 000 


The receipts from abroad would then probably be more than double. 


Il. Time.—Average time in transit lo western Europe. 





Slow freight. 
Fast 
| freight. 
|Extremes.| Average. 
| 
| Days. Days. Days. 
Pim clandeei es Soltis esse tance Coc ctn of, Polk ea nce | 47 to Ql | 37 16 
Genin any yet eer: 2 24 eae eeeee iscsi ae Mae eceee nea ee | 47 to 30 | 36 15 
PESTERING 6 aie Wate clos Pote =i -tran stole Moe een seas ciao clocks, meri eee 47 to 24 36 17 





Nn ne ——— - —_—___— ~ nr nny 


20 REPORT OF ‘THE SECRETARY. 


This sum of $27,500 asked for would have been divided somewhat as 
follows : 
Salaries’ cise ce tsee Jaiginrs aCe ne wee eon ee ee ee eee $16, 600 








Trensportation : 
From’ Washington -to sea-board <u! 2 ace oc)en ae detseeea sess $2, 280 
Ocean tere ht rss. cn o.rassccie set Sn coe neo Se ea near 5, 600 
From point of debarkation to destination..............-.-.....- 1, 750 
—-— 9,030 
BOOS ete cre sciscssesee oe ele 2 sewelet’ joer os Seiten seaeel ese eet ae ee en 950 
INCA EM GAIS ce Us ess geese Saeco tere eee See ieione ee eee ae eee 920 
27, 509 


No increase, however, over the amount appropriated for 1887~88 
($15,500) was granted, and it is probable that the deficiency for the 
coming year will be at least $2,000. 

Recurring now to one of the effects of the insufficient appropriations 
the writer repeats that there are too many and too great delays in the 
transit of packages sent by international exchanges. These delays do 
not occur in the office at Washington, nor in those of the agents of the 
Institution at London and Leipzig. They are due, broadly speaking, to 
the fact just stated, that the Institution has not the means to pay for 
rapid transit on land or sea, and that for what it obtains on the latter 
it is dependent upon the courtesy of several ocean steam-ship com- 
panies, with the natural result that the free freight is often delayed to 
make room for that which is paid for. A subordinate cause, however, 
lies in the apathy or indifference, or possible insufficient clerical force, 
of most of the foreign exchange bureaus. 

The employés of the bureau are paid much lower salaries than simi- 
lar services command in other branches of the public service, and the 
Government pays no rent for the rooms in which they labor, in which 
even the office furniture forms a part of the charge on the private funds 
of this Institution. 

The convention between the United States of America, Belgium, 
Brazil, Italy, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, and Switzerland for the interna- 
tional exchange of official documents and scientific and literary publica- 
tions, as well as the convention between the same countries (excepting 
Switzerland) for ‘‘ the immediate exchange of the official journals,. par- 
liamentary annals, and documents,” was concluded at Brussels March 
15, 1886, ratification advised by the Senate June 18, 1888, ratified by 
the President July 19, 1888, ratifications exchanged January 14, 1889, 
and proclaimed January 15, 1889, and since that date formal notifica- 
tion has been received of the adhesion to both conventions of the Gov- 
ernment of Uruguay. The full texts of these conventions were given 
in the Curator’s report for last year. 

The adhesion of the United States to the first convention involves no 
new departure in the exchange service from the methods of previous 
years; but for the fulfillment of the obligations incurred by the second 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 74 





convention—the immediate exchange of official journals—an appropria- 
tion of about $2,000 to cover the necessary postage and additional cler- 
ical assistance is required; and provision should be made for the prompt 
delivery to the exchange office of the documents referred to. 

This sum of $2,000 was estimated in reply to an inquiry made by the 
Secretary of State, dated February 12, 1889, as to the ability of the 
Smithsonian Institution to execute all of the provisions of the two con- 
ventions without further legislation by Congress, and the estimate was 
duly transmitted by the Secretary of State in a letter to the President 
of the Senate, but no appropriation was made. 

As heretofore, the Institution is greatly indebted to the lines of ocean 
steamers between the United States and other countries, and especial 
acknowledgment is due to the agencies of the fellowing companies for 
the continuation of many favors in the free transportation of interna- 
tional exchange packages : 

Allan Steam-ship Company (A. Schumacher & Co., agents), Baltimore. 

Anchor Steam-ship Line (Henderson & Brother, agents), New York. 

Atlas Steam-ship Company (Pim, Forwood & Co., agents), New York. 

Bailey, H. B., & Co., New York. 

Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., Boston, Mass. 

Borland, B. R., New York. 

Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, New York. 

Cameron, R. W., & Co., New York. 

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (L. de Bébian, agent), New York. 

Cunard Royal Mail Steam-ship Line (Vernon H. Brown & Co., agents), New 
York. 

Dennison, Thomas, New York. 

Florio Rubattino Line, New York. 

Hamburg American Packet Company (Kunhardt & Co., agents), New York. 

Inman Steam-ship Company, New York. 

Merchants’ Line of Steamers, New York. 

Munoz y Espriella, New York. 

Murray, Ferris & Co., New York. 

Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company (H. Cazaux, agent), New 
York. 

New. York and Brazil Steam-ship Company, New York. 

New York and Mexico Steam-ship Company, New York. 

North German Lloyd (agents, Oelrichs & Co., New York; A. Schumacher & 
Co., Baltimore). 

Pacific Mail Steam-ship Company, New York. 

Panama Railroad Company, New York. 

Red Star Line (Peter Wright & Sons, agents), Philadelphia and New York. 

White Cross Line of Antwerp (Funch, Edye & Co., agents), New York. 

Wilson & Asmus, New York. 


LIBRARY 


I may best preface what I have to say about the library by a repeti- 
tion of some introductory remarks in my previous report: 
“Chiefly through its exchange system, the Smithsonian had in 1865 


accumulated about forty thousand volumes, largely publications of 
learned societies, containing the record of the actual progress of the 


22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


world in all that pertains to the mental and physical development of 
the human family, and affording the means of tracing the history of at 
least every branch of positive science since the days of revival of let- 
ters until the present time.* 

“These books, in many cases presents from old Kuropean libraries 
and not to be obtained by purchase, formed even then one of the best 
collections of the kind in the world. 

‘* The danger incurred from the fire that year, and the fact that the 
ereater portion of these volumes, being unbound and crowded into in- 
sufficient space, could not be readily consulted, while the expense to be 
incurred for this binding, enlarged room, and other purposes connected 
with their use threatened to grow beyond the means of the Institution, 
appear to have been the moving causes which determined the Regents 
to accept an arrangement by which Congress was to place the Smith- 
sonian Library with its own in the Capitol, subject to the right of the 
Regents to withdraw the books on paying the charges of binding, ete. 
Owing to the same causes (which have affected the Library of Con- 
gress itself) these principal conditions, except as regards their custody 
in a fire-proof building, have never been fulfilled. 

“The books are still deposited chiefly in the Capitol, but though they 
have now accumulated from 40,000 to fully 250,000 volumes and parts 
of volumes, and form without doubt the most valuable collection of 
the kind in existence, they not only remain unbound, but in a far more 
crowded and inaccessible condition than they were before the transfer. 
It is hardly necessary to add that these facts are deplored by no one 
more than by the present efficient Librarian of Congress.” 


At the last meeting of the Board, the Regents passed the following 
resolution : 

“ Resolved, That, since the Smithsonian deposit now numbers over 
250,000 titles, and is still increasing, at the cost of the Institution, it 
is, in the opinion of the Regents, desirable that in the new building 
for the Library of Congress, sufficient provision shall be made for its 
accommodation and inerease in a distinct hall or halls, worthy of the 
collections, and such as, while recalling to the visitor the name of 
Smithson, shall provide such facilities for those consulting the volumes 
as will aid in his large purpose of the diffusion of knowledge among 
men.” 

I have brought this resolution of the Regents to the attention of the 
present Librarian of Congress and to that of the Chief of Engineers, 
the officer in charge of the new building. 1 learn from the latter offi- 
cial that, owing to the length of time occupied in the construction, it 
will probably be from six to eight years before any effect can be given 
to this resolution ; and, in the mean time, with the overcrowded condi- 
tion of the present quarters of the Library, the chests sent up from the 
Institution still often continue to lie unopened, so that their contents 
are inaccessible. 

Owing to this overcrowding and, as it is understood, to insufficient 
clerical aid in the Capitol Library, this noble collection, the product of 
thirty years’ accumulation from the fund of Smithson, is, if not alto- 
gether lost to science and learning, at any rate so impaired in its use- 


* See Smithsonian Report of 1867. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93 


fulness that it can not be assumed that any series of learned transac- 
tions is now complete or that any stude nt can any longer find what he 
seeks in what was once provided for his aid. I beg to recommend this 
regrettable state of things to the notice of the Congressional Regents. 
The present sad condition must, from the nature of the case, grow 
yearly still worse under the present wrangement ; and it Seems certain 
that, by the time the new building is ready for the books, the entire 
collection will have its value so impaired as to be pecuniarily and oth- 
erwise of little value in comparison with the original cost. The only 
remedy still applicable would seem to lie in providing temporary quar- 
ters for the collection under the care of the Librarian of Congress, but 
outside of the overcrowded quarters in the Capitol. 

The labor of recording and ecarivg for the accessions to the library 
has been carried on as during the last fiscal year, with this exception, 
that, the work being now thoroughly organized, it has been practicable 
to dispense with the services of one of the three clerks previously em- 
ployed in this department. 

The construction of additional cases in the reading-room las given 
increased facilities for the display of periodicals, and the number. of 
serials now at the disposai of readers has arisen from 265 (as at the 
time of my last report) to 432. The reading-room is well used by those 
classes of readers for whom it was designed. 

The most important operation in connection with the library during 
the year has been the commencement of the work of carrying out the 
plan for increasing the library by systematic exchanges, which was 
originated soon after I entered on my duties as Assistant Secretary, at 
the desire of Secretary Baird. 

Realizing that there must be many scientific and technical period- 
icals of value, especially in branches of science not directly related to 
the work carried on at the Institution, which were not known in our 
library, and recognizing the fact that many new publications have come 
into existence since the last systematic attempt to procure full returns 
for the publications distributed by the Institution, I addressed circulars 

three hundred gentlemen in this country who are noted for their 
eminence in the different branches of knowledge, desiring them to 
furnish me with lists of the scientific periodicals which were of value 
to them in their special fields of investigation.* 

In reply to these circulars, 174 voluminous lists were received, and 
these I caused to be carefully collated. The result of this collation is a 
list of 3,600 titles, embracing, as it is believed, nearly if not quite all 
periodical literature of importance in the various branches of kuowledge, 
exclusive of belles-lettres and the art of medicine. 

In order, however, that this list should be of any practical service to 
the Institution, itis first necessary to learn which of these publications 
the Institution may already possess, either in eon or imperfect 


* Copies of pies circulars are to be foun in Appendix 4 to my report for 1887-’83, 


24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


files. To ascertain this, each title in the list must be laboriously com- 
pared with the records of the library, running back frequently for 
many years. Again, should a learned society, publishing transactions, 
or the publishers of a journal mentioned in this list, be found to have 
received Smithsonian publications without making any adequate return, 
the records of the distribution of publications must be searched, in order 
to find the exact amount of publications furnished, that upon this the 
Institution may base its demand for a return. 

It will be seen that the publications in question fall naturally into 
four classes. 

(1) Journals which receive the Smithsonian publications, and which 
are not to be found in the library of the Institution. 

(2) Journals which receive the Smithsonian publications, but which 
make either no return or an inadequate return for these. 

(3) Journals which regularly exchange with the Institution, but of 
which the files in the library are for any reason defective. 

(4) Journals which regularly exchange with the Institution, and of 
which the library possesses a complete file. 

When each of the 3,600 titles has been assigned to its proper place 
in one of these four classes, a letter must be written to each one of the 
journals belonging to the first three classes, as follows: To the first ciass, 
offering to exchange; to the second, calling attention to the fact that 
the Institution has received no adequate returns for its favors, and to 
the third, asking for the volumes or parts of volumes required to com- 
plete the files. 

It will thus be evident that a work of no small magnitude remained ~ 
to be performed after the list of journals was prepared. A careful esti- 
mate showed that it would require the entire time of a competent clerk 
for at least tweive months to perform the necessary routine work. As, 
however, the Institution was not in a position to employ an extra clerk 
for work which would be so largely for the benefit of the Library of 
Congress, the matter was allowed to rest here. 

The desirability of the plan, however, commended itself so strongly 
to me that I could not willingly see it given up and the large amount 
of labor already expended remain unfruitful. Accordingly, towards 
the latter part of the past fiscal year, I presented the matter to Mr. A. 
R. Spofford, the Librarian of Congress, who, recognizing the advantages 
that would accrue to that Library from carrying out the plan, consented 
to defray the expense of the necessary clerical work from his own ap- 
propriations. The work was accordingly begun on June 1, 1889, and 
will be carried on continuously under the immediate supervision of the 
librarian, Mr. John Murdoch. 

It is estimated that of the 3,600 titles under consideration, at least 
one-half, or 1,800, will prove to. be new and desirable accessions to the 
library, while the work done in endeavoring to complete broken series 
must prove to be of great value. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 


The following is a statement of the books, maps, and charts received 
by the Smithsonian Institution from July 1, 1888, to June 50, 1889: 


Volumes: 











OCUrvoO.OlrSMulleie-c osccee ooo eeicewe meas oe es ok 1, 002 
Cura hOMOT Mak MET epee cre ceetare late ello ew estates \asp>, =a 498 
— 1,500 
Parts of yolumes: 
OCtIivO OMSMaAllersteuc Ane docitardeece tee eae acne eee 5 O00 
OUARCO LOM LANCET ae erccaeicint sole gee ate ee a ae 6, 646 
——— 12,202 
Pamphlets: 
OCtIVOLOL SMMAIIEN 4..3.s3<so0- aoc. nto se enc Soe te sees 2,705 
@uarto ov larger 2m 422. ese. cee cess ose cee ec fee 73 
oko 
ENTE 0S eee ene elle ames cian ions aie = 474 
FIC) Ge) eee ee es ee ere, ee rey ee Sera eet ge tay eves 17, 354 


Of these accessions 4,810 (namely, 441 volumes, 3,752 parts of vol- 
umes, aud 617 pamphlets, were retained for use in the Museum library, 
and 521 medical dissertations were deposited in the library of the Sur- 
geon-General’s Office, U.S. Army; the remainder was promptly sent 
to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. 

The following universities have sent complete sets of all their aca- 
demic publications for the year, including the inaugural dissertations de- 
livered by the students on graduation: Bern, Bonn, Dorpat, Erlangen, 
Freiburg-im- Breisgau, Giessen, Gottingen, Halle-an-der-Saale, Heidel- 
berg, Helsingfors, Jena, Kiel, Koénigsberg, Leipzig, Louvain, Lund, 
Tiibingen, Utrecht, and Wiirzburg. 

«A list of the important accessions will be found in the Appendix (Re- 
port of the Librarian). 


THE DEPARTMENT OF LIViNG ANIMALS. 


The collection of the departmeut of living animals has increased dur- 
ing the year (almost wholly by donations) to such an extent as to quite 
overcrowd its accommodations, and render if necessary to resolutely 
check its growth, while the degree of interest manifested in this small 
display has been surprising. This has been shown not only by the 
residents of Washington, and visitors to the city, who form the daily 
crowd of visitors, but many residents of remote States and Territories 
have testified their interest by sending valuable gifts to the collee- 
tion. 

Besides these, many valuable gifts of quadrupeds and birds have 
been received from United States Army officers in Texas. A most val- 
uable donation received during the year came from the Hon. W. F. 
Cody (Buffalo Bill), of North Platte, Nebr., and consisted of three fine 
American elks, two males and a female. 

Dr. V. T. MeGillyeuddy, of Rapid City, Dak., offered to deposit in 
the collection four American bisons which have been in his possession 
for several years. The conditions of the offer were considered suf- 


26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


ficiently liberal to justify its acceptance, and accordingly Mr. George 
H. Hedley, of Medina, N. Y., was requested to proceed to Rapid City, 
where he received the animals and arrived in Washington with them 
in good condition. Being fine specimens they have naturally attracted 
much attention. 

The overcrowded condition of the temporary cages and yards con- 
taining the larger animals has caused extreme trouble, not only to pro- 
vide properly for the shelter and comfort of the specimens, but to keep 
them from either killing or injuring each other. Only with larger space 
and better facilities will it be possible to so care for these animals, 
and many others like them, that they will not only be a stock from 
which to replenish their races, so rapidly vanishing from the continent, 
but a source of constant instruction and recreation for the people. 

The department of living animals has served an important purpose 
jn aiding to bring about the establishment by Congress of a National 
Zoological Park, for the public interest manifested in the collection, 
forcibly emphasized the general desire and need for such an institution 
founded on a liberal scale. During the period when the Zoological 
Park proposition was before the Fiftieth Congress, the Secretary con- 
sidered that the curator of this department, Mr. Hornaday, could not 
render more important service than by explaining to Members the de- 
tails of the plan proposed, and he was accordingly directed to devote 
a portion of his time to that duty. 

The actual accommodations provided for the living animals are 
necessarily of the most temporary character, and do not in the slightest 
degree indicate the proper construction of permanent improvements of 
this kind in a first-class zoological garden. At present a large num- 
ber of living quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles are crowded together in 
one small and ill-ventilated building heated by steam, which, during 
exhibition hours, is usually filled with visitors to an uncomfortable ex- 
tent. It will be a great boon to the public and to the animals com- 
posing the collection as well, when the latter can be transferred to the 
Zoological Park and provided with suitable accommodations. Under 
the circumstances it is very desirable that this should be accomplished 
at the earliest date possible. 

The total number of living specimens received during the year was 
271, of which 126 were gifts, 37 were deposited, and 8 purchased. The 
final catalogue entry on June 30, 1889, was 341, which represents the 
total number of specimens received since the collection was begun. In 
spite of the disadvantages the curator and his two assistants have la- 
bored under in the care of this collection, it is gratifying to be able to 
report that during the year the losses by death have been almost wholly 
confined to the small and least valuable animals; and, with the excep- 
tion of an antelope which was presented by Senator Stanford and died 
before it had time to recover from the effects of its long journey, all the 
large and most valuable specimens are alive and in good health, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Da 


it is well to direct attention to the fact that Congress has as yet made 
no special appropriation for the care of these animals, which, with their 
food, represents a considerable sum, ill spared from the limited appro- 
priation at the disposal of the Secretary for the increase and preserva- 
tion of the collections, on which so many other pressing demands are 


made. 
ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


In my previous report I stated that a bill had been introdueed by 
Senator Beck to create, under the care of the Regents of the Smithsonian 
Institution, a zoological garden on Rock Creek, where these animals 
might not only form the subject of study, but be expected to increase 
aS they do not in ordinary captivity ; and I gave the amendment to the 
sundry civil appropriation bill, reported by Senator Morrill, which 
was substantially the same as the bill of Senator Beck. 

For reasons which may be found in my letter to the chairman of the 
Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, quoted later, I gave much 
time and labor in the interests of this measure, at first without success, 
the House Committee on Appropriations having reported its non-coneur- 
rence in the Zoological Park amendment, and, after along debate, which 
occupied the attention of the House through a considerable portion of 
the 12th of September, 1888, the motion to concur was defeated. In 
the subsequent conference on the sundry civil bill, the Senate con- 
ferees agreed that the amendment should be stricken out, so that the 
bill was lost. 

In pursuance of what seemed to me a public duty, I did not accept 
this defeat of the bill as final, but brought the matter again before the 
attention of Congress. 

On the 18th of January, 1889, at the request of the Hon. S. Dibble, 
I addressed a letter to him as chairman of the Committee on Public 
Buildings and Grounds, to which had been referred a bill of the House, 
introduced by the Hon. W. C. P. Breckinridge, of similar purport to 
that introduced in the Senate. This letter the committee made the basis 
of its recommendation for the passage of the bill in the following words: 


REPORT to accompany bill H. R. 11810, 


The Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, to which was re- 
ferred the bill (H. R. 11810) “for the establishment of a Zoological 
Park in the District of Columbia,” having had the same under consid- 
eration, respectfully submits the following report: 

Appended hereto is a letter of Prof. S. P. Langley, Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, portraying the necessity of such a park and 
the advantages to be derived from its establishment; and, for reasons 
therein set forth, your committee respectfully recommends the passage 
of the bill. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C., January 18, 1889. 

My DEAR Sir: I write what follows in accordance with the sugges- 
tion of your yesterday’s letter, intending it for your consideration and 
that of the committee. 


28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 


From all parts of the country, for many years, presents of live ani- 
mals have been made to the Government through the Smithsonian In- 
stitution or the Museum; but the absence of any appropriation for their 
care has led to their being sent away (though most reluctantly) to in- 
crease the collections of the zoological parks in Philadelphia, New York, 
London, and other cities. it should be better known than it is that 
everywhere through the country there is a disposition on the part of 
private individuals to give to the Government in this way, and without 
any expectation of return, remarkable specimens, which the donor (very 
commonly a poor man) sometimes refuses advantageous pecuniary offers 
for, and it seems hard to decline gifts made in such a spirit, or, accept- 
ing them, to give them away again. 

But little over a year ago I gave instructions that these live speci- 
mens should be retained temporarily, as an experiment, and although a 
very few have been purchased, the collection, which is a subject of so 
much local popular interest, has been thus formed, substantially by gift, 
within perhaps fifteen months, and this though many proffers have been 
declined for want of means to care for them. 1am persuaded that, if 
it were generally known that the Government would receive and care 
for such gifts, within a very few years the finest collection of American 
animals in the world might be made here in this way, with compara- 
tively no expenditure for purchase. 

Among the many interested in the incipient collection was Senator 
Beck, whose bill for the formation of a zoological park was brought 
before the Senate on April 23, 1888. The writer directed the Senator’s 
attention to the fact that a piece of ground singularly suitable, by the 
variety of its features, to the provision for the wants of all the different 
kinds of animals, existed in tho picturesque valley of Rock Creek in 
the part nearest to the city. Here not only the wild goat, the mountain 
sheep and their congeners would find the rocky cliffs which are their 
natural home, but the beavers brooks in which to build their dams; the 
buffalo places of seclusion in which to breed and replenish their dying 
race; aquatic birds and beasts their natural heme, and in general all 
animals would be provided for on a site almost incomparably better 
than any now used for this purpose in any other capital in the world. 

With this is the pre-eminently important consideration that the imme- 
diate neighborhood to the city would make it accessible not only to the 
rich, but to the poor, and therefore a place of recreation to the great 
mass of the residents, as well as to the hundreds of thousands of citi- 
zens from all parts of the country who now annually visit the capital. 

It may be added that, so far as is known to the writer, all those in- 
terested in the desirable but larger plan fora public park along the 
whole Rock Creek region—that is to say, all those acquainted with the 
beauties and advantages of the site—regard the establishment of the pro- 
posed zoological park there with favor. It is very difficult for any one 
who has not visited the region to understand its singularly attractive 
character, due to the good fortune which has preserved its picturesque 
features intact urtil now, although the growing city is sweeping around 
and enveloping it. 

The Smithsonian Institution has not customarily received with favor 
the propositions continually made it to place different local or national 
interests under its charge, but the very special reasons which seem in 
this ease to enable it to at once secure a home and city of refuge for the 
vanishing races of the continent, and a place for the health and recrea- 
tion of the inhabitants of the city, and citizens of the United States, 
together with an opportunity for the carrying out an enterprise of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 


national scientific value, and the formation of what, as regards its site, 
at least, is. the finest zoological garden in existence—all these consider- 
ations have moved it to see in this an opportunity to carry out its legit- 
imate work, ‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. ” 

W hen, therefore, Senator Beck made the understanding that the Smith- 
sonian Institution’ would accept the charge of such a park, the primary 
condition on which he would undertake to recommend it to Congress, 
the Secretary felt authorized to say that he believed it propable that 
the proposition would be favorably viewed by the regents, and, the 
matter once brought before Congress, he has not disguised his own 
interest ip the success of the measure. 

The bill, brought in by Mr. Breckinridge in the House (and by Sen- 
ator Morrill in the Senate), appropriates: 5200,000 for the purchase of 
not less than 100 acres of Jand. The land actually most desired for the 
zoological park covers about 120 acres, being precisely that portion of 
the Kock Creek Valley which will be soonest destroyed, as regards its 
picturesque and attractive features, by the laying out of streets and 
lots. Nevertheless, and largely owing to the very fact that the pict- 
uresqueness of the locality implies the existence of rocks, precipices, 
and valleys, which it would cost much to level and fill in, this land can 
still be obtained at rates which, considering its neighborhood to the 
city, are remarkably cheap. The most thorough examination that I 
have been able to make, the testimony of various real-estate experts 
and others, have satisfied me that the purchase may and will be com- 
pleted for somewhat less than the sum named in the appropriation, even 
leaving a small margin for the erection of a preliminary shelter for the 
animals. . 

I beg most respectfully to urge upon the attention of the committee 
the fact that itis at once the strength and weakness of this measure 
that, so far as is known, it is an entirely disinterested one, the real- 
estate holders in the vicinity being generally indifferent or opposed to 
it, for reasons which can be explained, if desired, and that it is being 
thus pressed upon Congress by those who have the measure at heart, 
because anything that is done must be done soon. It is probable that 
within a year or two more, the good fortune which has kept this singu- 
larly interesting spot intact, while the growing city is encircling it, will 
protect it no longer. It is not the mere space on the map which is to 
be secured, but natural advantages which have no relation to the num- 
ber of acres, and which can not “be restored if once destr oyed, since it 
is not in the power of Congress itself by any expenditure of money to 
recreate a rock or a tree. 

Il am, very respectfully, yours, 
S. P. LANGLEY, 

Hon. SAMUEL DIBBLE, Secretary. 

House of Representatives. 


It appears, however, that this recommendation could not be brought 
to the consideration of Congress in season for action, and at nearly the 
same time Senator Edmunds introduced an amendment to the District 
bill. There were at this time two measures being pressed upon the 
attention of Congress, one for the creation of a national park, inelud- 
ing a thousand or more acres upon Rock Creek, extending far beyond 
the limits of the proposed zoological park, and requiring a large ex- 
penditure not for buildings but for lands, a measure with which the 


30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Smithsonian Institution was not concerned; the other a much more 
limited scheme for the zoological park, which latter it was understood 
in Congress was to be placed under the Smithsonian Institution. 

Under these circumstances the honorable Mr. Edmunds introduced 
an amendment to the District of Columbia bill, as follows : 


AMENDMENT intended to be proposed by Mr. Edmunds to the bill (H. R. 11651) 

making appropriations to provide for the expenses of the government of the District 

of Columbia for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, 
and for other purposes, viz: Insert the following: 


‘“‘ For the establishment of a zoological park in the District of Colum- 
bia, two hundred thousand dollars, to be expended under and in accord- 
ance with the provisions following, that is to say: 

“That, in order to establish a zoological park in the District of Co- 
lumbia, for the advancement of science and the instruction and recrea- 
tion of the people, a commission shall be constituted, composed of three 
persons, namely: The Secretary of the Interior, the president of the 
board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and the Secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution, which shall be known and designated as 
the commission for the establishment of a zoological park. 

‘¢That the said commission is hereby authorized and directed to make 
an inspection of the country along Rock Creek, between Massachusetts 
avenue extended and where said creek is crossed by the road leading 
west from Brightwood crosses said creek, and to select from that dis- 
trict of country such a tract of land, of not less than one hundred acres, 
which shall include a section of the creek, as said commission shall 
deem to be suitable and appropriate for a zoological park. 

‘*That the said commission shall cause to be made a careful map of 
said zoological park, showing the location, quantity, and character of 
each parcel of private property to be taken for such purpose, with the 
names of the respective owners inscribed thereon, and the said map 
shall be filed and recorded in the public records of the District of Co- 
lumbia; and from and after that date the several tracts and parcels of 
land embraced in such zoological park shall be held as condemned for 
public uses, subject to the payment of just compensation, to be deter- 
mined by the said commission and approved by the President of the 
United States, provided that such compensation be accepted by the 
owner or owners of the several parcels of land. 

‘That if the said commission shall be unable to purchase any portion 
of the land so selected and condemned within thirty days after such 
condemnation, by agreement with the respective owners, at the price 
approved by the President of the United States, it sball, at the expira- 
tion of such period of thirty days, make application to the supreme 
court of the District of Columbia, by petition, at a general or special 
term, for an assessment of the value of such land, and said petition 
shall contain a particular description of the proper ty selected and con- 
demned, with the name of the owner or owners thereof, and his, her, or 
their residences, as far as the same can be ascertained, together with a 
copy of the recorded map of the park; and the said’ court is hereby 
authorized and required, upon such application, without delay, to notify 
the owners and occupants of the land and to ascertain and assess the 

value of the land so selected and condemned by appointing three com- 
missioners to appraise the value or values thereof, and to return the 
appraisement to the court; and when the values of such land are thus 
ascertained, and the President shall deem the same reasonable, said 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 31 


values shall be paid to the owner or owners, and the United States 
shall be deemed to have a valid title to said lands. 

“That the said commission is hereby authorized to call upon the 
Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey or the Director of the 
Geological Survey to make such surveys as may be necessary to carry 
into effect the provisions of this section; and the said officers are 
hereby authorized and required to make such surveys under the direc- 
tion of said commission.” 

The amendment of Senator Edmunds was understood to be offered 
in a spirit entirely f riendly to the interests of this Institution, but it 
differs from that reported from the Committee on Public Buildings and 
Grounds, in omitting the name of the Regents, in placing the appro- 
priation under those for the District, in removing from the Commis- 
sion the power to lay out the land, aud in extending the limits within 
which they had choice, to the military road, in this, as in other respects, 
resembling the limits of the larger scheme of the national park, as 
generally proposed. Onthe 28th of February the Edmunds amendment 
passed substantially as above given, and by the President’s approval 
of the District bill, became a law on Mareh 2.* 

In view of the fact that the zoological park will probably in any case 
be the ultimate place of deposit for the living collections now under 
the charge of the Regents, and that their secretary is named as one of 
the commissioners for effecting the purchase, it seems proper to add a 
brief statement of the work done by the commission, which, after per- 
sonally and carefully inspecting the whole course of the stream from 
Massachusetts avenue to Military road, about 4 miles above the city, 
found no district so desirable for the single purpose of a zoological 
park as that lying between Woodley Lane and Klingle Bridge, and des- 
ignated in the original bill of Senator Morrill; and the commissioners 
have proceeded to condemn a tract of 166 acres of the remarkably varied 
and picturesque country whose character is described in the secretary’s 
letter to the chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and 
Grounds already cited. 

The condemnation is not complete without the President’s approval, 
which had not been given at the date of the completion of the fiseal 


“Extracts from the Congressional Record. Mr. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, states, 
““T append the report of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds that the 
record may show the exact object in view. There is absolute protection from job- 
bery in the fact that this isto be under the supervision of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution.” Mr. Dibble says in the same debate, ‘‘We are proud of the Smithsonian, 
and the Smithsonian has already, by gift, not purchase, the nucleus of a collection, 
and Tam informed by the Secretary of the Smithsonian that this place furnishes the 
right kind of location for the propagation and perpetuation of these rapidly disap- 
pearing species of American animals, while at the same time it will serve the pur- 
poses of a public park.” Mr. Dibble continued, ‘I am informed that the inquiries, 
estimates, and offers indicate that the 120 acres which is included in the design now 
in front of the reporter’s desk [referring to a large map showing that part of the 
creek between Woodley Lane and Klingle road, which the Morrill bill placed under 
the caré of the Regents] can be purchased for something less than $200,000, etc.” 


oD REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


year, but I may be allowed to so far anticipate a statement properly 
belonging to a later report as to say that this approval has since been 
given, and that the land will almost undoubtedly become the property 
of the Government. The commission has no power to lay out the land, 
and has no instruction from Congress as to its ultimate destination, 
owing, it may well be supposed, to the general supposition in the House 
that the bill as voted contained a clause placing it under the care of the 
Smithsonian Institution. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


The Statue to Professor Baird.—In recognition of the distinguished 
services of the late Professor Baird, a bill was introduced in the Senate 
of the United States, and passed by that body February 10, 1888, 
making an appropriation for the erection of a bronze statue to com- 
memorate his merits. This bill was referred, in the House of Represen- 
tatives, to the Committee on the Library, but was not reported. It is 
hoped that this important subject will, during the coming session, re- 
ceive the attention which it merits. An appropriation of $25,000 was 
made by Congress for the benefit of the widow of the late Secretary, 
whose life had been so unselfishly devoted to the service of the nation. 


Art Collections.—I alluded in a previous report to the fact that a very 
valuable collection of art objects had been promised to the Smithsonian 
Institution. The intending donor is understood to contemplate the 
transfer of the collection at no very remote period, the principal condi- 
tion being that the Institution shall provide a suitable fire-proof build- 
ing for it. 

Upon the representations of the agent of the Institution in Europe, as 
to the value of the collection and as to the desire of its owner to see 
your Secretary in order to arrange for the formal transfer, the writer 
made a brief visit to France last July, for the purpose of such confer- 
ence and arrangement, but illness on the owner’s part has delayed ac- 
tion, so that the Secretary is not able, as he had hoped to be, to lay the 
matter more fully before the Regents at their present meeting. 


Assignmgnt of rooms for scientific work.—During the past year the 
use of rooms in the Smithsonian building has been continued to the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey for pendulum experiments, and a room has 
been assigned to the use of the Zoological Park Commission. 


Toner lecture fund.—The Secretary of the Institution is ex officio 
chairman of the board of trustees. The fund, consisting partly of 
Washington real estate and partly of Government bonds, has an esti- 
mated value of about $3,000. A lecture was delivered on May 29, in 
the hall of the Museum, by Dr. Harrison Allen, of Philadelphia, on “A 
Clinical Study of the Skull,” the first delivered under this fund for sey: 
eral years, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 


Grants and subscriptions.—In accordance with the precedents estab- 
lished by your first Secretary for encouraging meritorious scientific en- 
terprises, undertaken without view to pecuniary gain, a subscription of 
twenty copies of the Astronomical Journal, edited by Dr. B. A. Gould, 
has been continued. 


Privilege of the floor of the House of Representatives—Owing to the 
lamented death of the Hon. 8.8. Cox, no further action appears to have 
been taken by the House in reference to a bill introduced by him to con- 
fer the privilege of the floor on the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution. 


Smithsonian grounds.—At the request of the Director of the Geologi- 
cal Survey, permission was granted to place stones for a base line 300 
feet on B street, south, to be used as a standard of comparison for tape 
lines. 


American Historical Association. —Reference was made in the last re- 
port to a bill introduced in the Senate to incorporate the Historical As- 
sociation and to connect it with the Smithsonian [nstitution. Congress 
has since passed the act organizing the association. 


Stereotyping.—All the stereotype plates belonging to the Institution 
have been brought from Philadelphia to Washington and stored in the 
basement of the building. 

I have elsewhere alluded to the fact that the practice of stereotyping 
the bulletins and proceedings of the Washington scientific societies Las 
been discontinued. 


Temporary shed.—I have also elsewhere alluded to the purpose of 
putting up in the Smithsonian grounds a temporary shelter for instru- 
ments and apparatus, which may at the same time permit of some astro- 
physical observations being made. This, however, is only a temporary 
expedient, and if the Regents ever sanction the erection of an observa- 
tory for this purpose it will be necessary to place it in some very quiet 
locality far removed from all tremor. Such a locality exists in the new 
zoological park, but while *he action of Congress in regard to the pur- 
chase of the latter was still uncertain I addressed a letter to the honor- 
able the Secretary of War, asking permission in case it were found de- 
sirable to occupy a vacant tract of land in the southern portion of the 
cemetery at Arlington for this purpose. His assent was given in the 
following letter: 

WAR DEPARTMENT, 
Washington City, January 9, 1889. 

Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 
the 18th ultimo, requesting that the Smithsonian Institution be author- 
ized to occupy a site in the Arlington national cemetery, as indicated 
in a memorandum and plat inclosed by you, for the purposes of an 
astro-physical laboratory. pa 

, Mis. 224——3 





34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 


In reply I beg to advise you that there is no objection to the occupa- 
tion, in the manner stated, of a piece of ground not exceeding 2 acres, 
indicated on a plat which may be examined in the office of the Quarter- 
master-General, provided that the ground in question be vacated 
whenever it is required by this Department. 

Very respectfully, 
Wm. C. ENDICOTY?, 
Secretary of War. 
Prof. S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 


The plat in question shows the location of the lot near the center and 
highest part of the unoccupied wooded ridge, near the colored soldiers’ 
portion of the cemetery. The site, however, is so distant that I should 
not propose to occupy it while any better could be procured. 


Reception.—I have alluded in my previous report to the habit of the 
first Secretary of giving receptions from time to time in the rooms of 
the Institution and to the fact that though these rooms are now de- 
voted to official purposes, the writer, desiring to maintain the tradi- 
tions of this hospitality, had used them once for a similar purpose. He 
has again employed them in this year on the 18th of April fora recep- 
tion where it was sought to unite the old and new friends of the Insti- 
tution. 


Correspondence.—The Institution receives annually inquiries from all 
parts of the country for information on topics often most incongruous, 
but usually connected with science, which are submitted to the Secre- 
tary. None of these inquiries is left unanswered, and the burden of 
this correspondence is very considerable. It has always been regarded, 
however, as incumbent on the Institution to reply to them as a part of 
its function in the distribution of knowledge, and a good deal of labor 
which does not appear, continues to be devoted to this end. 


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


The main features of the work of the National Museum are briefly 
referred to in this place. They are fully described elsewhere, in the 
separate volume forming the report of Dr. Goode, Assistant Secretary 
in charge of the Museum, and the Curators of its several departments. 


Classified service of the Museum.—In response to a resolution of the 
Senate asking for a“ schedule of the classified service of the officers and 
employés of the National Museum,” a letter was addressed by me on 
March 2 to Hon. John J. Ingalls, President pro tempore of the Senate, 
transmitting a schedule which upon very careful deliberation repre- 
sents the actual necessities of the service. 

This schedule and the letter of transmittal were printed as miscel- 
laneous document No, 92, Fiftieth Congress, second session, and are 
here re-printed: . 


: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 


LETTER of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in reference to Senate reso- 
lution of October 8, 1888, asking for ‘fa schedule of the classified service of the 
officers and employés of the National Museum.” 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
March 2, 1889. 

Sir: In response to the Senate resolution asking for ‘a belrodhate of 
the classified service of the officers and employés of the National Mu- 
seum,” I have the honor to transmit the accompanying schedule, which 
represents the present actual necessities of the service. 

The service for the fiscal year of 1887~88 was reported upon in a let- 
ter to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, dated December 
1, 1888 (H. R. Mis. Doc. No. 55, Fiftieth Congress, second session). 

In this the aggregate expenditures for service were shown to have 
been $122,750.47, of which sum $97,493.32 was paid from the appro- 
priation for preservation of collections, $19.203.79 from that for fur- 
niture and fixtures, and $6,053.36 from that for heacing, lighting, and 
electrical and telephonic service. 

A schedule of the number of persons employed in the various depart- 
ments of the Museum was also given in this letter (pages 4, 9, 11). 
This schedule should, however, be regarded only as an approximate 
one, since many of the employés were actually engaged only a part of 
the year, and others were temporarily transferred to the pay-rolls of 
the Cineinnati Exhibition and were engaged in special work in connece- 
tion with that exhibition. 

It is estimated that the aggregate expenditures for services for the 
present fiscal year (188889) will be $129,710, of which amount $103,000 
will be paid from the appropriation for preservation of collections, 
$20, 000 from that for furniture and fixtures, and $5,710 from that for 
heating , lighting, and electrical and telephone service. 

In the schedule herewith transmitted it is shown that for the proper 
working of the Museum the amount required for services would be as 
follows: 


For salaries of scientific assistants. .-.. 6-222. 12 eee. eee eee eee ee eee $56, 300. 00 
HOmCleri Cal tOrcesi sss stees cere ays cs anatase 2 cin Sete mma bee a aeeed se feelnemacee 36, 920. 00 
For services in preparing, mounting, and installing the collections. ...... 22, 060. 00 
For services in policing, caring for, and cleaning the buildings .......... 36,740. 00 
For services in repairing buildings, cases, and objects i in the collections. . 14, 163. 50 


For salaries and wages in designing, making, and inspecting cases and 
other appliances for the exhibition and safe-keeping of the collections. 18,337.50 
For services in connection with the heating, lighting, and electrical and 





bel6phonie Service... -.- ~~ 452 ec ose on coon ns cee we: o5cs ceca ns bomen cane 6, 620. 00 

For services of miscellaneous employés, including draughtsmen, messen- 
BESTS gee Uc eee met yostiee care tay alate attra tata tej tae ie ietate Senet eieie, creo: Saree GIS els, ee 7, 980. 00 
TG lili eae eer aneee eiate rial = ete te erica) sendin aSead eNee eee e ese 199, 121. 00 


The increase in the total expenditure, as indicated, is due partly to 
the addition of a number of officers to the scientific staff, and also to 
the necessity for a few additional clerks, and a considerable number of 
watchmen, laborers, cleaners, and messengers, whose services are essen- 
tial to the safety of the collections, as well as to provide for the clean- 
liness and proper care of the buildings and for the comfort of visitors. 

The rates of pay indicated are in most cases considerably lower than 
are customarily allowed for a similar service in the Executive Depart- 
ments. 

In the schedule now presented, expenditure for services only is taken 
into consideration, 


36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


No attempt has been made to present the needs of the Museum in 
regard to the purchase or collecting of specimens, the purchase of gen- 
eral supplies, preservatives, materials for mounting and installing col- 
lections, books, exhibition cases, furniture, fuel, and gas, the mainte- 
nance of the heating and lighting appliances, freight and cartage, trav- 
elling expenses of collectors and agents, ete. 

For these various purposes the expenditure in the last fiscal year 
amounted to $45,249.53, and that for the present fiscal year will, it is 
estimated, amount to about $48,000, asum very inadequate to the needs 
of the service. 

It does not include the expenditures for printing the labels and blanks 
and proceedings and bulletins of the Museum, for which the appropri- 
ation for many years past has been $10,000, and for which I have asked 
$15,000 for the coming fiscal year. 

I must not omit to call your attention to the fact that, owing to the 
peculiar constitution of the Museum as a scientific establishment, it has 
hitherto been possible to secure a special economy, owing to the fact 
that its officers and employés are not scheduled as in the Executive De- 
partments. 

In thus presenting, in obedience to the request of the Senate, a sched- 
ule of a durable organization of the service, | wish to remark, emphati- 
cally, that there are pressing needs in other directions—needs that merit 
the serious consideration of Congress, in order that the National Mu- 
seum may be enabled to maintain a satisfactory position in comparison 
with those of European nations. 

I have the honor to be, your most obedient servant, 
S. P. LANGLEY, 

Hon. JOHN J. INGALLS, Secretary. 

President, pro tempore, of the Senate. 


Schedule of the classified service of the officers and employés of the United 
States National Museum, arranged according to duty and salary, as re- 
quired for the proper working of the Museum. 


























: nae | Compensa- 
Designation. | aoe 
Scientific staff. | 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, director ex officio -.........----.--.-|.----- see2-s 
Assistant secretary Smithsonian Institution, in charge of National Mu- | 
BOUIN Cee vse ae eiatale ee cato lore tea e ae eee a aay ede eee Ra eet ire aes | $4, 000. 00 
CuratorandiexecubivielomiCeneees cee eee eee ce ee oar eel 3, 000. 00 
Rive curators:-ati$2*400\ Joa mec seen eee rtecie sonics sen oe stan eee | 12, 000. 00 
Bive'curators, at: $2,100: 02527 soe 2. aso iieo ce waco mn gece Cece oe eee ee | ee Ee 
Hourmassistanticurators) at plo00esac es eee eee ote oe ene nee ee ieee 6, 400. 00 
Houxassistanticurators; ati $l, 4002 S22. ssea- eles ces coast seaet | 5, 600, 00 
Pouraids, at pl; 2005. 226 o 3.< sce SO eee ce ee eee 4, 800. 00 
Sieiaids-2at ol OO) ec n5-4 os a5 see cts eee Se ee ee ee Cee ace 6, 000. 00 
Special service by contract..........-.-.--..-- Soa ceen dite ee Memceee 4, 000. 00 
56, 300. 00 
Clerical staff. 
Chief clerk 3 ses. cs esh eS ee oe De ee ee eee erator merece sere | 2, 200. 00 
Four chiefs of divisions: Correspondence; transportation, storage, and | 
record; publications and labels; installation, at $2,000. ........-.-.-- 8, 000. 00 
Qneidishursing:clerk*\cc.-2fec Se. fees ee eee eee | 1, 200. 00 


* This officer receiyes pay also from the Smithsonian Institution for similar services, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Schedule of the classified service of the officers and employés of 
States National Museum, etc. —Continued. 


Designation. 


3d 


the United 


| Compensa- 





























tion. 
Clerical staf/—Continued. 

One clerk of class 4....... 22.22... cece cee eee ne sre: dateratesisarne’o crc sc $1, 890. 00 
STOR LETICSRO te aS Speen or tne ee eee eet ararnr el evens eat Noe epi ee ene are ere 3, 200. 00 
Three clerks of class 2 .... ss or =. 4, 200. 00 
Hommclerksroiclassplse .eece hye cee cms sess se. cee) sec ese maccee nese en |. 4,800. 00 
MOUMICOMVISUS MAb UO UUme ees. cose wose cle ok ce ctl kectdio et yec ee sBadiee ee oe 3, 600. 00 
Four copyists, at $720. .....-...- é Sale aaqee Nee ew ereier ere 2, 880. 00 
Six copyists, at $600............. Se ee ; 3, 600. 00 
Three copyists, at $480..... A z seine ccatle cose esten ces 1, 440. 00 

36, 920. 00 

Preparators 

novo onAp Oleeremet ees sees Ses eee tee aie cic sein ceaisleleial cieletariel serene 2, 000. 00 
ASSISGANG PHOLOCTAPNGL <Q 62 2 cata.so6 oo ape orais 2 o'tis: ele oo se nieleciesine s oeisonas 1, 000. 00 
SUING S Uae state a alae os ately mini eee palais a ain sini al Sine oie eee 1, 320, 00 
Res THe RG AEST] © LIMITS tipster ee Be eee ten ec ota, ee aoe se Sleyegc 2, 000. 00 
Mmiertaxidermist cose anc otesace gs cecctee oe Poe ess eee 1, 500. 00 
MinyOmiaxd GC CLIMSLS ab) dls OU Ole 5-teretwie tate aio a ars =! <inyais eieteey= =m efter creiele ain'lo)a aie 2, 000, 00 
wove xiGermistsnat pic) =42- tetace ane -totas nate Ss se ccciei- 26 econ 1, 446. 00 
ONE NOG ClO Tee eet ees Seale one cee a tees a see ese ee sewtensesents)| 2, 000. 00 
WOTesmModoltemereeree etree cee sacces oni cece sswies eee enesea. ee ceeinec| 1, 200, 00 
One general preparator ....... age ay Sears aoe eats peter st atone 1, 200. 00 
OnewWeneral preparator > sacjoos 02 oc. foe ot ncne enn aecteiee- 4 os <0 asl 900, 00 
Special service by contract............-- een anee seen coe eee 5, 500. 00 

22, 060. 00 

Buildings and labor. 

One superintendent of buildings... .. seaisie ene Scie = Brees 1, 620. 00 
Two assistant superintendents, at $1, 000. - Sao R ie Se wie eeiea eee 2, 000, OU 


Four watchmen, at $780. .....-.-- 
Twenty-four watchmen and door- keepers, at “$600..-- batede a,c Sta seteeae S 
Twelve laborers, at $480 
Three attendants, at $480 - . 
Ten attendants and cleaners, at ¥ Speke sae eee 
Special service of laborers and cleaners, to be paid by the hour 


Mechanics (repairing buildings, cases, and objects in the collections). 


Cabinet-maker, at $3.50 per day 
Two painters, at $2. 50 per day 
One tinner, at $2 per day 
One stone-cutter and mason, at $2 per day 
Six skilled laborers, at $2. 50 per day 
Six skilled laborers, at $2 per day 
Special service by contract 


eee ee ee twee eee Ce ee ee ee ee we ewes ce ee coon eee oo 
ee ee 


Furniture and fixtures. 


BAgIIGOr OF PTOPOLty . «.=)220%-<2 «%es-ceomcccax cee ito. wieea S aioe Se cies 
One copyist 
BALLORE SPS VAN Gach vie Soe wag AS eine wis! sok Ra wdinicigisiev aes eiv'es Seiciere Sse ecscre sie 


ee ed 


3, 120. 00 


“2-14, 400, 00 


| 5, 760. 00 
1, 440. 00 
3, 600, 00 
4, 800. 00 


36, 740, 00 

















1, 095. 50 
| 1, 565. 00 

626. 00 

626, 00 
4, 695. 00 
3, 756. 00 
1, 800. 00 








14, 163. 50 














2, 000, 00 
900. 00 
720, 00 


a8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Schedule of the classified service of the officers and employés of the United 
States National Museum, etc.—Continued. 


| 


























id ais Coinpensa- 
Designation. | oe 
Furniture and jixtures—Continued. 
ONneicCOpyist! eee eos ke eee ewe ce Se See aie eae eee Coe ees eee ee | $600. 00 
Onexcopyist.-.2..<=ssessesee scare seen eee ee eee ee eee | 480. 00 
Six carpenters and cabinet-makers, at $3 per day .....--...---.---.---- 5, 634, 00 
sRhree painters, at $2 perdaye cles acs secs sacene OSes ears aoe e eeeenes 1, 978. 00 
‘wouwkilled Jaborers, at ¢2.50 per day. ...2- 22... 2-osee edocs. Seee sees 1. 565. 00 
wotslcilled daborers,atip2 per Gay... <---<..02scon- a7 os- ses se pee eee 1, 252. 00 
Three laborers, at $1. 50 perday. too sceteeecces seco case cence senses 1, 408. 50 
Special service by contracto222 cases i Casco cs ect ce eee eee eee 1, 800. 00 
| 98) 337050 
Heating, lighting, and electrical service. 
WM OUNCE RS er arse eases esis ee iste siete Since Sie eae ac omens ceetemetencee 1, 400. 00 
One assistant engineer Fre. a\aeiite te wich MSs sn ee eee eo elenis eee oe ee etme 900. 00 
Six firemen, ati SE Oe cece te a Poe Star ae Ae at gene 3, 600. 00 
Telephone Glories soc tee sie noe Senet eRe? Ok net ume cee rane eee 720. 00 
6, 620. 00 
Miscellaneous. 

Ween) 225 seis Sclee e Somers ete eee sae . Sa macisieciots sietick peeeee ee anaes 1, 200. 00 
One dranuebtishan ss vcoscosececs Sciee eace co oee matte nicwis maten cee seaeeee | 1, 200. 00 
iwomdranghtsmen,-at $600: hos 255-02 sot Sent oe ee eee se canoe eee 1, 200. 00 
diwoimessen vers; at O00 25 oe hows eae cee cele sense ceni cee eee eter ace 1, 200. 00 
OMEINERSENOEDY so eeio cide selec. octane en eae ee ee eee ee eee | 540. 00 
iwOrmessen cers: alias tee aes Ree ane aes re ee ee aan ae eee 960. 00 
Two messengers, Bb SSGO: es. S2ck cea cents eee ee ne Oe ate ee a ee eee 720. 00 
Howurumessengers, ab, F240. 22: < shes de cae mee Senos esa erin: pee ee een anes 960. 00 
7,980. 00 


In presenting these schedules to Congress I have shown what would 
be the cost of the administration of the Museum, in respect to salaries 
alone, if it were organized after the manner of the Executive Depart- 
ments of the Government. 

The salary list alone amounts to $199,121, and the amount expended 
in the previous fiscal year for other purposes was $45,000, a sum which 
might most advantageously be doubled. 

Iam not prepared at present to recommend the adoption of such a 
schedule of classified service, since I am of the opinion that the Museum 
at the present time has greater need of money to be used in the acqui- 
sition of new material by purchase and exploration. The opportunities 
for making collections are yearly growing less, and many things which 
ean now be done at trifling expense will in a few years be imprac- 
ticable. 


ee ee 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo 


The system of appropriation for specific objects, without designating 
the number of employés or the amounts of their salaries, has in the 
past been found to be economical and efficient, and although the neces- 
sity of the change to a classified service may arise at some later time, 
I trust that it may be deferred for the present. 

The amount asked for in the estimates for the fiscal year of 1891-92, 
for the “ preservation of collections,” is intended to provide for a certain 
amount of increase of the collections, and also to provide for the pay- 
ment of certain salaries. 


Increase of the collections.—At the close of the fiscal year (June 30, 
1889) a very careful estimate showed that the collections were sixteen 
times as great in number of specimens as in the year 1882. I desire to 
call your attention especially to the statements bearing upon this point. 

The Museum, as I have already said, is growing as it is fitting that 
the National Museum of a great country should grow, and it is not only 
necessary to care for what is already here, but to provide for the recep- 
tion and display of the great collections which will unquestionably be 
received in the immediate future. 

The extent and character of the accessions during the year.is shown 
in the appended table, from which it appears that the total number of 
specimens in the Museum is now not far from 3,000,000 : 


40 REPORT OF 


THE SECRETARY. 


Statistics of accessions to National Museum Collections, 1882 to 1885. 


| 








Name of department. 1882. 1885. 1884, 11885. 
Arts and industries: 
Materiaxmedicaysiere see t eee eee) | eee eee 4, 000 A AAO ees aes 
TRO OCIS ree ee eee ee ee ae ee oe | ae ere ee 21,244 OS On pee eee. 
SLO Nabil OR eer eee sce ies ee re Sree ee ee | eae ee | ee 2 SO00n Renee 
MIsheries Soyo seed ee Ce ee | eee ere |e ee 5; 0003 Sarasa 
Amma WTO MUCLS oes ee eo ee aera ae | Pree er 1 0003 |e 
Naval architectures see se acme os | meee te ree eee ees GOOR Raeee ss 
ELIstonicaliereliCa ssc tee eee | eiera ee |e ere ees af Sis, pene 
Coins, medals, paper money, etc.......).--..----- |[Steietensi=iase eel jar= wis sin =intastin See 
Musical instruments... .. eeislSesie ioe lore see \feyayepereten etl ere iai= clers areal eee 
Modern pottery, porcelain, and bronzes .</ 2552) 0h eects the ee Or va eee 
Paintsjandidyes ee eee ect ners ee [pleat alates 2783. | eel atere/ SES cilia 2 See creel | eee 
“The Catlin DGallete a eee ea eee encpeteiel | eeterete Sect | erase ey sreieite Seleer 
Physical. apparatus’. 2. 5.-ooeee ae asc eee eee lesa ose Bolekerstreeel Rae 
Oilsiand’ Ooms vs eee see ys ee ele oe le ee tee eee ll sn sre Ce er en | 
Chemicaliproductsis soe seen eee eee leceece ces et (bin sat ciao iexetetere teas erase | Meee 
HUNNOLO RY © sz aie rein ai aie Sele Soe one ee oe Sel See eS ee eee 200; 000R eee ae ta 
American aboriginal pottery ..............|. BUSS PA eee L000 | beeeemee 
Onientalvantiqnitiesi cs eens ee 0 9 sone ce eee nee en eee | eemiee eee lGartociselesetel eereeee 
Prehistoric anthropology -...-.......-.... 35, 512 40, 491 45) 2525 | eaeecee= 
Mammals (skins and alcoholics). ........-. Zz 660 | 4, 920 Bye eoonccad 
ESIC Sees ester eo tele Sates tr ew ee ge 4,354 47, 246 SOF 350s | Reenenes 
BING SOMOS mec ces < cneyacians aoe eal eae eee a Sec eeee AD OF22 | saa sewa 
Reptiles and batrachians..................|-. Gcent eel sere ae 235 4904 ceeossiee 
LITT STYEES a ed Se on 50,000 65, 000 68,000, |S sores 
MGW skei. sc to Ae TORY PS te at gag o75 Ws saeaes 400,000 |........ 
NMTTSE CTS Ae A ete oe eee ae ees ae P0008 |S seeeseen 2151; O00N asec eee 
Marineinvertebrates) .c.cce-semcee selene 311, 781 314, 825 S200 000n Sasccene 
Comparative anatomy: | 
Osteoloay aoteer tacos reas ea 305) 3, 640 | A OAs | Saeeeeee 
Anatomy He Ct Saag te IG et aA UN 70 103 3000) | eaee eee 
PaleOZOLetOSSIIS ace ako eke eee re cee 20, 000 VOAWU) Neco case 
IMGSOZ OIG TOSSIIS she ice teefs ce ee eee ee | ee eee aller eee 11005000) | eee are 
CenozoI1ChtOgsil Sat ses reese cece eee (inelnaed we mollusks: aiscee sees 
Rossileplamtsya-c-ces ce oes ene ree See alleeeoiee eae 624 OF CON | seme cee 
Recentuplanits 2 ess ses wala er eel eee eee ee Pee eee Seeieet= ees | eee eeee 
IMM CT al Bisel oon renee e Se eee ieee ees |g en 14, 550 1G /G1O 5 eae 
Lithology and physical geology........... = 79075 |. 12)500 18 OU0R\Saeecees 
Metallurgy and economic geology... ...-.. eseares ae | 30, 000 40;000%| 2 oaame 
Living animals. . Be Fa oi al eye a ereeh ete) Rey | ore et aes | See pa Fe Ee ee ey ries 
Ota ere sto sere re ae ee ae 193, 362 | 263.943 | 1 A72 e600" eee 


! No census of collection taken. 

2 Including paints, pigments, and oils. 

3 Catalogue entries. 

4 Professor Riley's collection numbers 15,000 spe- 
cimens. 








° Estimated. 
© Fossil and recent. 
7 In reserve series. 








REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Al 


Statistics of accessions to National Museum coilections, 1886 to 1889. 





‘Duplicates not included. 
2 Foods only. 


have been made on the catalogue. 





| 
| 449, 000 


503, 764 
426, 022 
101, 659 
7,811 
54, 987 
648, 173 
97, 542 
100, 000 
425, 000 
4585, 000 





| 84,491 
| 70,775 


Name of department. | 1885-’86. 
Arts and industries: 
IMATEnIa MOC1GE fe ae rete = cheat = 4, 850 
MOOd Se cecn eGo conc aies ois 5 cists Be 1822 
MOESUNES eee ems cre, dys ciel ea aoe 3, 063 
INiSheLIGS =e ccs oeosa ee saceo sce 19, 870 
AMIN tOLOMUCES) acme ono = ene 2, 792 
Nava larchitechure e226... 20- = 4-02 2 sae 
IMistorical TelCSA..-- a= o-%e aces 1, 002 
Coins, medals, paper money, ete. 1, 005 
Musical instruments. ..-2-. 52... 400 
Modern pottery, porcelain, and 
LON ZOSi Somes. = eae Sas eeeteie= 2,278 
PR aINTS ANG (yess. ses. oman os 177 
che Catiin.Gallery” 222. .-i-12-- 500 
Physical apparatus. ---s.,.--2-.-- 250 
Oils andyeumss-sescsos<s sos ses =| Oa 
Chemical products ....-...---.-- 1659 
PUM OLO Dy ten retepe ose. ae oy eienicisis oie, laisse 4500, 000 
American aboriginal pottery. ....---- 25, 000 | 
Oren vale AMUIQULGIES 2c ese- ces asi cepie|n- = oe = ee | 
Prehistoric anthropology..---..----. 65, 314 | 
Mammals (skins and alcoholics) ...-.) 7,451 
IBINGS | seis e ectersinis oiejc icici’ sero ae oes cise. 55, 945 
ING Sue SOS re ae ata lett aati eee o sicteia ale 44,163 
Reptiles and batrachians ...-....---. 25, 344 
WIiSHOS Per enacee cae coterie eescanse.s 75, 000 
VO MIIS KS eee te ote oe eee cl) icraicios 6460, 000 
WNISCCUS Nese eee eee ae ee oes eee) 2000, 000" 
Marine invertebrates .........-...... 4350. 000 
Comparative anatomy : | 
Osteologyran.seea reas oe ess Oni! 
PR ALOMY coo or eS oe ecole access | igre) 
Palsozoic: fossils':...--...--.-s--0. -- | 80, 482 | 
MESOZOIC LOSSIIS) ..<- =... .-s2.000ce0-2se | 69, 742 
WENOZOICAGKGUS,. 4. see ue wienac,snens|saceennases 
MOSSE plants = --e2 <Secnrsces sfoce acicans | 7, 429 
Recent Plants. -222-- 2.26 -c- 20 cian 30, 000 
MINOT eee ce iermciac untae rine cs tece 18, 401 
Lithology and physical geology ..... 20, 647 
Metallurgy and economic geology... -- 48, 000 
MIVING AMIMALS 5 252.cesccieecccc s+ sss Sis 
POT alee eae ecciercis ie ote.s oe citelero ys 2, 420, 944 


2, 666, 335 





| 


4 Estimated. 


. ; 5 2,235 are nests. 
3Noentnes of material received during the year ® Including Cenozoic fossils. 
7 Exclusive of Professor Ward’s collection. 


661 | 





4450, 000 


‘11, 022 


2, 803, 459 





1887-88. 


5, 762 

3877 
93, 144 
310, 078 
32, 822 


see see - 


14, 640 
427 


oy OLE 


3100 | 


8500 
3251 
3198 
3061 


505, 464 | 


427, 122 
108, 631 
8, 058 
56, 484 
50, 055 
27, 664 
101, 350 
455, 000 
595, 000 
515, 000 


11, 558 


&4, 649 
70, 925 

10, 000 
438, 000 
21, 896 
22, 500 
51, 412 
220 





1888-89. 





5, 942 
911 

3, 222 
310, 078 
2, 948 
%600) 

. 314,990: 


3427 


$3, O11 
109 
3500 
3251 
Oe 

688 
506, 324 
28, 222 
850 
116, 472 
8 275 
57, 974 
50, 173 
28, 405 
107, 350 
468, 000 
603, 000 
515, 300 


11, 753 


91, 126 
71, 236 


2, 864, 244 


4? REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Catalogue entries.—The number of entries made in the catalogues of 
the various departments in the Museum during the year has been 
23,171. 

The registrar states that 16,625 boxes and packages* have been re. 
ceived during the year and entered upon the transportation records 
of the Smithsonian Institution. Of this number 2,182 contained speci- 
mens for the Museum. 


PRINCIPAL ACCESSIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 


Among the collections received during the year, those from the U.S. 
Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology are especially note- 
worthy. The material transferred by the U.S. Fish Commission to the 
National Museum included two very valuable collections made by the 
steamer Albatross during the voyage from Washington to San Fran- 
cisco and while cruising off the coast of Alaska. 

The accessions received during the year from general sources are 
fully up to the standard of previous years. Among the most important 
are the following : 


Ethnological.—Collections from Dr. James Grant Bey, of Cairo, Egypt, 
and from Mr. W. W. Rockhill, formerly connected with the German 
legation in Pekin, the former collection from Egypt, the latter illus- 
trative of the religious practices, occupations, and amusements of vari- 
ous peoples in different parts of China, Thibet, and Turkestan; a col- 
lection of oriental seals from Mrs. Anna Randall Diehl, of New York 
City; casts of Assyrian and Egyptian objects obtained by Prof. Paul 
Haupt, of Johns Hopkins University. 

The valuable co-operation of the Bureau of Ethnology is evidenced 
in the transmission of a large and interesting collection of pottery, 
stone implements, woven fabrics, shells, beans, etc., collected by Major 
J. W. Powell, Arthur P. Davis, Gerard Fowke, Dr. E. Boban, Dr. H. C. 
Yarrow, James Stevenson, Dr. J. 8. Taylor, C. C. Jones, James D. Mid- 
dleton, General G. P. Thruston, James P. Tilton, H. P. Hamilton, Victor 
Mindeleft, H.W. Henshaw, G. H. Hurlbut, W. W. Adams, De L. W. Gill, 
William A. Hakes, W. H. Holmes, and Charles L. R. Wheeler. This col- 
lection was the result of personal research in the following localities: 
Mexico, Peru, New Mexico, Wisconsin, California, Arizona, Alabama, 
Georgia, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Massachusetts, New York, and Vir- 
ginia. 


Archeological.—Collection of aboriginal pottery from Lake Apopka, 
Florida, contributed by Dr. Featherstonehaugh, and a collection of simi- 
lar material from Perdido Bay, Alabama, presented by Mr. F. H. Par- 
sons, of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ; a large collection of pre- 
historic we jeapens sand ornaments from graves in Corea, presented by Mr. 








*An increase ane 4,295 over the Aunben received last year, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 


P.L. Jouy; a valuable collection of prehistoric antiquities, for the most 
part from the Ohio River Valley, deposited by Mr. Warren K. Moore- 
head, of Xenia, Ohio. 


Mammals.—A full-grown moose collected and presented by Col. Cecil 
Clay, of the Department of Justice; a fresh specimen of Sowerby’s 
whale, contributed by Capt. J. L. Gaskell, keeper of the United States 
Life-Saving Station at Atlantic City; a skin of Ovis musimon, a skele- 
ton of Monachus albiventer, and several European bats, received from 
the Royal Zoological Museum at Florence, Italy; three specimeus of 
American elk presented by Hon. W. F. Cody; a Rocky Mountain 
sheep, contributed by Mr. George Bird Grinnell, of New York. 


Birds and Birds’ Eggs.—A rare collection of birds from the Na- 
tional Museum at Costa Rica; a valuable collection of skins from the 
Old World, presented by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, of the Department of 
Agriculture; a collection of Japanese birds, purchased from Mr, P. L. 
Jouy, of the National Museum; bones of Pallas cormorant, collected 
at the Commander Islands, Kamtchatka, by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, 
of the National Museum, the only bones of this bird extant; a collee- 
tion of typical Australian birds in alchohol, from the Australian Mu- 
seum, Sydney, New South Wales; an interesting collection of birds’ 
eggs and nests, presented by Mr. Dennis Gale, of Gold Hill, Colo.; 
eges of Cardellina rubrifrons, new to the collection and to science, con- 
tributed by Mr. William W. Price, of Tombstone, Ariz. 


Fishes.—Collections of fishes from the Gulf of California, transmitted 
by Messrs. O. P. Jenkins, of De Pauw University, and B. W. Evermann, 
of the State Normal School at Terre Haute, Ind.; a collection of fishes 
from New Zealand, sent in exchange from the Otago University Museum, 
at Dunedin, New Zealand. 


Mollusks.—A valuable collection of marine and terrestrial shells pre- 
sented by Messrs. I. B. and J. D. MeGuire, of Washington. 


Insects.—A large series of insects purchased from Dr. Taylor Town- 
send by the Department of Agriculture and transferred to the museum ; 
an extensive series of dried Coleoptera presented by Mr. G. W. J. Angell, 
of New York. 


_ Marine Invertebrates.—A collection of crustaceans from Japan, ob- 
tained by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, of the National Museum; specimens 
of marine invertebrates colleetcd by Lieut. J. F. Moser, of the U.S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, at Cape Sable, Florida, 


44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Fossils —A collection of cretaceous fossils presented by President 
David 8S. Jordan, of Indiana State University ; a large series of Lower 
Cambrian fossils from Conception Bay, Newfoundland, including the 
types of thirteen species, collected and transferred to the Museum by 
Mr. C. D. Walcott, of the U. S. Geological Survey. 


Botany.—Herbarium specimens from Dr. Ferdinand von Miiller, of 
Melbourne, Australia; a series of specimens of alge from the New 
England coast, presented by Mr. F. 8. Collins, of Malden, Mass.; agat- 
ized wood from the Drake Manufacturing Company, Sioux Falls, Dak.; 
fossil leaves from Constantine von Kttingshausen, of the University of 
Gratz, Austria-Hungary. 


Geology.—Specimens of ancient and modern marbles from Europe 
and Africa received in exchange from the Museum of Natural History 
in Paris; a series of metamorphic and eruptive rocks, presented by 
Prof. O. A. Derby, of the National Museum of Brazil; a collection of 
minerals consisting of nearly 1,400 specimens, and obtained by Prof. 
S. L. Penfield, of the U. S. Geological Survey, in St. Lawrence County, 
N. Y.; a similar collection gathered by Mr. W. F. Hillebrand, of the 
U.S. Geological Survey, in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona; 
a series of petroleums and related material collected by Prof. 8S. F. 
Peckham, of Providence, R. I., in connection with his work for the 
Tenth Census. 


Miscellaneous.—The following specially important collections have 
also been added to the collections during the year: A collection of 
drugs, from Dr. J. W. Jewett, examiner of drugs, custom-house, New 
York City, and a collection of similar material transmitted by the royal 
gardens at Kew; a valuable collection of photo-mechanical process work 
presented by Prof. Charles F. Chandler, of Columbia College, New York; 
General Washington’s toilet-table deposited by Mrs. Thomas C. Cox, 
of Washington; account-book belonging to General Washington, to- 
gether with a number of engravings and other personal property of 
General Washington, deposited by Mr. Lawrence Washington, of 
Virginia; an interesting collection of coins, including specimens of the 
‘hook money” and other coins of the native princes of India, from 
Hon. W. T. Rice, United States consul at Horgen, Switzerland; a model 
of the locomotive ‘Old Ironsides,” built by Matthias Baldwin in 1832, 
and presented by the Baldwin Locomotive Works; a model of Trevi- 
thick’s locomotive, built in 1804 by Mr. D. Ballauf, from drawings 
lent to the Museum; a stereoscope with examples of the daguerreotype 
process, and the old albumen process on glass received from Mrs. E. J. 
Stone, of Washington; a valuable series of prints in carbon and other 
processes presented by Mr. J. W. Osborne, of Washington. Some of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 


the most valuable collections received during the year were obtained 
through the co-operation of Government officials, and are referred to at 
length in the report on the Museum for this year. 


Co-operation of Departments and Bureaus of the Government.—The Mu- 
seum has received, as in past years, many valuable contributions from 
United State consuls, officers of the Army and the Navy, and through 
the co-operation of the Departments and Bureaus of the Government. 

Through the courtesy of the Department of State the work of col- 
lectors in foreign countries has been greatly facilitated. The Secretary 
of the Treasury has issued several permits for the free entry of Museum 
material. 

The Secretary of Agriculture has expressed his willingness to co- 
operate with the National Museum in the matter of making a forestry 
exhibit, and Dr. B. E. Fernow has been appointed honorary curator of 
the collection. 

By direction of the Postmaster-Generai the Superintendent of the 
Dead Letter Office has been instructed to inform the Museum of the 
receipt in his office of specimens which might be of value for addition 
to the collections. 

The Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey has, as in pre- 
vious years, aided our work in many ways. 


Photographic exhibit—A_ collection intended to show the uses of 
photography was prepared by Mr. T. W. Smillie, of the National Mu- 
seum, for exhibition at the Cincinnati Exposition. This collection in- 
cluded valuable contributions of photographs from Prof. EB. C. Picker- 
ing, of Harvard University, Mr. J. W. Osborne, of Washington, and 
froin several officers connected with the Government service, notably 
the Light-House Board, the Army Medical Museum, and the proving 
ground at Annapolis. At the close of the Exposition this collection 
was returned to the Museum, and is now being prepared, in connection 
with additional material which has since been received, for permanent 
exhibition. It is intended that the scope of this exhibit shall be en- 
larged so as to take the form of a historical collection in which shal] 
be shown examples of every photographie process that has been in- 
vented, together with the appliances used, beginning with the photo- 
graph of the solar spectrum as made by Sheele in 1777. Considerable 
material has been already gathered which will be incorporated in this 
collection. ‘The first camera made in the United States has been ac- 
quired by purchase, <A stereoscope containing daguerreotypes and 
transparencies by the old albumen process on glass has been presented 
by Mrs. E. J. Stone. The Scoville Manufacturing Company of New 
York has presented a series of cameras showing the latest improve- 
ments, and from the Eastman Dry Plate Company, of Rochester, N. Y., 


A6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


has been received a Kodak camera, together with a’series of enlarged 
photographs illustrating its use. 


Distribution of duplicate specimens.—Duplicate specimens, to the num- 
ver of 11,382, were distributed during the year among museums, colleges, 
and individuals. The following table shows the character and extent of 
these distributions : 





= 
; = ° eee umber 
Naiure of specimens distributed. : oe 














specimens. 

Wtbhn ology eae ce eleae ce Shicise aie eer eit eee ae aS ole eee 268 
American, prehistoric: pobteryisssoasie-=2te os noises eae te ae ae eee 32 
Brehistoriesanthropolomy-s isso ner sess ice arose sceisielele eine sla) ine stone mreeg alot 833 
Mammals! 2 sssbi2eei noo Co cet Sta oe ctinncee eee eee te tector eae 42 
BB IDOS Ee Sah aiciscepstarcray telaisisi cecasiaieversis in ciel cl nielosie te.alare(eieleiejsine Mee tiem te sieves 636 
Bird SPCR ON A seeee see stint eo cine a te Sees ioe ok cae mae ieaa see eee treme ee 3 
GPUILES Sasa aes oe ae selene ee Gee ees et ee rere reer eee soccer eee 47 
MISH OS Mee) ete ester Seale etal cisicig erin fate.s, stoinfoinsiwleie aise ee ae Seleiciomioeteneee 39 
Mollusks oor scls osc. te ae hee fsreele a) neo asvee et ainte tse annie cletenls siatlole aeeser= 369 
MSE CHS earls Se See Re are Se ee ae ee Eee Ee Te eee 197 
Marine dnvertebrates)sss, come secrete sere ton Selene come oeee ee aoe 2, 072 
Invertebrate fossils <<... cc ccc ctecee cajecne selec ai oe cisere mm siete cee eer 598 
Rossilsand recent: plants. 2 hs. ss ss sniteee ~cee es, see oe eens see eeeeeee 2,945 
MMI Tal Sas eae iey ae oo wii aoe high coe eee Rae ee See Eee ete eee 2, 370 
ROCKS oie co eto ie caine cy sislaia nin sae ec eemeke meee ne ae aeleelaleeee eee eee 804 
Metallurgy 22 ssc oe sai lnane ais cise She eae Seite Mant Seatac ae eereaine 58 
Photographs and /drawin@ss- secs seis osc teeies eee nee er seesieeiceme ee 79 

Mota esses hawt ccee Pegs cee acies om Bok See eee Ene eee 11, 382 





The decrease in the number of specimens thus given away, as com- 
pared with last year, is accounted for by the fact that only 2,072 speci- 
meus of marine invertebrates have been distributed this year, while 
last year 24,750 specimens of this class were presented to applicants. 
Eliminating this class of specimens, the number distributed this year is 
double that oflast year. The number of requests for duplicate specimens 
increase yearly. It is hoped that in the future it may be possible for the 
Museum to extend its usefulness in this important part of the work. 
The material now available for distribution is quite Inadequate to supply 
thedemand. The curators of mineralogy and of geology obtained a large 
quantity of material during the past summer for this special purpose. 
As soon as it has been classified and arranged into sets, an endeavor 
will be made to fill the many applications for mineralogical and litho- 
logical material now awaiting action. The matter of making up sets of 
duplicate bird-skins is now receiving careful attention, there being 
much of such material available for distribution. 


Labels.—During the year, 3,991 labels were printed, chiefly for use in 
the departments of metallurgy, materia medica, and birds, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT 


Aceessions to the library.—The number of publications added to the 
library during the year is 6,052, of which 618 are volumes of more than 
100 pages, 903 are pamphlets, 4,345 are parts of regular serial:, and 158 
charts. The most important accession was the gift by the heirs of the 
late Dr. Isaac Lea, consisting of 137 volumes, 276 “ parts,” and 693 
pamphlets, and including a nearly complete series of the “ Proceedings 
of the Zoological Society of London.” There are now nineteen sectional 
libraries attached to the several curatorships in the Museum. 


Publications of the Museum.—The issue of Museum publications during 
the year has been unusually small, owing to the pressure of Congres- 
sional work at the Printing Office during the long Congressional session 
of 1888, which caused the Museum work to be set aside. A number of 
special publications are partially completed, and will be issued soon 
after the beginning of the next fiscal year. 

During the year volume 10 of Proceedings of the U. S. National 
Museum (1887) was issued. This contains villi + 771 pages and 39 
plates. It includes 78 papers by 26 authors, 10 of whom are officers of 
the Museum. Nearly three-fourths of the papers relate to birds and 
fishes. In the appendix is printed acatalogue of the exhibit prepared 
by Mr. 8. R. Koehler, in charge of the section of graphic arts, for the 
Ohio Valley Centenial Exposition. Special papers were prepared by 
the curators of several departments, in connection with the exhibits for 
‘this exposition, which will be reprinted in Section III of the Museum 
report for the present year. 

Bulletin 33 of the United States National Museum, “A catalogue of 
minerals and their synomyms alphabetically arranged for the use of 
museums” by Prof. T. Egleston, Ph. D., of Columbia College, was issued 
in May. This volume contains a complete catalogue of the names of 
minerals and their synonyms, and will be of much value to students 
of mineralogy and others interested in this science. 

The assistant secretary in charge of the Museum has submitted a 
statement reviewing the history of the publications of the Museum, and 
making certain suggestions with a view to increasing the extent of the 
editions and to the establishment of a systematic method of distribu- 
tion. From this statement I quote the following remarks and recom- 
mendations relating to the Proceedings and Bulletin: 

“The Proceedings was established for the purpose of securing prompt 
publication of the discoveries in the Museum. In order to secure this 
object the printing has been done, signature by signature, as fast as mat- 
ter was prepared. A certain number of signatures has always been dis- 
tributed, as soon as published, to scientific institutions and specialists. 


The number of sets of signatures thus distributed has been in the neigh- 
borhood of 200. 

* This method of publication has seemed to be to some extent waste- 
ful, and it is thought that equally good results may be secured by dis- 
tributing a certain number of the advance copies in the form of authors’ 
extras. In making arrangements for the printing of Volume XII it 


48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


was decided that out of the edition of 1,200 copies, 100 should be de- 
livered in signatures as fast as printed, and 300 in extras or reprints, 
in paper covers, of which 50 are to be given to the authors and the 
remainder distributed to specialists in the various departments to which 
the papers relate, who are not otherwise provided with the publica- 
tion; while the 800 remaining volumes are to be bound previous to dis- 
tribution. 

‘‘In special instances, where a given paper in the Proceedings is be- 
lieved to possess great general interest, it has been customary to print 
a considerable number of extra copies. 

‘The publication of the Proceedings and the Bulletin was at first 
paid for from the printing fund of the Interior Department, with which 
the Museum was at that time in close relations in respect to financial 
matters. Subsequently it was paid for from the fund for the printing 
of Museum labels, estimates for which were annually submitted by the 
Secretary of the Institution. The amount asked for was usu ‘lly $10,000. 
In the Book of Estimates the Museum appeared as asking a certain sum 
for printing, though the money was actually included in the gross sum 
allotted to the Interior Department as a printing fund. 

‘In 1882,a separate appropriation was made for the first time, in 
these words: ‘For the National Museum, for printiug labels and blanks 
and for the Bulletins and annual volumes of the Proceedings of the 
Museum, ten thousand dollars,’ 

‘‘ In 1888 the appropriation for the fiscal year 1888-9 was made in the 
same words, but was not included, as heretofore, in the appropriations 
for the Department of the Interior. 

‘¢The edition of the earlier volumes of the Proceedings and Bulletins 
was usually only 1,000, of which a portion was distributed by the De- 
partment of the Interior and a portion by the Museum. The number 
received by the Museum being sometimes 500 and sometimes as few as 
250. The edition placed at the disposal of the Museum being so small, 
and withal so uncertain as to extent, the distribution was always of 
necessity informal, and no effort was made to supply a regular list 
of institutions and specialists. A considerable number was expended 
in the work of the Museum, and the remainder were sent to corres- 
pondents of the Museum in exchange for publications, for specimens, 
and incidentally to such institutions as might apply for copies, as well 
as to individuals, especially students who made it evident that they 
were in a position to make good use of the books. 

‘¢ Formal publication was undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution, 
it being the intention that the first cost of composition and electrotyping 
having been provided for by the special Congressional appropriation, 
the Smithsonian Institution should avail itself of the electrotype plates 
and use them in making up certain volumes of the Miscellaneous Col- 
lections. The papers published in the Proceedings and Bulletins of 
the Museum were of precisely the same character which, since 1862, 
had made up the great majority of the most important papers in 
the Miscellaneovs Collections. The Institution undertook to print 
an edition of 1,200 copies in the form of volumes of the Miscellaneous 
Collections and to distribute them to the principal libraries of the 
world. This was, at the time, regarded as advantageous, since the 
cost of composition and electrotyping made up at least two-thirds of 
the cost of the edition of 1,200, while the miscellaueous distribution, 
for which the Institution, in the case of similar publications printed 
at its own expense, had been accustomed to provide, was now already 
arranged for out of the preliminary issue of several hundred copies 
paid tor from the Museum fund. — 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 


“The first four volumes of the Proceedings and the first sixteen num- 
bers of the Bulletin were published in this manner. 

“Since 1883 no publication of the Bulletins has been made, and none 
has been made in the case of the Proceedings since 1882. 

“There remain unpublished eleven volumes of the Proceedings and 
twenty-one numbers of the Bulletin—in all, enough to make ten thick 
volumes of the Miscellaneous Collections. Possibly, by condensation 
and omissions, the number might be reduced to nine volumes. If the 
Institution were to undertake to print the edition of 1,000 now cus- 
tomary in the case of the Miscellaneous Collections, the cost would be 
not less than $9,000. The same amount expended by the Institution in 
printing fresh matter would probably not produce more than one and 
one half volumes, or at most two volumes, of Miscellaneous Collections. 

“The Institution is possibly under obligations to provide for the pub- 
lication of these papers, since in the advertisement to each volume of 
the Bulletin as late as 1887 (Bulletin 33) appears the statement that 
‘from time to time the publications of the Museum which have been 
issued separately are combined together and issued as volumes of the 
Miscellaneous Collections.’ 

“Asa matter of fact, however, the publication of an edition of 1,000 
copies by the Smithsonian Institution would not really meet the neces- 
sities of the case, since it would leave unsupplied a very large number 
of libraries quite as deserving as those already on the distribution 
list.” 


It seems, in view of all these facts, that it is not desirable that 
the Institution showld undertake hereafter the publication of the Mu- 
seum Bulletin and Proceedings, since it is evident that these will in- 
crease in bulk from year to year, and that the demand upon the Insti- 
tution would very soon become too burdensome. Dr. Goode suggests 
that Congress be requested to increase the appropriation for the Mu- 
seum printing to $18,000 in order that an edition of 2,000 copies may be 
printed in addition to the customary number. If this arrangement 
should be carried out, the Smithsonian Institution would be relieved of 
the responsibility of providing for the publication of these documents. 
The issue of the enlarged edition would commence with volume 13 of 
the Proceedings and with Bulletin 40 or 41. In considering the question 
of publishing back volumes of t he Proceedings and Bulletin, Dr. Goode 
remarks: 


‘* When we come to the question of the publication of the back vol- 
umes, volumes 1 to 4 of the Proceedings and Bulletins 1 to 16 may be 
regarded as published, although not to the extent to which it would seem 
desirable in the way of supplying local institutions. Of the following, 
we have in hand enough to make a very fair distribution, viz: Proceed- 
ings, volumes 10 and 11 and Bulletins No. 33 to 37. Of volumes 5 to 9 
of Proceedings and of Bulletins 17 to 32, however, no systematic publi- 
cation can be made without the printing of an additional number of 
copies. 


Students.—In accordance with the policy of past years, free access to 
the coltections has been granted to students in the various branches of 
H. Mis, 224 4 





50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


natural history, and in many instances specimens have been lent to 
specialists for comparison and study. Instruction in taxidermy has 
been given to several applicants. Two of these intend to apply the 
knowledge thus acquired in making collections for the Museum, namely, 
Lieut. E. H. Taunt, United States consular agent to the Congo, and 
Mr. Harry Perry, who expects to spend several years in Honduras. 
Mr. T. W. Smillie has given instruction in photography to the follow- 
ing persons: Lieut. E. H. Taunt, Mr. W. H. Perry, Mr. Barton Bean, 
Mr. Howard, Prof. Daish, and Miss Frances Bb. Johnston. 


Special researches.—The special researches of the curators are re- 
ferred to at length in the report of the National Museum. I may 
say, in this connection, that the time which those officers are able to 
devote to work of this kind is very limited, owing to the large amount 
of mechanical and routine work to which, in the absence of necessary 
assistance, it is necessary for them to give their personal attention. 


Meetings and lectwres.—The use of the lecture hall has been granted 
for lectures and meetings of scientific societies, as follows: The Na- 
tional Dental Association met on July 24, 25, and 26. On the evening 
of September 20 was held one of the meetings of the Medical Congress. 
The American Ornithologists’ Union held its sixth congress on Novem- 
ber 13, 14, and 15. A meeting of the Department of Superintendence 
of the National Educational Association was held on March 6, 7, and 8. 
.The National Academy of Sciences held its meetings on April 16, 17, 
and 18. The Council of the American Geological Society and the Ameri- 
can Committee of the International Geological Congress held business 
meetings on April 19. The American Historical Association held its 
fifth meeting in Washington during Christmas week; the evening ses- 
sions being held at the Columbia University, the morning sessions at 
the Museum. 

In the Toner course Dr. Harrison Allen delivered a lecture on May 
29 entitled “Clinical Study of the Skull undertaken in connection with 
the Morbid Condition of the Jaws and Nasal Chambers.” 

The usual course of Saturday lectures, ten in number, beginning 
March 9 and ending May 11, was delivered under the direction of the 
oint committee of the scientific societies of Washington. 

The usual courtesies have been extended to museums and other pub- 
lic institutions by the gift and loan of drawings and photographs of 
specimens and copies of Museum labels. 


Visitors.—The number of visitors to the Museum building is constantly 
increasing. The register shows that a total number of 374,843 persons 
visited the Museum during the year. This exceeds the number for last 
year by 125,818, and shows an increase of more than 50 per cent. The 
visitors to the Smithsonian building numbered 149,618, an increase of 
46,177 over last year. ‘On March 5, owing to the crowds of visitors to 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5l 


the city attending the Inauguration cermonies, no less than 86,107 per- 
sons visited the Smithsonian and Museum buildings. 


Personnel.—During the year a department of forestry has been estab- 
lished, and with the consent of the Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. B. E. 
Fernow, chief of the forestry division of the Department of Agriculture, 
has been appointed its curator. 

Dr. George Vasey, of the Department of Agriculture, has been ap- 
pointed curator of botany, and in that capacity controls the botanical 
collections in the National Museum and in the Department of Agri- 
culture. Prof. Paul Haupt, curator of Oriental antiquities in the Na- 
tional Museum, was designated as the representative of the Smithsonian 
Institution at the Eighth International Congress of Orientalists, to meet 
in Stockholm and Christiania in September. Prof. Otis T. Mason was 
instructed to proceed to Europe to visit the principal ethnological mu- 
seums of France, Germany, Denmark, and England, for the purpose of 
making arrangements for the increase of the collections at the U.S. 
National Museum, and incidentally, through the study of methods of 
installation, of providing for the more effectual preservation and utiliza- 
tion of these collections. Mr. Thomas Wilson was directed to proceed to 
Europe to visit the principal museums of France, England, and Dublin 
for the purpose of studying the methods of installation employed by 
the European museums. 

On August 13, Mr. Silas Stearns, of Pensacola, Fla., who for many 
years has been a correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution, and has 
made important collections of fishes in the Gulf of Mexico, died at 
Asheville, N. C. 


Explorations.—During the summer of 1888, Mr. George P. Merrill, 
curator of geology, made a collecting trip to North Carolina, Pennsyl- 
vania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Maine, 
Large collections of rocks were obtained for the Museum. Mr. Thomas 
Wilson, curator of prehistoric anthropology, visited mounds in Ohio, 
and made interesting collections. Ensign W. L. Howard, U.S. Navy, 
who, acting under orders from the Navy Department, sailed for Kotze- 
bue Sound in May last, is making collections in Alaska for the National 
Museum. Prof. O. P. Jenkins, of De Pauw University, Indiana, is vis- 
iting the Hawaiian Islands for the purpose of collecting fishes. A series 
of his specimens has been promised for the National Museum. In 
Augast Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, of the U. S. Geoglogical Survey, visited 
some of the Western States and Territories partly with a view to 
making collections of minerals. These will eventually be incorporated 
with the Museum collections. 


Centennial Exposition of the Ohio Valley and Central States.—The act 
of Congress directing the Executive Departments of the Government, 
the Department of Agriculture, and the Smithsonian Institution (includ- 


52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


ing the National Museum and the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries) 
to participate in the Centennial Exposition of the Ohio Valley and 
Central States, to be held in Cincinnati from July 4 to October 27, 1888, 
passed both houses of Congress and received the approval of the Presi- 
dent on May 28. In addition to this, a joint resolution was adopted 
in which the true intent of the act was declared, with a view to cor- 
recting certain misapprehensions which had arisen in regard to the 
objects for which the money appropriated by Congress in connection 
with this exhibition could be legally expended. This joint resolution 
was approved by the President on July 16. <A copy of the act and of 
the joint resolution will be found in the report of the assistant secre- 
tary for 1889, wherein is also published a full account of the exhibit 
prepared under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution in accord- 
ance with the terms of the act referred to. Of the $50,000 appropriated 
for the Smithsonian Institution $10,000 was set apart for the U.S. 
Fish Commission. About 42,000 square feet of exhibition space were 
reserved for the Government exhibits, 12,000 square feet being devoted 
to that of the Smithsonian Institution. The assistant secretary was 
on May 29 appointed representative of the Smithsonian Institution, 
and active operations for the preparation of a creditable display were 
immediately commenced. It was unfortunate that only a little more 
than a month intervened between the passage of the act and the open- 
ing of the exhibition. The Smithsonian Institution has, however, had 
a varied experience in preparing exhibits at a short notice. The first 
car-load of exhibits left for Cincinnati on June 22, and the last of the 
twelve car-loads which were sent was shipped on July 12. The follow- 
ing departments of the National Museum were represented at the exhi- 
bition, the number of square feet assigned to each being also given : 








Department. oe 

Prehishorie abbhTO pOloey. coc a= os ne eae a ee a aera ree 600 
GRNOLO GY) se mate ses Io ee eas eres ea ae eee ee eee eet ee 1, 120 
Biblicalarchwology,.35------s-sss =e sos es ee ee ee ea oer 280 
Transportation and engineering, © -—- 256. seo ooo eee nn ein 600 
Wavalarehitecture 22255 5s-6 45-226 = bee eee eer aee ee eee 3124 
CTI ALES 5 ars ae see ede ee ie a ee a al ae oe ee | 1, 500 
Photography... 02-0. << ce veescesnaas= See ies oe ee ne eee 925 
Mammalsi(systematic exhibibl) 22 .c-ss enemas s- mace - Sel ae ee 953 

a (extermination Series) - sess eseses saoae- == = ee eee 884 
DBE Shee ee ieee actos 5 cc. nee oa ere a ae es oe ot eee ee 325 
npectst.--<--1--- Binle cela cele silo oe See eae eS eie eee = ae eee 238 
IMGllns Kae eca see op see ae 12 = Sen emer seen eee eae eee eee ee 250 
Marine 1mVverveprates| aso sse.4- oo eee cleene eee as eee eee eee 125 
BOGAN Yse ec oo are ae ae oe eee ne se tae ee eee ee eee 90 
Min eralo0ryiece- sees = ace = oes clean ok aime daetal wel ole ee ee 60 


Novae eee ee eee eee eos ele becee cucde ae seoneseeas Faia eee 8, 2624 








REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 


In addition to this a special exhibit was prepared by the Bureau of 
Ethnology, Maj. J. W. Powell, Director, to which 1,425 square feet were 
assigned. The total number of visitors to the exhibition was 1,055,276. 

Dr. Goode was unable, on account of other duties, to personally attend 
the exhibition, and Mr. R. E. Earll was placed in charge of the exhibit. 

Considerable difficulty was experienced in connection with the ex- 
penditure of the funds appropriated by Congress for the work of pre- 
paring exhibits, owing to the decisions of the special auditor appointed 
to audit the exposition accounts. His objections were in every instance 
finally withdrawn, and all vouchers have now, after protracted delays, 
been approved by that official. An extraordinary number of points of 
a trivial nature were raised, which necessitated the writing of as numer- 
ous letters to answer questions which had not previously been under- 
stood to come within the province of an auditor. In view of this ex- 
perience it is urged that should Congress at any time direct the Smith- 
sonian Institution to participate in future expositions, the law be so 
framed as to require the appointment of an auditing officer who is 
familiar with the demands of exhibition work. If, however, this be im- 
practicable, it seems proper that the responsibility of selecting and 
deciding as to what should be the character of the exhibits should be 
left entirely to the judgment of the various Departments, the auditor’s 
work being limited to the examination of the accounts, which should of 
course be sufficiently detailed to prevent errors. Another cause of de- 
lay in settling the exhibition accounts was due to the fact that the 
disbursing officer was stationed at Newport, Ky., instead of Washing- 
ton, where by far the greater part of the bills were contracted. The 
paymaster drew checks upon the Cincinnati depository only, and this 
method appeared to be unjust, since it obliged employés to wait several 
days before receiving payment, and in addition to lose some part of their 
money, owing to the refusal of the Treasury Departmezt in Washington 
to honor the checks. The only alternative for them was to present the 
checks to local banks, paying the usual discount rates. 

Marietta Centennial Exposition.— By an Executive order, dated July 
11, 1888, permission was granted to the heads of the departments rep- 
resented at the Cincinnati Exhibition to send to the Centennial Expo- 
sition at Marietta, Ohio, such objects as could be conveniently spared 
either from the exhibits at Cincinnati or direct from Washington. In 
accordance with this order an exhibit was prepared under the direction 
of the assistant secretary. Mr. W. V. Cox, chief clerk of the Museum, 
was appointed by him as his representative. Since only one day inter- 
vened in this instance between the issuing of the Executive order and 
the opening of the exhibition there was no time to be lost. An exhibit, 
with a total weight of 7,527 pounds, was prepared and installed at 
Marietta before the opening of the exhibition. The exhibit included 
specimens selected from the Haida collection of ethnological objects, 
lithograpks of the game fishes of the United States, a series of medals, 


54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


photographs of public buildings in Washington, a collection of auto- 
types, and a series of specimens illustrating the composition of the 
human body. In addition to these a collection of models, engravings, 
and paintings illustrative of the methods of transportation adopted by 
the early settlers in America was selected by Mr. J. E. Watkins from 
the exhibit of the department of transportation at the Cincinnati Ex- 
hibition and forwarded to Marietta. 

The organization of the Government Board which was charged with 
preparations for the Philadelphia Exhibition was so far superior to that 
of those more recently formed, that it would seem desirable that the 
plan in favor at that time should be followed as far as possible should 
similar work be decided upon in connection with future exhibitions. 

I regret the growing tendency to withdraw for special expositions a 
considerable portion of some of the most valuable parts of the collec- 
tion. The Museum is now approaching a final arrangement in classifi- 
cation, and the objections to this are therefore much stronger now than 
some years ago when the condition of the collections was more unsettled. 
The preparation for an exposition seriously impairs the work of the 
Museum, while considerable damage invariably results to the collec- 
tions, and often in such a degree that.it requires much time and ex- 
pense to restore them. The managers of local expositions are no longer 
satisfied to accept the specimens which can be most conveniently 
spared, but are always anxious to have the most valuable and costly 
objects. Temporary exposition buildings are never made fire-proof, 
and the time is sure to come, if the present practice prevails, when 
some exhibition building containing Government collections to the value 
of hundreds of thousands of dollars will be destroyed. The experi- 
ence of the Mexican Government in its participation at the New Orleans 
Exposition, and of the Government of New South Wales in 1883, may 
be cited as warnings. If, however, Congress should order in future 
our participation in expositions, I would especially urge that provision 
for the work be made at least six months before the date of opening. 
In each instance in the past the notice has always been extremely 
short, usually only afew weeks, and in one or two cases less than a 
week. 

I am also disposed to lay stress upon the necessity of liberal appro- 
priations, which should be made with the understanding that new ma- 
terial may be obtained, which shall not only replace that which has been 
lost in past exhibitions, but shall enrich the Museum collections for 
home use and for use in future exhibition work. If this necessity is 
not recognized, the result will be that in a few years the Museum will 
be greatly impoverished, not only by the destruction of material, but 
also by the dissipation of the energy of its staff, which, being applied 
to temporary purposes in this way, is taken away from its legitimate 
work. It would indeed seem only fair that a distraction of this kind, 
which affects in large degree every ofticer and employé, should be com- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 


pensated for by the opportunity to purchase new material which will 
remain permanently the property of the Government and increase the 
usefulness of the governmental Museum work. 


BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians were con- 
tinued, under the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in compli- 
ance with acts of Congress, during the year 1888~89. Maj. J. W. Pow- 
ell, as director of the work, has furnished the following account of 
operations: 

A report upon the work of the year is most conveniently given under 
two general heads, viz., field work and office work. 


FIELD WORK. 


The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations - 
and (2) general field studies, the latter being directed chiefly to arch- 
ology, linguistics, and pictography. 

Mound explorations.—The work of exploring the mounds of the east- 
ern United States was, as in former years, under the superintendence 
of Prof. Cyrus Thomas. The efforts of the division were chiefly con- 
fined to the examination of material already collected, and to the ar- 
rangement and preparation for publication of the data in hand. Field 
work received much less attention, therefore, than in previous years, 
and was mainly directed to such investigations as were necessary to 
elucidate doubtful points, and to the examination and surveys of im- 
portant works which had not before received adequate attention. 

The only assistants whose engagements embraced the entire year 
were Mr. James D. Middleton and Mr. Henry L. Reynolds. Mr. Gerard 
Fowke, one of the regular assistants, closed his connection with the 
division at the end of the second month. Mr. John W. Emmert was 
engaged as a temporary assistant for a few months. 

During the short time he remained with the division, Mr. Fowke was 
engaged in exploring certain mounds in the Scioto Valley, Ohio, a field 
to which Messrs. Squier and Davis had devoted much attention. The 
re-examination of this field was for the purpose of investigating certain 
typical mounds which had not been thoroughly examined by those 
explorers. 

Mr. Middleton was employed from July to the latter part of October 
in the exploration of mounds and other ancient works in Calhoun 
County, Ill., a territory to which special interest attaches because it 
seems to be on the border line of different archieologic districts. From 
October until some time in December he was engaged at Washington 
in preparing: plats of Ohio earth-works. During the next month he 
made re-surveys of some of the more important inclosures in Ohio, after 
which he continued work in the office at Washington until the latter 


56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


part of March, when he was sent to Tennessee to examine certain mound 
groups, and to determine, so far as possible, the exact locations of the 
old Cheroki ‘‘ Over-hill towns.” The result of this last-mentioned in- 
vestigation was one of the most valuable of the year, as it indicated 
that each of these ‘“‘ Over-hill towns” was, with possibly one unimpor- 
tant exception, in the locality of a mound group. 

Near the close of October Mr. Reynolds, having already examined 
the inclosures of the northern, eastern, and western sections of the 
mound region, was sent to Ohio and West Virginia to study the differ- 
ent types found there, with reference to the chapters he is preparing 
on the various forms of inclosures of the United States. While thus 
engaged he explored a large mound connected with one of the typical 
works in Paint Creek Valley, obtaining unexpected and important 
results. The construction of this tumulus was found to be quite dif- 
ferent from most of those of the same section examined by Messrs. 
Squier and Davis. 

Mr. Emmert devoted the few months he was employed to the suc- 
cessful exploration of mounds in eastern Tennessee. Some important 
discoveries were made, and additional interesting facts were ascertained 
in regard to the customs of the mound builders of that section. 


General field studies—Early in the month of July Col. Garrick Mal- 
lery proceeded to Maine, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, to con- 
tinue investigation into the pictographs of the Abnaki and Micmac 
Indians, which had been commenced in 1888. He first visited rocks on 
the main-land, near Machiasport, and on Hog Island, in Holmes Bay, a 
part of Machias Bay. In both localities pecked petroglyphs were 
found, accurate copies of which were taken. Some of them had not 
before been reported. They were probably of Abnaki origin, either of 
the Penobscot or the Passamaquoddy divisions, the rocks lying on the 
line of water communication between those divisions. From there he 
proceeded to Kejemkoojik Lake, on the border of Queen’s and Annap- 
olis counties, Nova Scotia, and resumed the work of drawing and trac- 
ing the large number of petroglyphs found during the previous summer. 
Perfect copies were obtained of so many of them as are amply suffi- 
cient for study and comparison. These petroglyphs were etched and 
were made by Miemacs. The country of the Malecites, on the St. 
John’s River, New Brunswick, was next visited. No petroglyphs were 
discovered, but a considerable amount of information upon the old 
system of pictographs on birch bark and its use was obtained. TIllus- 
trative specimens were secured, together with myths and legends as- 
sisting in the elucidation of some of the pictographs which had been 
obtained elsewhere. 

Dr. W. J. Hoffman proceeded in July to visit the Red Lake and White 
Earth Indian reservations in Minnesota. At Red Lake he obtained 
copies of birch-bark records pertaining to the Midewiwin or Grand Medi- 


_— 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 57 


cine Society of the Ojibwa, an order of shamans or priests professing the 
power of prophesy, the cure of disease, and the ability to confer success 
in the chase. The introductory portion of the ritual of this society per- 
tains particularly to the Ojibwa ideas of creation. At the same place 
several mnemonic charts were secured, consisting of birch-bark records 
of hunting expeditions, battles with neighboring tribes ot Indians, maps, 
and songs. He also investigates the former and present practice of 
tattooing, and the Ojibwa works of art in colors, beads, and quills. 

At White Earth Reservation two distinct charts of the Grand Medi- 
cine Society were obtained, together with full explanations by two of 
the chief midé or shamans, one of whom was the only fourth-degree 
priest in either of the reservations. Although a considerable amount 
of difference between these three charts is apparent, the principles are 
common to them all as well as the general course of the initiation of 
candidates. An interesting fact appears in the survival of archaic forms 
in the charts and ritual, seemingly indicating a considerable antiquity. 
A large number of mnemonic songs was also obtained at this reservation. 
In addition to much of the ritual, secured directly from the priests, in 
the original language, translations of the songs were also recorded in 
musical notation. After the completion of his labors at the above reser- 
vations, Dr. Hoffman proceeded to Pipestone, Minn., to secure copies 
of pictographs reported to oceur.upon the cliffs of that well-known 
locality. The reports of the great number of petroglyphs were found 
to have been greatly exaggerated, though a number of what appeared 
to be personal names were found on the rocks. He then returned to 
St. Paul, Minn., to search the records of the library of the Minnesota 
Historical Society for copies of pictographs reported to have been made 
near La Pointe, Wis. Little information was gathered, although it is 
well known that such records existed upon conspicuous cliffs and rocks 
near Lake Superior at and in the vicinity of Bayfield and Ashland. 

Dr. Hoffman afterwards made a personal examination of the “ pic- 
tured cave” 8 miles northeast ef La Crosse, Wis., to obtain copies of 
the various characters occurring there. These are rapidly being de- 
stroyed by the disintegration of the rock. The colors employed in de- 
lineating the various figures consisted of dark red and black. The fig- 
ures represented deer, human beings, and various animals and forms 
not now distinguishable. 

Mr. H. W. Henshaw spent the months of August, September, and 
October on the Pacific coast, engaged in the collection of vocabularies 
of certain Indian languages, with a view to their study and classifica- 
tion. The Umatilla Reservation in Oregon was first visited with the 
object of obtaining a comprehensive vocabulary of the Cayuse. Though 
there are about four hundred of these Indians on the reservation prob- 
ably not more than six speak the Cayuse tongue. The Cayuse have 
extensively intermarried with the Umatilla, and now speak the language 
of the latter, or that of the Nez Pereé. An excellent Cayuse vocabulary 


58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


was obtained, and at the same time the opportunity was embraced to 
secure vocabularies of the Umatilla and the Nez Percé languages. His 
next objective point was the neighborhood of the San Rafael Mission, 
Marin County, Cal., the hope being entertained that here would be 
found someof the Indians formerly gathered at the mission. He learned 
that there were no Indians at or near San Rafael, but subsequently 
found some half dozen on the shores of Tomales Bay, to the north. 
From one of these a good vocabulary was collected, and, as was ex- 
pected, was subsequently found to be related to the Moquelumnan fam- 
ily of the interior, to the southeast of San Francisco Bay. Later the 
missions of Santa Cruz and Monterey were visited. At these points 
there still remain a few old Indians who retain a certain command of 
their own language, though Spanish forms their ordinary means of in- 
tercourse. The vocabularies obtained are sufficient to prove, beyond 
any reasonable doubt, that there were two linguistic families instead of 
one, as had been formerly supposed, in the country above referred to. 
A still more important discovery was made by Mr. Henshaw at Monte- 
rey, Where an old woman was found who succeeded in calling to mind 
more than one hundred words and short phrases of the Esselen lan- 
guage, formerly spoken near Monterey, but less than forty words of 
which had been previously known. Near the town of Cayueas, to the 
south, an aged, blind Indian was visited who was able to add somewhat 
to the stock of Esselen words obtained at Monterey, and to give besides 
valuable information concerning the original home of this tribe. As a 
result of the study of this material, Mr. Henshaw determines the Es- 
selen to be a distinct linguistic family, a conclusion first drawn by Mr. 
Curtin, from a study of the vocabularies collected by Galiano and Lam- 
anon in the 18th century. The territory occupied by the tribe and lin- 
guistic family lies coastwise, southof Monterey Bay, as far as the Santa 
Lucia Mountain. 

On July 5 Mr. James Mooney started on a second trip to the Cheroki 
Nation in North Carolina, returning November 14, after an absence of 
about four months. During this time he made considerable additions 
to the linguistic material already obtained by him, and was able to 
demonstrate the former existence of a fourth, and perhaps even of a 
fifth, well-marked Cheroki dialect in addition to the upper, lower, and 
middle dialects already known. The invention of a Cheroki syllabary, 
which was adapted to the sounds of the upper dialect, has tended to 
make that the universal dialect. A number of myths were collected, 
together with a large amount of miscellaneous material relating to the 
Cheroki tribe, and the great tribal game of ball play, with its attendant 
ceremonies of dancing, conjuring, scratching the bodies of the players, 
and going to water, was witnessed. A camera was utilized to secure 
characteristic pictures of the players. Special attention was given to 
the subject of Indian medicine, theoretic, ceremonial, and therapeutic. 
The most noted doctors of the tribe were employed as informants, and 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 59 


nearly five hundred specimens of medicinal and food plants were col- 
lected and their Indian names and uses ascertained. The general result 
of this investigation shows that the medical and botanical knowledge 
of the Indians has been greatly overrated. A study was made of Cher- 
oki personal names, about five hundred of which were translated, 
being all the names of Indian origin now existing. The most impor- 
tant results of Mr. Mooney’s investigation were the discovery of a large 
number of manuscripts containing the sacred formule of the tribe, 
written in Cheroki characters by the shamans for their own secret use, 
and jealously guarded from the knowledge of all but the initiated. The 
existence of such manuscripts had been discovered during a previous 
visit in 1887, and a number had been procured. This discovery of gen- 
uine aboriginal material, written in an Indian language by shamans for 
their own use, is believed to be unique in the history of aboriginal 
investigation, and was only made possible through the invention of the 
Cheroki syllabary by Sequoia in 1821. Every effort was made by Mr. 
Mooney to obtain all the manuscripts possible, with the result of secur- 
ing nearly ali such material in the possession of the tribe. The whole 
number of formule obtained is about six hundred. They consist of 
prayers and sacred songs, explanations of ceremonies, directions for 
medical treatment, and underlying theories. They relate to medicine, 
love, war, hunting, fishing, seif-protection, witchcraft, agriculture, the 
ball play, etc., thus forming a complete exposition of an aboriginal re- 
ligion as set forth by its priests in the language of the tribe. 

Early in October Mr. Jeremiah Curtin left Washington for the Pacific 
Coast. During the remainder of the year he was occupied in Shasta 
and Humboldt Counties, Cal., in collecting vocabularies and data con- 
nected with the Indian system of medicine. This work was continued 
in different parts of Humboldt and Siskiyou Counties until June 30, 
1889. Large collections of linguistic and other data were gathered and 
myths were secured, which show that the whole system of medicine of 
these Indians and the ministration of remedies originated in and is 
limited to sorcery practices. 

The field of work of Mr. Albert 8S. Gatschet during the year was of 
limited duration. It had been ascertained that Mrs. Alice M. Oliver, 
now in Lynn, Mass., formerly lived on Trespalacios Bay, Texas, near 
the homes of the Karankawa, and Mr. Gatschet visited Lynn with a view 
of securing as complete a vocabulary as possible of their extinet lan- 
guage. Mrs. Oliver was able to recall about one hundred and sixty 
terms of the language, together with some phrases and sentences. She 
also furnished many valuable details regarding the ethnography of the 
tribe. Ten days were spent in this work. 

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied in field work from August 1 to No- 
vember 8, as follows: From the Ist of August to September 20 he was 
on the Tuscarora Reserve, in Niagara County, in which locality fifty- 
five legends and myths were collectkd. A Penobscot vocabulary was 


60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


also obtained here, together with other linguistic material. From Sep- 
tember 20 to November 8 Mr. Hewitt visited the Grand River Reserve, 
where a large amount of text was obtained, together with notes and 
other linguistic material. 

Dr. Franz Boas was employed from February to April in preparing 
for convenient use a series of vocabularies of the several Salish divisions, 
previously collected by him in British Columbia. 

Mr. Victor Mindeleff left Washington on October 23 for St. John’s, 
Ariz., Where he examined the Hubbell collection of ancient pottery and 
secured a series of photographs and colored drawings of the more im- 
portant specimens. Thence he went to Zuni and obtained drawings of 
interior details of dwellings and other data necessary for the comple- 
tion of his studies of the architecture of this pueblo. He returned to 
Washington December 7. 

Mr. A. M. Stephen continued work among the Tusayan pueblos un- 
der the direction of Mr. Victor Mindeleft. He added much to our 
knowledge of the traditionary history of Tusayan, and has made an 
extensive study of the house-lore and records of house-building cere- 
monials. He furnished also a full nomenclature of Tusayan architect- 
ural terms as applied to the various details of terraced house construc- 
tion, with etymologies. He secured from the Navajo much useful in- 
formation of the ceremonial connected with the construction of their 
conical lodges, or “ hogans,” supplementing the more purely architect- 
ural records of their construction previously collected by Mr. Minde- 
leff. As opportunity occurred he gathered small, typical collections of 
baskets and other textile fabrics illustrative of the successive stages of 
their manufacture, including specimens of raw materials and detailed 
descriptions of the dyes used. These collections are intended to include 
also the principal patterns in use at the present time, with the native 
explanations of their significance. 


OFFICEK WORK. 


Director Powell has devoted much time during the year to tie final 
preparation of the paper to accompany the map of the linguistic fami- 
lies of North America north of Mexico, the scope of which has been 
alluded to in previous years. The report and map are now practically 
completed, and will appear in the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau, 
soon to go to press. 

Mr. Henshaw was chiefly occupied with the administrative duties of 
the office, which have been placed in his charge by the Director, and 
with the completion of the linguistic map, which is now ready for the 
engraver. 

Col. Garrick Mallery, after his return from the field work elsewhere 
mentioned, was engaged in the elaboration of the new information ob- 
tained and in farther continued study of, and correspondence relating 
to, sign language and pictography. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 


Dr. W. J. Hoffman continued the arrangement and classification of 
material embracing the subjects of pictography and gesture language 
of the North American Indians, but more particularly of the date and 
sketches secured by him during previous field seasons. 

While Mr. J. Owen Dorsey did no field work during the year, he de- 
voted much of the time to original investigations. Samuel Fremont, 
an Omaha Indian, came to Washington in October, 1888, and until 
February, 1889, assisted Mr. Dorsey in the revision of the entries for 
the @egiha-English Dictionary. A similar work was undertaken by Lit- 
tle Standing Buffalo, a Ponea Indian from the Indian Territory, in April 
and May, 1889. The summary of Mr. Dorsey’s office work is as follows: 
He completed the entries for the @egiha-English Dictionary, and a list 
of Ponca, Omaha, and Winnebago personal names was made. He 
translated from the Teton dialect of the Dakota all the material of the 
Bushotter collection in the Bureau of Ethnology, and prepared there- 
from a paper on Teton folk-lore. He also prepared a brief paper on 
the camping circles of Siouan tribes, and in addition furnished an ar- 
ticle on the modes of predication in the Athapascan dialects of Oregon 
and in several dialects of the Siouan family. He also edited the man- 
uscript of the Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography, written by 
the late Rev. Dr. S. R. Riggs. This will soon be published as Part 1, 
Volume VII, Contributions to North American Ethnology. In May, 
1889, he began an extensive paper on Indian personal names, based on 
material obtained by himself in the field, to contain names of the fol- 
lowing tribes: Omaha and Ponka, Kansa, Osage, Kwapa, Iowa, Oto 
and Missouri, and Winnebago. 

Mr. Aibert 8. Gatschet’s office work was almost entirely restricted to 
the composition and completion of his Grammar of the Klamath Lan- 
guage of Oregon, with the necessary appendices. The grammar and 
dictionary are now printed and will soon be published. The ethnog- 
raphy will follow. 

During the year Mr. Jeremiah Curtin arranged and copied myths of 
various Indian families, and also transcribed Wasco, Sahaptin, and 
Yana vocabularies previously collected. 

On his return from the Cheroki reservation in 1888, Mr. James 
Mooney began at once to translate a number of the prayers and sacred 
songs obtained from the shamans during his visit. The result of this 
work will appear in a paper in the seventh annual report of the bureau 
entitled ‘*Sacred formulas of the Cheroki.” Considerable time was 
devoted also to the elaboration of the botanic and linguistic notes ob- 
tained in the field. In the spring of 1889 he began the collection of 
material for a monograph on the aborigines of the Middle Atlantic 
slope, with special reference to the Powhatan tribes of Virginia. Asa 
preliminary, about one thousand circulars, requesting information in 
regard to local names, antiquities, and surviving Indians, were distrib- 
uted throughout Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and northeastern Car- 


62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


olina. The information thus obtained affords an excellent basis for 
future work in this direction. 

From July 1 to August 1, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in ar- 
ranging alphabetically the recorded words of the Tuscarora-English 
dictionary mentioned in former reports, and in the study of adjective 
word-forms to determine the variety and kind of the Tuscarora moods 
and tenses. After his return from the field, Mr. Hewitt recorded 
and tabulated ail the forms of the personal pronouns employed in the 
Tuscarora language. Studies were also prosecuted to develop the 
predicative function in the Tuscarora speech. All the terms of con- 
sanguinity and affinity as now used among the Tuscarora were recorded 
and tabulated. Literal translations of many myths collected in the 
fields were made, and free translations added to four of them. In all 
of these studies linguistic notes were made relating to etymology, pho- 
nesis, and verbal change. 
~ Mr. James C. Pilling has, as usual, given all the time he could spare 
from his executive duties to the preparation of bibliographies of North 
American languages. The Bibliography of the Iroquoian Languages 
was completed early in the fiscal year and the edition was issued in 
February last. In the mean time a Bibliography of the Muskhogean 
Languages has been compiled, the manuscript of which was sent to the 
printer January 8, 1889, the first proof received Febuary 9, and proof- 
reading completed early in June. ‘The edition, however, was not de- 
livered during the fiscal year. Early in March, 1889, Mr. Pilling made” 
a trip to Philadelphia to inspect the linguistic material, particularly the 
manuscripts, belonging to the American Philosophical Society. The 
library authorities gave him every facility, and much new material was 
secured. In June Mr. Pilling made a somewhat extended trip through 
New England States and into Canada, visiting the Astor, Lenox, and 
the Historical Society libraries in New York; the libraries of the Athe- 
neum, Public, Massachusetts Historical Society, and the American 
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, in Boston; that of Har- 
vard University, in Cambridge ; the American Antiquarian Society, in 
Worcester, and the private library of Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, in 
Hartford. In Canada he visited the library of Laval University, and 
the private library of Mr. P. Gagnon, in Quebec, of St. Mary’s College 
and Jacques Cartier School, in Montreal, and various missions along 
the St. Lawrence River, with a view of inspecting the manuscripts left 
by the early missionaries. In addition to these he visited many smaller 
institutions, private libraries, and publishing houses, and the result of 
the whole trip was the accumulation of much new material for insertion 
in the Algonquian bibliography. It is thought that the manuscript for 
this publication will be in shape to send to the printer before the close 
of the year 1889. 

Mr. W. H. Holmes has continued to edit the illustrations for the Bu- 
reau publications, and has besides engaged actively in his studies of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 


aboriginal archeology. He has completed papers upon the pottery of 
the Potomac Valley and upon the objects of shell collected by the Bureau 
during the last eight years, and he has others in preparation. As cura- 
tor of Bureau collections he makes the following statement of accessions 
for the year: From Dr. Cyrus Thomas and his immediate assistants 
working in the mound region of the Mississippi Valley and contiguous 
portions of the Atlantic slope, the Bureau has received one hundred 
and forty-six specimens, including articles of clay, stone, shell, and 
bone. Mr. Victor Mindeleff obtained sixteen specimens of pottery from 
the Pueblo country. Other collections by members of the Bureau and 
of the Geological Survey are as follows: Shell beads and pendents 
(modern) from San Buenaventura, Cal., by H. W. Henshaw. Fragments 
of pottery and other articles from the vicinity of the Cheroki agency, 
N. C., by James Mooney. A large grooved hammer from the bluff at 
Three Forks, Mont., by Dr. A.C. Peale. <A large series of rude stone, 
implements from in District of Columbia, by DeLancey W. Gill. 
Donations have been received as follows: An important series of earthen 
vases from a mound on Perdido Bay, Ala., by F. H. Parsons. Ancient 
pueblo vases from southwestern Colorado, by William M. Davidson. 
A series of spurious earthen vessels, manufactured by unknown persons 
in eastern Iowa, by C. C. Jones, of Augusta, Ga. Fragments of pot- 
tery, ete., from Romney, W. Va., by G. H. Johnson. Fragments of a 
steatite pot from Ledyard, Conn., by G. L. Fancher. A series of 
stone tools, earthen vessels, etc., from a mound on Lake Apopka, Fla., 
by Thomas Featherstonhaugh. Fragments of gilded earthenware and 
photographs of antiquities from Mexico, by F. Plancarte. Fragments 
of gold ornaments from Costa Rica, by Anastasio Alfaro. Loans of im- 
portant specimens have been received as follows: Articles of clay from 
a mound on Perdido Bay, Ala., by Mrs. A. T. Mosman. Articles of 
clay from the last mentioned locality, by A. B. Simons. Pottery from 
the Potomac Valley, by W. Hallett Phillips, by 8. V. Proudfit, and by 
H. L. Reynolds. Articles of gold and gold-copper alloy from Costa 
Rica, by Anastasio Alfaro, secretary of the National Museum at San 
José. 

Prof. Cyrus Thomas was chiefly occupied during the year in the prepa- 
ration of the second and third volumes of his reports upon the mounds. 
It is probable that these will be finished during the present fiscal year. 
He also prepared a bulletin on the Circular, Square, and Octagonal 
Earth-works of Ohio, with a view of giving a summary of a recent sur- 
vey by the mound division of the principal works of the above character 
in southern Ohio. A second bulletin was completed, entitled “The 
Problem of the Ohio Mounds,” in which he presented evidence to show 
that the ancient works of the State are due to Indians of several differ- 
ent tribes, and that some, at least, of the typical works were built bv 
the ancestors of the modern Cheroki. 

Since his return from the field, Mr. H. L. Reynolds has been engaged 


64 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


in the preparation of a general map of the United States, showing the 
area of the mounds and the relative frequency of their occurrence. He 
has since assisted Professor Thomas in the preparation of the monograph 
upon the inclosures. 

Mr. Victor Mindeleff, assisted by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, has been 
engaged in preparing for publication a ‘Study of Pueblo Architecture” 
as illustrated in the provinces of Tusayan and Cibola, material for which 
he has been engaged in collecting for a number of years. This report 
is now completed, and will appear in the Seventh Annual Report of - 
the Bureau. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff and the 
force of the modelling room completed the bureau exhibit for the Cin- 
cinnati Exposition, and during the early part of the year Mr. Mindeleff 
was at Cincinnati in charge of the same. Owing to restricted space 
the exhibit was limited to the Pueblo culture group, but this was illus- 
trated as fully as the time would permit. The exhibit covered about 
1,200 feet of floor space as well as a large amount of wall space, and 
consisted of models of pueblo and cliff ruins; models of inhabited 
pueblos, ancient and modern pottery, examples of weaving, basketry, 
ete., a representative series of implements of war, the chase, agriculture, 
and the household, manikins illustrating costumes, and a series of 
large photographs illustrative of aboriginal architecture of the pueblo 
region, and of many phases of pueblo life. Upon Mr. Mindeleff’s re- 
turn from Cincinnati he resumed assistance to Mr. Victor Mindeleff 
upon a report on pueblo architecture, and the close of the fiscal year 
saw the two chapters which had been assigned him completed. They 
consist of a review of the literature on the pueblo region and a sum- 
mary of the traditions of the Tusayan group from material collected by 
Mr. A. M. Stephen. Work was also continued on the duplicate series 
of models, and twelve were advanced to various stages of completion. 
Some time was devoted to repairing original models which had been 
exhibited at Cincinnati and other expositions, and also to experiments 
in casting in paper, in order to find a suitable paper for use in large 
models. The experiments were successful. 

Mr. J. K. Hillers has continued the collection of photographs of prom- 
inent Indians, in both full-face and profile, by which method all the fa- 
cial characteristics are exhibited to the best advantage. In nearly every 
instance a record has been preserved of the sitter’s status in the tribe, 
the age, biographic notes of interest, and in case of mixed bloods the 
degree of intermixture of blood. The total number of photographs ob- 
tained during the year is 27, distributed among the following tribes, 
viz: Sae and Fox, 5; Dakota, 6; Omaha, 6, and mixed-bloods (Creeks), 
10. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 
ANNUAL REPORTS. 


First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-80. 1881. xxxv, + 603 pp. 


8vo. : 
Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1880701. 1883. xxxvii, +477 
pp. dvo. 
Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-’82. 1884. Ixxiv, + 606 pp. 
8vo. 


Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 188283. 1886. Ixxiii, +532 pp. 
8vo. 

Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84. Iss7. lili, + 564 pp. 
8vo. ’ 

Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1884-’85. 1888. vii, + 675 pp. 
3vo. 


CONTRIBUTIONS. 


Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. I. 1877. xiv, + 361 pp. 4to. 

Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. III. 1877. 3. 635 pp. 4to. 

Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. TV. 1851. xiv, +281 pp. 4to. 

Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. V. 1852. 112. 32. xxxvii, +237 
pp. Ato. 


INTRODUCTIONS. 


Powell, J. W. Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages. 1877. 164 pp. 
Ato. 

Powell, J. W. Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages. 2nd ed. 1880. xi, 
+228 pp. 4to. 

Mallery, Garrick. Introduction to the Study of Sign Language. 1580. iv, +72 pp. 
4to. 

Yarrow, H.C. Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs. L880. ix, +114 pp. 
4to. 

Mallery, Garrick. Collection of Gesture Signs and Signals. 1880. 329 pp. 4to. 

Pilling, J. C. Proof-sheets of Bibliography of North American Indian Languages. 
1805. xl,-+ 1135 pp. 4to. 


BULLETIN. 


Pilling, J.C. Bibliography of the Eskimo Language, 1887. v,-+ 116 pp. 8vo. 
Henshaw, H. W. Perforated Stones from California, 1887. 34 pp. 8vo. 
Holmes, W. H. The use of Goid and other Metals among the Ancient Inhabitants of 
Chiriqui, Isthmus of Darien. 1887. 27 pp. 8vo. 
Thomas, C. Work in Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology. 1887. 15 pp. 
8vo. 
Pilling, J.C. Bibliography of the Siouan Languages. 1887. v, + 87 pp. 8vo. 
Pilling, J. C. Bibliography of the Iroquoian Languages. 1888. vi, +208 pp. 8vo. 
Pilling, J.C. Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages. 1389. v, + 114 pp. 8vo, 
Thomas, C. The Circular, Square, and Octagonal EKarth-works of Ohio. 1889, 38 pp. 
8vo. 7 
Thomas, C. The Problem of the Ohio Mounds. 1889. 54 pp. 8vo. 
Holnoes, W. H. Textile Fabrics of Ancient Peru. 1889. pp.17. 8vo, 
H, Mis, 224—5 


66 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


NECROLOGY. 
JEROME H. KIDDER. 


Dr. Jerome H. Kidder was born in Baltimore County, Md., on the 
26th of October, 1842, and graduated in 1862 at Harvard, where he 
is Still remembered as foremost in the gymnasium as well as on his class- 
rolls. He immediately then tendered his services for the war, and was 
placed in charge of the sea island plantations near Beaufort, S. C., 
where he contracted yellow fever, and was invalided home early in 
1863; but upon recovery enlisted in the Tenth Maryland Infantry, in 
which he served as private and non-commissioned officer until the fol- 
lowing year, when he was selected to be medical cadet, and in that ca- 
pacity was employed in the military hospitals near the capital. During 
this time he was prosecuting the study of medicine, and in 1866 re- 
ceived from the University of Maryland the degree of M. D. In the 
same year he was commissioned an assistant surgeon in the U.S. Navy, 
becoming full surgeon in 1876. 

Dr. Kidder’s first duty was at Japan, where he quickly acquired the 
language of the country, and in other ways established the reputation 
which attached to him throughout his career for his “capacity for takin’ 
pains.” While on this foreign service he was decorated by the King of 
Portugal in recognition of services toa distressed vessel of His Majesty’s 
navy. 

Dr. Kidder took part in observing the transit of Venus at Kerguelen 
Island, in 1874, as surgeon and naturalist of the expedition, and the ex- 
cellent results of his scientific labors and researches therewith will be 
found described in the Bulletins of the U.S. National Museum. After 
the return of this expedition, Dr. Kidder arranged his specimens and 
collections in the Smithsonian Institution, and commenced those kindly 
and intimate relations with it which continued through his after life, 
with the regard of all his associates there. 

In 1878 Surgeon Kidder married, at Constantinople, Annie Mary, 
daughter of the Hon. Horace Maynard, minister of the United States 
to Turkey, and in 1884, having inherited an adequate fortune, he re- 
signed his commission and established his home in Washington, and 
here organized the bacteriological laboratory in connection with the 
Navy Museum of Hygiene, and also made a sanitary survey of the site 
proposed for the new Naval Observatory, while later he was appointed 
chemist of the U. 8. Fish Commission, and in that capacity became one 
of the most trusted advisers of Professor Baird. His laboratory was 
in the Smithsonian building, and under the direction of the Secretary 
of the Institution he made, at the request of Congress, an exhaustive 
study of the ventilation of the Capitol and of the air in the Senate 
chambers and the hallof the House, and submitted an extended report 
or the use of the committees engaged upon the sanitary reform of the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67 


building. In 1887, after the death of Commissioner Baird, he served for 
a time as Assistant Commissioner of Fisheries, under Commissioner 
Goode. While connected with the Fish Commission he carried on a 
successful series of experiments to solve the problems relative to the 
temperature of living fishes, which have been made public through the 
reports of the Fish Commission. Besides the reports just referred to, 
Dr. Kidder contributed valuable papers to various professional and 
educational publications, and held for years a place on the literary staff 
of the New York World, and maintained membership in many learned 
societies. He was one of the founders of the Cosmos Club, and among 
the organizers of the Harvard Club in Washington, and a prominent 
member in the Masonic fraternity. 

In 1888 Dr. Kidder accepted from the present Secretary the ap- 
pointment of curator of laboratory and exchanges. His pleasant past 
relations to the Institution, and the esteem in which he was held 
by those connected with it, made the closer connection thus estab- 
lished agreeable to all; and the writer can not speak in too warm 
terms of the character of Dr. Kidder as shown in their business rela- 
tions. His liberal education and views, served by the “capacity for 
taking pains” already referred to, were all under the control of the 
most conscientious regard for duty, and made him a valued administra- 
tor of the department under his charge. He knew how to maintain, to- 
gether with exact order, the kindliest relations with all employed in it, 
who, it is safe to say, remember him with an affection and regard due 
to his excellent personal qualities, an affection and regard which the 
writer profoundly shares. Just in his best work, in his fullest physical 
vigor, Dr. Kidder was stricken with pneumonia, and died after a brief 
illness on the 8th of April, 1889. 

His attachment to this Institution, which had always been of the 
peculiarly intimate character, was also shown in a bequest of which I 
shall elsewhere have to speak. 

In conclusion, I can not but add to the statement of this great 
deprivation to the Institution an expression of my sense of personal 
loss in the parting with a friend who, in every relation of life, was 
aman as honorable and worthy of trust as any I have ever known. 


JAMES STEVENSON. 


In recording the death of Mr. James Stevenson, which occurred on 
the 25th of last July, I have to announce the loss of one of the most 
valuable as well as one of the oldest and most active collaborators of 
this Institution. 

Mr. Stevenson was born in Maysville, Ky., in 1840, and while still 
little more than a boy, in the spring of 1857, ascended the Missouri 
River with the Warren Expedition; and from that time, with the ex- 
ception of the interval caused by his acceptable services in the civil war, 


68 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


he annually and regularly visited the Rocky Mountain region, first un- 
der the auspices of the United States Exploring Expeditions of Warren 
and Reynolds, and latterly under that of the U.S. Geological Survey, 
of which he became the executive officer when that organization first 
took form, a position in which he remained up to the time of his death. 
His capacity and integrity were valued not only by the officials of the 
Survey, which he did so much in connection with, but by those of this 
Institution, for which during thirty years he gathered in remote regions 
specimens of natural history, geology, and ethnology, which are per- 
manent testimonials of his enterprise and his industry. 

During the season of 1885 he was engaged in making an extended 
search among the pueblos in the Moquis and Navajo districts of New 
Mexico, and in this elevated country he was stricken by the dreaded 
disease which lurks there. I met him in this region in 1887, when he 
was already aroused, though too late, to a sense of his danger, and am 
glad to recollect the circumstances of an acquaintance that associated 
him with the regions of the West, in which so much of his life had been 
passed, where so much valuable work was done, and where I had an 
opportunity to learn something of his fertility of resource in emergency 
and in the intimacy of camp life, of the amiable traits of his private 
character. 

Mr. Stevenson’s work was a double one, for he was equally at home 
in cities, and especially in Washington, where he was extensively known 
among members of Congress, and where the general confidence reposed 
in him by them was a deserved tribute not merely to his skill but to 
his personal integrity. 


Respectfully submitted. 
S. P. LANGLEY, 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 





a ae 






APPENDIX TO SECRETARY’S REPORT. 


APPENDIX I. 
PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. 


A memoir presented by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, of Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology on the ‘‘Genesis of the Arietidie,” and recommended by Messrs. Alexander 
Agassiz, Charles A. White, and William H. Dall, was accepted for publication in the 
series of Contributions to Knowledge, in February last (1889). In order that the print- 
ing of the memoir might be under the convenient revision of the author, the work was 
placed in the hands of John Wilson & Son, of Cambridge, Mass. The printing of the 
treatise is well advanced, and it will probably be completed and distributed during 
the present year. It will form a volume of about 230 quarto pages, illustrated by 35 
figures and 14 plates. 

Two other publications of the year in the quarto size should be mentioned here, al- 
though not intended to be included in the collected volumes of the Contributions. 
No. 671 of the Smithsonian list is ‘‘ Natural History Illustrations prepared under the 
direction of Louis Agassiz, 1849. The Anatomy of Astrangia Danae. Six litho- 
graphs from drawings by A. Sonrel. Explanation of the plates by J. Walter 
Fewkes.” This issue represents merely a fragment of a memoir undertaken forty 
years ago by the eminent naturalist, Louis Agassiz, on material collected by him 
during his first dredging excursion in one of the steamers of the U. S. Coast Survey. 
This memoir, postponed by other occupations, was never completed, and even the 
original notes are no longer to be found. But the excellence of the drawings made 
under his direction from living specimens seems to warrant their publication, even 
at this late day. The text descriptive of the six plates, by Mr. Fewkes, occupies 20 
quarto pages. 

672. ‘* Natural History Illustrations prepared under the direction of Louis Agassiz 
and Spencer I. Baird, 1849. Six lithographs from drawings by A. Sonrel. Expla- 
nation of the plates by David Starr Jordan.” This, like the preceding, represents 
merely a fragment of a memoir projected by the joint labors of the two distinguished 
ichthyologists, and in like manner laid aside under the pressure of more immediate 
duties. The text explanatory of the six plates is comprised in 12 quarto pages. 
Were these two brochures more recent and more extended they would well deserve a 
place in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


Taking the various publications for the past year belonging to this series in the 
order in which they stand in the Smithsonian list, the first is: 

No. 663. ‘‘ Index to the Literature of Columbium, from 1801 to 1887.” By Frank W. 
Traphagen. This is one of the special bibliographies of chemical literature pub- 
lished by the Institution on the resommendation of the committee appointed by the 

69 


70 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


American Association for the Advancement of Science, for the purpose of promoting 
such indexes. The present number forms an octavo pamphlet of 30 pages. 

664. “ Bibliography of Astronomy for the year 1887.” By William C. Winlock. 
This isin continuation of the series of such bibliographies heretofore appended to 
the Regents’ annual reports. It forms an octavo pamphlet of 63 pages. 

665. ‘‘ Bibliography of Chemistry for the year 1887.” By H. Carrington Bolton. 
This is a similar continuation: an octavo pamphlet of 13 pages. 

666. “Additions and Corrections to the List of Foreign Correspondents, to July 
1888.” By George H. Boehmer. Octavo pamphlet of 36 pages. 

667. ‘Systematic Arrangement of the List of Foreign Correspondents to July, 
1888.” By George H. Boehmer. Octavo pamphlet of 55 pages. 

675. ‘Report on Astronomical Observatories for 1886.” By George H. Boehmer. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1886.) Octavo pamphlet of 119 pages. 

683. ‘Report on Smithsonian Exchanges for the year ending June 30, 1886.” By 
George H. Boehmer. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886.) Octavo pamphlet of 
30 pages. 

684. ‘‘ Miscellaneous Papers relating to Anthropology.” (From the Smithsonian 
Report for 1886.) This collection comprises the following articles: ‘‘ The Ray Collec- 
tion from the Hupa Reservation.” By OtisT. Mason. Thirty-five pages, with 26 plates. 
‘‘A Navajo Artist and his Notions of Mechanical Drawing.” By R. W. Shufeldt. Five 
pages with 3 plates. ‘Notes on the customs of the Dakotahs.” By Paul Beckwith. 
Thirteen pages. ‘‘ The Atnatanas, Nativesof Copper River, Alaska. By Henry T. Allen. 
Nine pages. ‘‘Indians of the Quinaielt Agency, Washington Territory.” By C. Wil- 
loughby. Sixteen pages with 7 figures. “The Stone Age of Oregon.” By Myron Eells. 
Thirteen pages. ‘‘Charm Stones: Notes on the so-called ‘plummets,’ orsinkers.” By 
Lorenzo G. Yates. Ten pages with 4 plates. ‘‘ Studies on the Archaeology of Michoa- 
can, Mexico.” By Nicholas Leon. Twelve pages with 1 plate. ‘‘On some Spurious 
Mexican Antiquities, and their relation to Ancient Art.” By William H. Holmes. 
Sixteen pages with 18 figures. ‘‘Earth-works at Fort Ancient, Ohio.” By William 
M. Thompson. Three pages with 1 figure. Forming in all an octavo pamphlet of 
132 pages, illustrated by 26 figures and 34 plates. 

685. ‘“On certain Parasites, Commensals, and Domiciliars, in the Pearl Oysters, 
Meleagrine.” By Robert E. C. Stearns, (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886.) 
Octavo pamphlet of 6 pages with 3 plates. 

686. ‘‘Time reckoning for the Twentieth Century.” By Sandford Fleming. (From 
the Smithsonian Report for 1886.) Octavo pamphlet of 22 pages with 5 figures. 

687. “Catalogue of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution; with a classified 
list of separate publications, and an alphabetical index of authors and subjects.” 
By William J. Rhees. This work embraces all the articles published by the Smith- 
sonian Institution from its organization, in 1846, to the 1st of July, 1886 (a period of 
forty years), and forms an octavo volume of 383 pages. 

688. ‘Report upon International Exchanges, under the direction of the Smithso- 
nian Institution, for the year ending June 30, 1888.” By J. H. Kidder, curator. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1888.) Octavo pamphlet of 16 pages. 


SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. 


668. Report of Samuel P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for 
the year ending June 30, 1888. An octavo pamphlet of 126 pages. 

676. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, show- 
ing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending 
June 30, 1886. Parti. This part, the report of the Institution proper, contains 
the Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents at the annual meeting held Janu- 
ary 13, 1886, the Report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, the 
report of Professor Baird, the Secretary of the Institution, with subsidiary report on 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY CL 


the exchanges for the year, and a list of additions to the number of foreign corre 
spondents; followed by the usual ‘‘General Appendix,” in which are given various 
anthropological papers, by Otis T. Mason, R. W. Shufeldt, Paul Beckwith, Henry 
T. Allen, C. Willoughby, Myron Eells, L. G. Yates, Nicholas Leon, William H. 
Holmes, and W. M. Thompson; also papers by Robert E. C. Stearns, Sanford Flem- 
ing, List of Astronomical Observatories, by George H. Boehmer, and Catalogue of 
Smithsonian Publications, by Willian J. Rhees—forming an octavo volume of xviii 
+ 878 pages, illustrated by 31 figures in the text and 37 plates. 

677, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the 
year ending June 30, 1826, Part u. This part relates to the U. S. National Museum 
(under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution), showing its progress and condi- 
tion and containing: (1) Report of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, G. Brown Goode, upon the condition and progress of the Museum for the 
year; (2) reports of the curators of the various departments of the Museum; (3) 
reports upon special collections in the Museum, and papers illustrative of the col- 
lections: the meteorite collection, by F. W. Clarke; the gem collection, by George F. 
Kuntz; the collection of building and ornamental stones, by George P. Merrill; the 
collection of textiles, fibers, and fabrics, by Romyn Hitchcock; preparation of mi- 
croscopical mounts of vegetable textile fibers, by the same; and how to collect mam- 
mal skins for purposes of study and mounting, by William T. Hornaday ; (4) Bibliog- 
raphy of the National Museum; and (5) list of accessions to the collections; followed 
by a general index. The whole forms an octavo volume of xi + 842 pages, illus- 
trated by 23 figures and 20 plates. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


669. Proceedingsof the U. 8. National Museum, Vol. x, for1887. This volume contains 
descriptive papers by Tarleton H. Bean, Charles W. Beckham, C. E. Bendire, Charles 
H. Bollmann, Ellsworth R. Call, E. D. Cope, Carl H. Eigenmann, Charles H. Gilbert, 
Theodore Gill, O. P. Hay, Elizabeth G. Hughes, David 8. Jordan, ’. H. Knowlton, 8S. 
R. Koelher, George N. Lawrence, Leo Lesquereux, W. Lilljeborg, Edwin Linton, Fred- 
erick A. Lucas, Jerome MeNeill, Richard Rathbun, Robert Ridgway, R. W. Shufeldt, 
Jobn B. Smith, Leonhard Stejneger, Charles H. Townsend, Frederick W. True, George 
Vasey, and José C. Zeledon. With a general index, this forms an octavo volume of 
viii + 771 pages, illustrated by 39 plates. . 

674. Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 33. Catalogue of Minerals and 


_ their Synonyins, alphabetically arranged for the use of museums. By T. Egleston. 


Octavo, 198 pages. 
PUBLICATIONS OF TIE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


670. Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. By J. W. Powell, Director. This contains the introductory re- 
port of the Director, 37 pages, with accompanying papers, as follows: Burial mounds 
of the northern sections of the United States, by Cyrus Thomas; the Cherokee Nation 
of Indians, by Charles C. Royce; the mountain chant, a Navajo ceremony, by Wash- 
ington Matthews; the Seminole Indians of Fiorida, by Clay MacCauley; the relig- 
ious life of the Zuni child, by Mrs. Tilly E. Stevenson. The work forms « royal 
octavo volume of liii + 564 pages, including a general index, and is illustrated by 
77 figures in the text and 23 plates, 8 of which are chromo-lithographs. 





APPENDIX II. 


REPORT OF THE CURATOR OF INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES FOR THE 
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1889. 


WASHINGTON, D. C., November 20, 1889. 


Sir: [ have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the ex- 
change bureau for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889. During the greater part of 
this time the bureau was under the charge of the late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, whose 
able administration has contributed largely to its present efficiency. At the date of 
his death, April 6, 1889, Mr. Boehmer, upon whom the care of the office immediately 
devolved, reported that the exchange department, for the first time in its history, had 
disposed of all packages received, and was prepared to close its book accounts. 

In continuation of the statistics usually presented, the following table exhibits in 
detail the exchange transactions for each month of the fiscal year: 


Transactions of the exchange office af ihe Smithsonian Institution during 
the fiscal year 188889. 




















188s, 1889. 
July. | Aug.| Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Jan. 
| 
Number of packages received ....| 3,305 |2,754 [12,215 | 5,448 |2, 733 |12,616 | 2,180 
Weight of packages received (Ibs. )/16, 262 6,835 (24, 337 [19, 162 |9, 248 |19, 190 | 6, 196 
Entries made: | 
HOVCIOM nese cs ohee Sonam eee. 2,294 |2,232 | 2,994 | 4,158 |2, 482 | 3,088 | 3,57 
a Domestic ...c./ 25 2225-5 sacs 2,098 |1,028 | 1,342 | 1,532 |1,896 | 1,590 | 4,002 
edger cards: 
Foreign societies ............ A LOAD | Caren Mee eis ¢ ote wee | setererets A389 noe see 
Domestic societies ....... 2... OF DE eee ee |e hye. = leper oak RNS eos 1 198s cea 
Roreien individuals.-=..-.<-,.| 4, 153 }..2.+~|2..<-2<|-cee vec | ..5 ey a eee 
Domestic individuals .... .--. i 5OONl eae oe Eee | we ee eee a lee cloo eee 
Domestic packages sent..-..----- 2,001 | 787 | 1,063 | 1,410 |1,647 | 1,664 | 1,328 
Invoices written ............-..-. 459 199 | 1,889 | 2,034 341 | 788 795 
Cases shipped abroad ...--...-.-.. 16 33 81 | B 24 | 71 | 27 
Acknowledgments recorded : 
HOVelone. 225 se ce so ese 908 934 572 TOL 700 708 | 594 
: alee Bae neeremee eases onic 558 | 471 373 512 | 686 637 560 
etters: 
Recorded......--..--..------ 86} 87] 198) JF} 93] 72] 127 
WW SIGHCN  on22 semana anc ncewes 146 | 147 220 166 | 131; UL} 177 
| 








a - —— ——_— te aad ee ———E—— 


74 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Transactions of the exchange office of the Smithsonian Institution during 
the fiscal year 1888—89—Continued. 











1889. | Increase 
Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | Total. | over 
| | 1887—88. 
| | 
Number of packages received -| 3,926 |10, 432 |3, 032 | 5,107 /12,218 | 75, 966 859 
Weight of packages ree’d (lbs. ) 12, 233 |18, 972 |9, 931 |12, 002 [25,560 |179,928 | 30,298 
Entries made : 
IHOTEV ON eats cisiols winintel = <s<1= 4,560 | 4 304 |3,006 | 5,186 | 8,268 | 46, 142 5, 994 
Domestic ...-- seeeeeeeecee 1,542 | 1,302 |1,282 | 2,078 | 1,164 | 18,256 | *5,254 
Ledger cards: | | 
HOLEION SOCIEHES sce cee sae sec seas ese | faeteterste ria itcerscerete 4, 466 331 
MoOmMeshICusOCletles-= eae. Has seen cl oaccee [ieee his | carn ee eceages | aco 1, 355. | 299 
Orel OMAN CIV LC Wasser =}| (sci sa2 4 cee ee Sleeeice lhe ahs lease 4, 699 65€ 
Momeshicundividualsiss-- spaces sels ceria See lloe Seer 2,610 86) 
Domestic packages sent..---. - 1.2937) 14265) 971 F255 757s O5sn eves 4,917 
Invoices written. .-.-..... <... 886 | 1,371 | 886 985 | 3,462 | 14,095 570 
Cases shipped abroad......... 40 96 51 | a 124 | 693 30 
Acknowledgments recorded : | 
HOLe1O Mss ces steelers ici 491 389 | 542) 424 387 | 7,440 *930 
IDOmMesticuescekiie os eee se 472 150?) 045110 928 583 | 6, 882 2,074 
Letters: | | 
IRECONMOGc acm ce cece eeec 138 111 86 | 82 112 hy lta 152 
Witlibb@liveacise evcisreisceieis ses 143 2251) 216i 102 231 | 2)050 246 























* Decrease. 


Or for comparison with the number of packages handled during recent years: 

















Packages. | 1886-87. | 1887~’88. | 1888-’89. 

Roca ved ised sate seas oo ee en err a | 52,218 | 75,107 | 75,966 
Shipped: | 

DOMESTIC cece ca 2 esas ete Seek eee ees Sei te Bean | 10,294 | 12,301 17, 218 

MOnelon: 225s seks See cseies aie oar seeeioeenes 41, 424 | 62,306 58, 035 


The small increase in the number of packages (859) received during 1838-89 as 
compared with the preceding fiscal years, though offset by the large increase in weight 
(30,298 pounds), isaccounted for by the fact that a number of regular shipments from 
Government bureaus were delayed beyond the close of the fiscal year. 


EXPENSE. 


From an examination of the books of the disbursing officer it appears that the 
actual cost of the exchange service for the year has been $17,152.10, divided as fol- 
lows: 





Salaries and compensation of employésm@...... .- 22 -. cece -cnees acucce «oa MLL, 479) 95 
Salaries of foreign agents (London and Leipzig) ...-................-.-- 1, 500. 00 
PROVO te eras eicteicicte bie ele eiciate e-cha cet tele Rape eee re ae State ae SPs one eae ne 23500520 
PAG KAM CANOES seisccle sie ltialeaiatelie Seiler a bi ddige s aeenene Ol alse Maree Eamon 586. 20 
Printing, postage, stationery, and miscellaneous -....................--. 1,031.42 

Total ssccione st scsdere ces ace we eae odes Sese eee eeee eee soses) hve logs hO 


Fifteen thousand dollars of this sum were appropriated directly by Congress or 
‘‘the expenses of the system of international exchanges * * * under the direction 


oe ee 





lata 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75 


of the Smithsonian Institution,” $1,363.54* were repaid to the Institution by Govern- 
meut Departments to which specitic appropriations had been granted for this pur- 
pose, leaving a deficit of $788.56, which was paid from the Smithsonian fund. 

Although all of the Government bureaus that have occasion to transmit their 
publications through the Institution are not provided with funds available for de- 
fraying the cost of the service, it seems to have been the intention of Congress that 
its specific appropriation for the exchange business should be supplemented by special 
appropriations to some of the bureaus and departments of the Government, so that 
the charge of 5 cents per pound weight imposed by the regents in 1878 might be met 
by them, The average amount annually repaid to the Institution in this way during 
the past eleven years has been about $1,400. 

Dr. Kidder strongly recommended, and I beg to renew his recommendation, that 
this procedure, for which sufficient reasons existed at the time of its adoptién, may 
now be discontinued as no longer advantageous or economical. By the present 
system the cost of the service is actually larger than appears in the specific appro- 
priations for exchanges, ae as the special appropriations to the different Depart- 
ments vary from year to year and are often omitted altogether, a burden which can 
not be accurately putes is imposed upon the Smithsonian fund. 

In order to effect the change contemplated—that is, to collect in a single item the 
entire appropriation for international exchanges, and at the same time to make 
allowance for a proper compensation to the ocean steam-ship companies for freight, 
and to bring the schedule of salaries more nearly up to the standard established for 
. the classified service of the Government—an estimate of $27,500 was submitted for 
the fiscal year 1889-’90. 

This sum would then have been divided somewhat as follows: 





alarlese.23 ssscs oes ee eee ten ee cree ee Bree eae ae see ae $16. 600 
Transportation : 
From Washington to seaboard..-.-.-. Sn heetayaap tee taea we ence $2, 280 
Be COANE Tel OM Gea seeeencmony a enact S dice oe, ome musics Se alesis eee . 5,000 
From point cf debarkation to destination.....................-- 1,750 
==, 9,080 
IS OMS eee setae rd dhe esas Seek aise) 21 Sas amino be, ocsieaps chee Meee nana eee eee 950 
PIU a tee Ne Seat erect ies a ssl Ne BN A woe a oh cea are capa bd cha Mo seoete 920 
SLBUy eH eeete eee oer enn, Sea Sees es oe ed en ne Se OOO 


The amount finally appropriated was $15,000, no inerease having been granted. 
CORRESPONDENTS, 


The number of correspondents has been increased durin» the year by 2,157, making 
the total number now upon our books 13,130, classified as follows: 


Foreign. Domestic. 


DUCICHESANGC INSHUUNTIONG Ss occ. caccan csiscce oes cnicdwancweecocee | 4, 466 1, 355 
MONGIV AG TALS: cect. ciety ccc cbs sac Sac aicssncecs aciedies decase Heccks| 4, 699 2, 610 


= The items in the report of the exec Abe committee— $2,329.99 under the head of 
expenditures for exchanges, and $2,189.52 repayments—include receipts and expendi- 
tures made on account of the preceding fiscal year. 


76 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The geographical distribution is— 





Establish- Individ- 


























Country. ments. uals. 
PAST Ca remrerers sue mea ne ete orate tay crete laren Me setae Se TE eae Re ee: “60 61 
America: al 
Tits PAMeCLI CR sot Hao eee eo eee eee cS eee 106 250 
CentraltAmertea: 5.5.5~ se soe ee ee eee eee 14 , 24 
IMGX1CO. 2 cee hore Sac eae eee ee eee ares ve ee 60 76 
Soubh PAM Ori casas sects sere eae ee eee ye a 152 148 
United States 227422 Ce 2 aye aie ayy oe eeaaben ets) 2,610 
iW est lin di@s ies xen eo cee Boon cman nsaes Sa snee es 24 65 
1,711 3,173 
EAST oeie eee ciethcins Come Sicte omie is clone semen atone ee ee 145 162 
PANIS bail AST aetna srw eae < pee So tere aero ae de ee ee 130 95 
EMU OWLS sbekcine tee tare eo Sreelow we iernoeis ee siete me See See ete eae 3, 766 3, 802 
Bolymesiaet ee once cece coe fee alsahteme ele eerie eee eee 9 16 
PRO aA Ea? esis ceyciete nite nysfae Ae cere ge eater ae ea 5, 821 7, 309 





INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS, ETC. 


The convention between the United States of America, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, 
Portugal, Servia, Spain, and Switzerland for the international exchange of official 
documents and scientific and literary publications, as well as the convention between 
the same countries (excepting Switzerland), for the ‘‘ immediate exchange of the offi- 
cial journals, parliamentary annals and documents,” was ratified by the President of 
the United States on July 19, 1888, but final ratifications were not exchanged by the 
representatives of the contracting powers until January 14, 1889. The convention 
was proclaimed on January 25, the day following, and since that date formal notifi- 
cation has been received of the adhesion to both conventions of the Government of 
Uruguay. The full text of these conventions was given in the Curator’s report for 
last year. 

The adhesion of the United States to the first of these conventions involves no new 
departure in the exchange service from the methods of previous years; but for the 
fulfillment of the obligations incurred by the second convention—the immediate ex- 
change of official journals—an appropriation of about $2,000 to cover the necessary 
postage and additional clerical assistance is required, and provision should be made 
for the prompt delivery to the exchange office of the documents referred to. 

This sum of $2,000 was estimated in reply to an inquiry made by the Secretary of 
State, dated February 12, 1889, as to the ability of the Smithsonian Institution to 
execute all of the provisious of the two conventions without further legislation by 
Congress, and the estimate was duly submitted by the Secretary of State in a letter 
to the President of the Senate, but no appropriation was made. 

While the United States is thus bound by formal agreement to an exchange of its 
official publications with but eight countries, a full set of all publications received 
from the Government Printer is transmitted to forty-one countries upon the basis of 
mutual agreement. 

A complete list of the official depositories for publications sent abroad during the 
fiscal year, in accordance with the act of Congress of July 25, 1868, with a statement 
of the number of packages sent and received from each of the countries repre- 
sented, is contained in the annexed table: 





oe a TS 


REPORT OF 


THE SECRETARY. 


T7 


Condition of parliamentary exchanges, 1888-89, 





Country. 





Depository, 





Argentine Republic... 


PS SURER..- ces oc ecrle ecies 


PelOTIM sos sa6-- 5.580 
Buenos Ayres........- 


Brazil........---.----| 


Canada 
Canada 
Chili 
Colombia 
Denmark 
France ...... 
Gerinany 


Great Britain. ........ 
Greece ..... ee even ot 


Hayti 


Hamburg 
EAU sais oe = ore aie 
Holland)... 2.2...- geaeg 
HOMO ALY s:ceatae sacle. cs¢ 


Inddayl sc. 26. se c's 52-3 
taliyeeeces asce cea: sie 


Japan..... Seeds cre ee 
MGXICOe 2252222250205 


New South Wales -....) 
New Zealand. ....-...- 
INOEW Yio sin- sos c22 0% 
ICRU eeee eee sce Praets | 
OYOUCE ole coe S.:5.2.50 | 
Prussia 
Queensland 
RUSSIA o sicnce < oclceccre - 


Saxony 
South Australia ...... 





SP ally 2s -2 Sesse 3 2. 
Sweden 2... ...-- ate, oe 
Switzerland...-- weaas| 
Tasmania ....-....... 
Parkey sss. s-2-5- = = 


Venezuela....-- sei ees 
Victoria... <<. <- waveee 





Minister of Foreign Affairs, Buenos 
Ayres. 

I. and R. Statistical Central Commis- 
sion, Vienna. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Karlsruhe. 

Royal Public Library, Munich........ 

Royal Publie Library, Brussels... .-.- - 

Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Prov- 
ince of Buenos Ayres. | 

Central Commission of Exchanges, 
Rio Janeiro. 

Parliamentary Library, Ottawa ...--. 

Legislative Library, Toronto........- 

National Library, Santiago.........-- 

National Library, Bogota ..........-. 

Royal Library, Copenhagen...-...--. | 

Exchange Bureau, Paris....--.....-.-. 

Library of the German Parliament, 
Berlin. 

British Museum, London...-......--.- 

United National and University Li- 
brary, Athens, 

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Port-au- | 
Prince. 

City Government, Hamburg..-....... 

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Honolulu. 

Library of the Parliament, The Hague. 

President of the Hungarian Ministry, 
Budapest. 

Secretary to the Government of India, 
Calcutta. 

National Victor Emanuel Library, 
Rome. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokio-. ..| 

Minister of Justice and Public In- 
struction, Mexico City. 

Parliamentary Library, Sydney...--.- 

Parliamentary Library, Wellington... 

The Royal Government, Christiania -. 


National Library, Wima,...0.- 222. 22. 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lisbon.... 
Royal Public Library, Berlin......-.. 
Colonial Library, Brisbane----- ear 
Imperial Public Library, St. Peters- 
burg. 
Royal Public Library, Dresden..----. 
Government, Adelaide ........-.. sete 
Government, Madrid..--- age eects a 
Royal Library, Stockholm -...-...... 
Central Library, Bern ......-..-..--. 


Parliamentary Library, Hobart Town. 
General Ottoman Library, Constan- 
tinople. 





University Library, Caracas.......... 
Public Library, Melbourne......-..-. 
Royal Public Library, Stuttgart...-. E 

otal sccise .sinls roeceee Eee eree ec! 


No. of publications— 





em ws 
: eceived 
Sent to. oR 
De Ieee eee . 
Sos 4, 426 
’ 
Spoe| il 
oa: 
553 16 
552) gee eee 
Hoon aseees ‘Sait 
Doane see Seis 
5Ook| 4 eee . 
Had, (sone 3 
D3.) oo eee 
Doon eee eee 
553 | 47 
Sion 114 
553 10 
Do | eee eee 
£519 ia erases 
So oes ete 21 
eee 68 
553 57 
5d8 200 
DOO | sce ecateaee 
ay L232 
00D eee 
© D000 | ee aeeeee 
593 |..... Mereicia 
DDD leet 
553 9 
D005 |o5 ee 
55a: ose See 
5D owl. ce seer 
553 213 
5159 es ee se 3 
553 80 
BES 
AOo' |ecenae eee 
Doo) alee meenee 
553 32 
Dpoulees coe Soe 
5d 2 
DOO i ose aecacten 
5Oon soe eee 
5d: eb 
5os || 652 
22, 673 6, 442 








78 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The utter inadequacy of the return received by the United States, 6,442 volumes and 
pamphlets for 22,675 sent out, is but a repetition of the experience of previous years, 
and hax been dwelt upon at length in former reports. The Austrian Government 
forms a notable exception to the general apathy of foreign nations in the matter, 
having transmitted 4,426 volumes, including complete and very valuable sets of Par- 
limentary Proceedings; and itishoped that negotiations now in progress will resalt, in 
the near future, in a more equitable and satisfactory exchange with other uations, 
more especially with England and Germany. 

If a complete account of all ‘‘ governmental” exchange business carried by the 
Smithsonian Institution is made, that is, if all publications sent or received by the 
Government and its bureaus are included, it appears that 9,325 packages were re- 
ceived and forwarded to United States Government Departments, including the 
Library of Congress, while 25,671 weresent abroad through the exchange service froin 
the same Departments. The apportionment among the different countries is shown 
below: 























Number of publications— 

The United States Government, including De- | ————————— 
partmental Bureaus, in exchange with— Sent by the | Received by the 

| United States. | United States. 

oh ee aed = hl Rey TE eee _| 

PANTIRIG AR tao totes oie aie acieiote ses ele) Se cin res eiaais fens aioe AY ac oe eee ape 
AD COD LING saree stele leek eee eee awaits aerate 1, 192 89 
PACS UNI Ape sete ee sata cine iciasieinieuce lee aaa ere 753 5, 059 
BadeMes = aeewncie oecisanisto ores aiaivie cient ou eieinieroeet ee 553 11 
ava Anson aisciss s) fe secre som eine ceepa ym emasitare nae Host leaacteeeee eee 

WB OMe ee reeisteter tele aha tere eres ae rob etere ones terete 697 : 12 
raz lle se ccietes cisicete cera) > eta seme ete aide aminuts erate 796 152 
BEbiSheAMmeniC atinsa-eisewacicecee sects ter eee A UG ||. sisc dca soma 
CO ng Fees ect ener rate tote, clay erate tevals air tage arate a steve rs 601 3 
Gini eyesore oc sec eic eels ciel awisin Ciclae selere cmoteecrateereioters 5 158 
Colom bates pose os eases eeousis hee Sie eee 572: Seseee cee cece 
@entralAmenicawses--a-eeesaecoerieoemecteieieeies 76 179 
DOMINATES erates ses se ee alae sho mac Pee eretoreieener ate aos 580 290 
NCUA OR She se cele Soten cioe 6 Boe wines eram aisiarteieere ners Dy heer tousrctotetars Boe 
IHIPAN COue. Nanceerse selon aclasecisiaies Bae omer eee aioe 602 498 
IF OLDIANY see aace ete eiscineehe sels ciaee ection ee scene a ears 1,147 217 
GreateBrigainy jecccecesec sete eeee teeta soos see 307 10 
GIB OCO ne oars lero 1see sistant mie toe wie Cinema le totintnele atctraetes 586 81 
DVO yelae as eerie Nala cre neisl eee Seale ares siete eters st 00s lseeeeeieeee sees 
MELVIN UE OY dF ateve.sc talmioro mel steels chaie lata = eb crararavuratoreleieitarchat= atl la eieiere Setoicte sieeetete 21 
EMU Pais yer eeresta te steatosis eee alone ceenore = eltearseiene oe eaetetoterer 553 200 
NIV e cee eee sie seale Cee Oa oes eee eee aed 603 128 
Math y eer See apc mete aes a alcove tatawsoh ome oeerapoteete cle craters 093 191 
UPA Me ve tes rove ae rokets aie lemme spake = etal eeeete aerate UR SS eiorciccs Go cdeac 
IMOR1COM Sao sa2 556 Sessa ee ee a eee nas Sasa 6677). weene hs cee eeee 
Netherlands :< Seek Say eee eect ke ct tane eltete byenebetronersr eee 579 115 
INeGwasouthaWales\./2-<. Sose cece ace epee mise tos 579 52 
NewaeZiealand: <2..222 32.0. joeecences wine ene eee BOL | Soe sives oSseieese 
NORWAY Corcces temic nse coc cut use cient aol aeieeeel ete 684 12 
IPRA OU AY selec =.= 2atee she aiwle le Se = ee ere Os akibecoe een eats 
IROL ee Gace soe Gec isles < js says e ee eee e ee 562) |\ nesses tote 
Rolwnesiatteate ceceicenciteasie cet locce chee soepeemee 12 | 68 
Bont calersres wremier= <a cists ins oeeeiel-e i Oe eta ee SOU to eee eee eee 
IPTRTSSV El yee eas cioic on) sate aewis Rie wersja: ie,atereele, aie cle ote rovamterenee 55S *|Scee einem 
Queenslander secs sacs esc ees ee heeee ee ceo 570 411 

FROMM ANI eee Ac ae ee RS a= CAs tei ee eee eee 6 7 
Russia. Bei dleuals dey Sais oe sates fe ices qo ts clam eeeee 627 1 
Saxony -. NORE IAD coe eins Re rel nc eT eye ee 553 80 
South Australia... Eo IS erate Re hce Sere ene BOBieean sscctc ee eaee 
BWEUOH (0 aera io holon UN heme 667 82 





REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 19 








Number of publications— 


The United States Government, including De- eee ee 

artmental Bureaus, in exchange with— RY : 

Pp : © Sent by the | Received by the 
United States. | United States. 








PWILD ZODIAC S122 se useyse rect sre eee wave aco Gate ccc sale eee 561 3 
SP AGEN aT tar aes eae ae ast oe ins ee ee eit eee 553 | 3 
SINTIT COV sega eee enfeera ic tae oes crsie oo sins goejee oes ae: Doo) (Sakae eee ae 
MOU D Wa yee Seic i cease eee Seis leed Sele ue Se Aste it) ees 
WWIETIC AUC Cyrene aa aoe mio eckees ole < of is. a. dain bere Steines ws a-si2 SN rl aes ee 
Witte ORM ere er csetee 2 sie aa cis oe ee ere theo ee 3 ees 622 | : 355 
NG SUEUMNUMCR oe =. ea sek. ae ae e-em tana acct oct ae 12 | eee 
\WTETTTT ELE) CTH UY 0 2g ye ee ee om 658 





EFFICIENCY OF THE SERVICE. 


While a marked improvement appears to have taken place in the exchange serv- 
ice during the past few years, still further improvements are no doubt desirable and 
possible. The plan adopted by Dr. Kidder of following up promptly and diligently 
all complaints, or failures of packages to reach their destinations, has produced ex- 
cellent results. The delays due to the fact that the Smithsonian Institution is de- 
pendent upon the generosity and public spirit of most of the ocean steam-ship lines 
fot the free transportation of its exchange boxes will be provided against, if the ap- 
propriation asked for is granted by Congress. The delays which occur in some of 
the foreign bureaus, due to indifference or to insufficieut clerical force, are at pres- 
ent beyond the control of the Institution. Where regularly paid agencies have been 
established, as in Loudon and Leipzig, this cause of embarrassment to the service no 
longer exists, and all packages are transmitted with promptness. 

Still another difficulty arises from an inadequate or erroneous address upon the 
packages, rendering it necessary for the agent to hold them until the error or omis- 
sion can be corrected by correspondence. Increased attention to this point on the 
pact of those who have occasion to send publications through the exchange service 
will assist materially in decreasing the number of delayed transmissions, 

An important need of the exchange bureau is a more complete index to the early 
records, but with the present clerical force this additional work can not be effect- 
ually undertaken. 

I take pleasure in bearing witness to the faithfulness and efficiency of the em- 
ployés of the bureau, and to the prompt attention to the interests of the Institution 
of its foreign agents, Messrs. William Wesley & Son, at London, and ‘Dr. Felix Flii- 
gel, at Leipzig. 

The employés of the bureau receive much lower salaries than those established for 
similar grades of work by the classified lists of the Government Departments, and 
it is manifestly to the interest of the service to be able to retain, by reasonable ex- 
pectation of promotion, men who have acquired pecuiiar and valuable experience 
in the exchange transactions. 

Grateful acknowledgments are due the following transportation companies and 
firms for their continued liberality in granting free freight on exchange parcels and 
boxes: 


Allan Steam-ship Company (A. Schumacher & Co., agents), Baltimore. 
Anchor Steam-ship Line (Henderson & Brother, agents), New York. 
Atlas Steam-ship Company (Pim, Forwood & Co., agents), New York, 
Bailey, H. B., & Co., New York. 

Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., Boston, Mass. 

Borland, B. R., New York, 


380 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, New York. 

Cameron, R. W., & Co., New York. - 

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (A. Forget, agent), New York. 

Cunard Royal Mail Steam-ship Line (Vernon H. Brown & Co., agents), New York. 

Dennison, Thomas, New York. 

Florio Rubattino Line, New York. 

Hamburg American Packet Company (Kunhardt & Co., agents), New York. 

Inman Steam-ship Company, New York. 

Merchants’ Line of Steamers, New York. 

Munoz y Espriella, New York. 

Murray, Ferris & Co., New York. 

Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company (W. H. Vanden Toorn, agent), 
New York. 

New York and Brazil Steam-ship Company, New York. 

New York and Mexico Steam-ship Company, New York. 

North German Lloyd (agents, Oelrichs & Co., New York; A. Schumacher & Co., 
Baltimore). 

Pacific Mail Steam-ship Company, New York. 

Panama Railroad Company, New York. 

Red Star Line (Peter Wright & Sons, agents), Philadelphia and New York. 

White Cross Line of Antwerp (Funch, Edye & Co., agents), New York. 

Wilson & Asmus, New York. 


In conclusion, I beg leave to add a list of correspondents that courteously act as 
agents of the Institution for the transmission of exchanges, and also a copy of the 
rules of the exchange service, calling especial attention to the necessity of observ- 
ing rules 3 and 8, which provide that all packages sent shall be carefully addressed, 
and that all packages received from the Smithsonian shall be promptly acknowl- 
edged upon the receipt form which will always be found inclosed therein. 


LIST OF THE FOREIGN CORRESPONDENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ACTING 
AS ITS AGENTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. 


Algeria: Bureau Frangais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris, France. 

Austria-Hungary: Dr. Felix Fliigel, 57 Sidonien Strasse, Leipzig, Germany. 

Brazil: Commissao Central Brazileira de Permutagas Internagionaes, Rio Janeiro. 

Belgium: Commission des Echanges Internationaux, Rue du Musee, No. 5, Brux- 
elles. , 

British America: McGill College, Montreal; or Geological Survey Office, Ottawa. 

British Colonies: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, England. 

British Guiana: The Observatory, Georgetown. 

Cape Colony: Agent-general for Cape Colony, London, Englaud. 

China: Dr. D. W. Doberck, government astronomer, Hong-Kong; for Shanghai, 
United States consul-general, Shanghai. 

Chili: Museo Nacional, Santiago. 

Colombia (United States of): National Library, Bogota. 

Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José, 

Cuba: Prof. Felipe Poéy, Calle del Principe Alfonso, No. 416 Havana. 

Denmark: Kong. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. 

Dutch Guiana: Surinaamsche Koloniaale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo. 

East India: Secretary to the Government of India, Calcutta. 

Ecuador: Obseryatorio del Colegio Nacional, Quito. 

Egypt: Institut Egyptien, Cairo. 

France: Bureau Franecais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris. 

Germany: Dr. Felix Fliigel, 57 Sidonien Strasse, Leipzig. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 


Great Britain and Ireland: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex street, Strand, London. 

Greece: United National and University Library, Athens. 

Guatemala: Instituto Nacional de Guatemala, Guatemala. 

Guadeloupe: (Same as France. ) 

Haiti: Sécrétaire d’état des rélations extérieures, Port au Prince. 

Island: Islands Stiptisbokasafn, Reykjavik. 

Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome. 

Japan: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokio. 

Java: (Same as Holland.) 

Liberia: Liberia College, Monrovia. 

Madeira: Director-General, Army Medical Department, London, England. 

Malta: (Same as Madeira. ) . 

Mauritius: Royal Society of Arts and Sciences, Port Louis. 

Mozambique: Sociedad de Geographia, Mozambique. 

Mexico: Sr. Ministro de Justicia e Instruccion Publica, City of Mexico. 

New Caledonia: Gordon & Gotch, London, England. 

Newfoundland: Postmaster-General, St. Johns. 

New South Wales: Royal] Society of New South Wales, Sydney. 

Netherlands: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Leiden. 

New Zealand: Colonial Museum, Wellington. 

Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet, Christiania. 

Paraguay: Government, Asuncion. 

Peru: Biblioteca Nacionale, Lima. 

Philippine Islands: Royal Economical Society, Manilla. 

Polynesia: Department of Foreign Affairs, care of Capt. H. W. Mist, Honolulu. 

Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. 

Queensland: Government Meteorological Observatory, Brisbane. 

Roumania: (Same as Germany.) 

Russia: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliotheque Impériale- 
Publique, St. Petersburg. 

St. Helena: Director General, Army Medical Department, London, England. 

San Salvador: Museo Nacional, San Salvador. 

Servia: (Same as Germany.) 

South Australia: Astronomical Observatory, Adelaide. 

Spain: R. Academia de Ciencias, Madrid. 

Sweden: Kongliga Sevenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm. 

Switzerland: Central Library, Bern. 

Tasmania: Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobarton. 

Turkey: Bibliothéque Générale Ottomane, Constantinople. 

Uruguay: Bureau de Statistique, Montevideo. 

Venezuela: University Library, Caracas. 

Victoria: Public Library, Museum, and National Gallery, Melbourne. 


RULES FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY EXCHANGES. 


1. Transmissions through the Smithsonian Institution must be confined exclusively 
to books, pamphlets, charts, and other printed matter sent as donations or exchanges, 
and can not include those procured by purchase. 

The Institution and its agents will not knowingly receive for any address pur- 
chased books, nor apparatus and instruments, philosophical, medical, etc. (including 
microscopes), whether purchased or presented ; nor specimens of natural history, ex- 
cept where special permission from the Institution has been obtained. 

2. Before transmission, a list of packages, with the address on each package, is to 
be mailed by the sender to the Smithsonian Institution, when sent from the United 
States, or to the foreign agent of the Institution when sent from abroad. The Insti- 
tution must be informed by mail of each sending on the day of transmission. 

3. Packages must be legibly addressed and indorsed with the name of the sender. 


H, Mis, 224 





82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


4. Packages must be enveloped in stout paper, securely closed, and tied with strong 
twine. 

5. No package to a single address is allowed to exceed one-half of one cubic foot 
in bulk. 

6. Packages must not contain letters, or written matter. 

7. Packages must be delivered to the Smithsonian Institution or its foreign agents 
free of expense. 

8. Packages must contain a blank acknowledgment, to be signed and returned by 
the party addressed. 

9, If returns are desired, the fact should be explicitly stated on the package. 

10. Packages received through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution must be 
acknowledged without delay by mail. 

11. The Institution assumes no responsibility beyond that of the delivery of the 
packages. 

S. P. LANGLEY 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington. 


Very respecifully, 
W. C. WINLOCK, 
Curator of Exchanges. 





: 
§ 
: 
; 
¢ 
¢ 


a 


ee 


APPENDIX III. 


REPORT ON THE LIBRARY. 


Srr: I have the honor respectfully to submit my report on the work of the library 
during the year from July 1, 1888, to June 30, 1889. 

The work of recording and caring for accessions has been carried on as during the 
preceding year, the entry numbers on the accession-book running from 182,060 to 


193,430. 


The following condensed statement shows the number and character of these acces- 


sions: 


PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED BETWEEN JULY 1, 1888, AND JUNE 30, 1889. 


Volumes: 
Octavo or smaller... =. sso. <s secce : 


Quartojor lancer a<..5 22 ccs cs-+ssce sce 


Parts of volumes: 


Octave or smaller: sesccess= 200-5 o- 
VU THORO TU AL SOR pice iiaataers eis oe ote 


Pamphlets: 


Octavo orsmaller..... ae Ae eee 
Quartovor larger .. o525--c-2eecees soc 











Se ISOS an Se SN 1,002 
weit eee a a ecm eea 498 
~ 1,500 
Soo. eRe re ee ace 
Oc eet eee tee esc iaresis Sctes 6, 646 
—- 12, 202 
eo Nae 2, 705 
ee ee aa a coors ore 473 
—-— 3,178 
eee ee Bb Saes ee eee 473 
Sra Seem Stacie a wea cae Sebelaics Sores eustetoeee 17, 353 


Of these accessions, 4,810 (namely, 441 volumes, 3,752 parts of voluraes, and 617 
pamphlets) were retained for use in the Museum library, and 521 medical disserta- 
tions were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, U. S. Army. 

The remainder were promptly sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday fol- 


lowing their receipt. 


Among the most important additions to the list of serials during the year may be 


specified the following publications: 


American Angler. 

American Field. 

American Grocer. 

Bollettino di paletnologia Italiana. 

Cosmos (formerly ‘‘ Les Mondes”), Paris. 

Export Journal. 

Forest Leaves. 

Gazzetta Chimica Italiana. 

Himmel und Erde. 

Journal of American Folk-Lore. 

Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society. 

Journal of the Marine Biological Associa- 
tion of the United Kingdom. 

Journal of the Society of Chemical In- 
dustry. 

Life-Lore. 

Manufacturer and Inventor. 

Menorah. 





Monatshefte fiir Chemie (published by 
the Vienna Academy of Sciences). 

“Old New York.” 

Orientalische Bibliographie. 

Pittonia. 

Praktische Physik. 

Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays- 
Bas. 

Reports from the laboratory of the Royal 
College of Physicians, Edinburgh. 

Research. 

Revue des Traditions Populaires. 

Revista di Mineralogia e cristallografia 
Italiana. 

Shooting and Fishing. 

The Steamship. 

Studies from the Museum of Zoology, 
University College, Dundee. 

Victorian Naturalist. 

83 


84 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The following universities have sent complete sets of all their academic publications 
for the year, including the inaugural dissertations delivered by the students on gradu- 
ation: Bern, Bonn, Dorpat, Erlangen, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Giessen, Gottingen, 
Halle-an-der-Saale, Heidelberg, Helsingfors, Jena, Kiel, Kénigsberg, Leipzig, Lou- 
vain, Lund, Tiibingen, Utrecht, and Wiirzburg. 

Among other important accessions during the year may be mentioned the following: 

From the office of the secretary of state for India, London, a large series of Indian 
Government publications, including the final volumes (Vols. 12, 18, and 14) of the 
great Gazetteer of India, and Part 1 of the Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the 
library of the India Office; full sets of official publications from the Italian Govern- 
ment, the Canadian Government, ane the colonial government of New Zealand; from 
the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle at Lyons, the two magnificent works, Archéologie 
de la Meuse, by F. Liénard, in six large volumes, and Recherches Anthropologiques 
dans le Caucase, by E. Chantre, in five large volumes; Moeurs et Monuments Préhis- 
toriques, from the author, the Marquis de Nadaillac; a further set of scientific papers 
from Prince Albert of Monaco; Catalogue des Monnaies Musulmanes de la Biblio- 
théque Nationale, from the National Library in Paris; Vol. 3 of the Reports of the 
German Commission for the Observation of the Transit of Venus; Vols. 26, 27, 28, 29, 
30, and 31 of the Challenger Report (Zoology), from the British Government ; from 
the Egypt Exploration Fund, the Memoirs on Tanis, Part u, The Store-City of 
Pithom, Naukratis, Part 1, and The Shrine of Saft-el-Henneh, as well as a complete 
set, in duplicate, of all the memoirs published by this association, presented to the 
Institution as a return for its services in distributing the publications of the asso- 
ciation in America; the first volume of the Fossils of the British Islands, pre- 
sented by the delegates of the Clarendon Press, Oxford; a large volume of Memoirs 
on Whales and Seals, from the author, Sir William Turner, Edinburgh; a set of 
nineteen large volumes and pamphlets, catalogues of manuscripts, and special col- 
lections of books, from the Royal Library at Berlin; the third section of Vol. 2 of 
the great Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, from the same library; aseries of fourteen 
catalogues of the various collections in the Royal Museum at Berlin; a complete file 
of the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, from 1884 to date, from the Berliner Gesellschaft 
fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte; full sets of publications, including 
charts from the hydrographic offices of Great Britain, Denmark, Italy, and Russia; 
Vol. 1 of Expéditions Scientifiques du Travailleur et du Talisman, containing the 
fishes, by L. Vaillant, from the Bureau Frangaise des KEchanges Internationaux, which 
also sent a large series of other important publications of the French Government; a 
large series of government reports from the Hawaiian Government; Mean Scottish 
Meteorology, from the author, Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth; Part 5 of Lilljeborg’s Sveriges 
och Norges Fiskar; and a gorgeously illustrated work from his highness the Maharaja 

of Ulwar, entitled Ulwar and its Art Treasures, by Thomas Holbein Hendley. 
' Very respectfully submitted. 
JOHN MURDOCH, 


Librarian. 
Prof. S. P. LANGLEY, 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


o 





f 
‘ 
i 
; 
d 








GENERAL APPENDIX 


TO THE 


SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1889 


* 


























+ 
4 
> 
. a 
r 
* 


i ee 


ca 


oe 
\ 





ADVERTISEMENT. 


. . 

The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the 
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discov- 
ery in particular directions; occasional reports of the investigations 
made by collaborators of the Institution; memoirs of a general charac- 
ter or on special topics, whether original and prepared expressly for the 
purpose, or selected from foreign journals and proceedings; and briefly 
to present (as fully as space will permit) such papers not published in 
the “ Smithsonian Contributions” or in the ‘* Miscellaneous Collections” 
as may be supposed to be of interest or value to the numerous corre- 
spondents of the Institution. 

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, from avery early date, to enrich the annual report 
required of them by law, with memoirs illustrating the more remarka- 
ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery, 
as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- 
tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part ofits history, been 
carried out largely by the publication ot such papers as would possess 
an interest to all attracted by scientific progress, so that the appendices 
of the annual reports, during the years down to 1880, have been almost 
wholly so occupied. ; 

In 1880, the Secretary , induced in part by the discontinuation of an 
annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been 
issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- 
petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the promi- 
nent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteor- 
ology, physies, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropol- 
ogy. Other subjects which might properly have been ineluded, such as 
those of terrestrial physics, hydrography, microscopy, ete., as well as 
the more practical topics of generai technology, were omitted, both for 
want of time and want of space, so that from the outset the impractica- 
bility of a review of the whole field was recognized. 

It has already been mentioned in the annual report for 1888 that these 
latter provisions seemed justified by further experience until in 1886, 
the incompleteness of the special record, the discouragements from the 
increasing delays encountered in the printing of these summaries, the 
recent multiplication by private enterprise of special books and periodi- 

87 


88 ADVERTISEMENT. 


cals devoted to critical summaries, and other considerations, induced a 
temporary suspension of the project; while it was added that with every 
effort to secure prompt attention to the more important details of the 
survey of the annual progress of scientific discovery, experience has 
shown that it is impracticable to obtain all the desired reports in each 
department within the time prescribed, that the plan attempted of 
bringing up the deficiencies in subsequent reports has not proved en- 
tirely satisfactory, and that in view of these delays, of the ever-increas- 
ing range of complexity of the subjects to be treated, and of other con- 
siderations, it is probable that it may be thought advisable to revert to 
the accustomed, and, it is believed, more widely acceptable plan of pub- 
lishing yearly papers selected with a principal view to their general 
scientific interest, rather than to attempt the continuation of summaries 
chiefly of importance to the professional student. 

The earlier established plan of the annual reports is followed in this 
volume, though not to the exclusion of such summaries as may be con- 
nected with the recognized fields of labor of the Institution. 


Wea cuneate: fae hearer a 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


Prepared by Prof. ALBERT GUTTSTADT, M. D.* 


Translated and condensed by GrorGE H. BOEHMER. 


I.—THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 
(Physico-Mathematical Class.) 


The Royal Academy of Sciences was established in 1701 by King 
Frederick I, upon the solicitation of Leibnitz and received the name 
“Royal Society of Sciences ;” the word Academy was substituted in 
1744 on occasion of the reorganization of the society under Frederick 
the Great. The statutes, approved by royal decree of March 28, 1881, 
explain the object and composition of the society as follows: ; 

The Academy of Sciences is a society of scientists whose object it is to 
promote science without being required to adhere to any plan of instrue- 
tion. It comprises four classes of members, but in a more limited sense 
it is formed by the whole body of regular members, who, under the 
direction of the secretaries attend to the affairs of the entire academy. 

The Academy possesses the rights of a privileged corporation, has its 
own seal, owns its premises, has its own funds and aregular, guaranteed 
income which it dispenses according to the adopted rules. 

For the conduct of some of its affairs the Academy has formed two 
sections: the physico-mathematical and the philosophical-historical 
class. (Formerly four classes existed, but since 1830 they became 
united into two.) 

Each section manages its own affairs. No difference of importance 
exists as regards the two sections. 

The membership is formed of: (1) regular members, (2) foreign mem- 
bers, (3) honorary members, (4) corresponding members. ‘The honorary 
members are not assigned to any special sections; all other members 
are assigned to the respective sections and can belong only to that 
section. 

The seniority of ordinary and foreign members is regulated by the 
time of their election. 





* «© Tie naturwissenschaftlichen und medicinischen Staatsanstalten Berlins,” compiled as 
a memorial volume of the fifty-ninth meeting of the Association of German Natural- 
ists and Physicians, by authority of Dr. von Gossler, minister of worship, education, 


and medical affairs, Berlin, 1886, 
89 


90 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


To ordinary membership only such persons are eligible as are residents 
of Berlin or live in places the connection of which with the national 
capital permits them to take part in their regular academic duties. 
Any such member removing to a place not provided for in the above is 
transferred to the number of honorary members. 

Each class may have twenty-seven regular members. A number of 
these places is intended for certain specified branches of science; for 
the remaining places all scientists whose activity lies within that speci- 
fied section may become eligible. 

Vacancies among specialists may be left open, yet, the advantage of 
the academy requires all possible competition. In that case the class has 
to decide whether any of its members may be selected for the purpose. 
Applications for these places can emanate only from regular members. 

A proposed class election is to be communicated to the presiding sec- 
retary of the academy and then considered by the entire academy at its 
next regular session when the candidate is elected by ballot. 

The result of the election is to be communicated to the minister who 
obtains the king’s approval. 

If ascientist, non-resident of Berlin or of any of the places allowed 
for, receives the election of regular member he is required to remove to 
Berlin within six months of the date of his confirmation—which time 
may be increased in special cases. If he fails to comply with this rule 
he is enrolled among the honorary members. 

The regular members are both permitted and required to share the 
labors of the Academy ; they have a seat and a vote both in the general 
Academy and in the class, and are permitted to attend the meetings of 
either of the classes. 

A member of twenty-five years standing or having reached the age 
of seventy may be relieved from lecturing or speaking. 

The regular members are entitled to all privileges of the royal insti- 
tutions and collections. They are furthermore privileged to lecture at 
any university of the Prussian domain and enjoy equal rights with the 
professors in accordance with regulations to which they are also bound 
with regard to the lectures. 

With regard to salaries the following regulations are in force: 

(1) Each of the fifty-four regular members of the Academy receive an 
annual salary of 900 mark ($225.). 

(2) Separate salaries, additional to the above 900 mark are given to 
two regular members of the physico-mathematical class, of which one 
has to be a botanist and the other a chemist, and to two regular mem- 
bers of the philosophic-historical class, who are required to be phi- 
lologists or historians. The salary of the chemist also includes the 
official dwelling in the building of the academy and the use, for scientific 
purposes, of any available room in the building not otherwise occupied. 
The payment of such a salary is made for special services required in 
the conduct of a certain office or professorship, or in the direction of a 
scientific institute. 





a 


ee 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. oA 


(3) A special salary for special duties may be given by vote of the 
academy for such a time as may be required in the performance of 
special duties. The pensioning of the salaried officials is optional. 

(4) The two salaries may be granted at once at the time of election, 
provided the proposition is made at the time of election of the candi- 
date. This requires the sanction of the minister. 

(5) The widow or, in her absence, the children of a deceased member 
continue to draw the salary of their husband or father for the term of 
one year, commencing with the day of his death. 

Foreign (or non-resident) members are such as do not reside at Berlin 
or at one of the places provided for in the statutes. Of these each class 
has ten. The Academy is not required to fill vacancies in this number. 
The non-resident members enjoy all the rights of the regular members, 
and in case of any visit to Berlin, and upon notification of the fact to 
the general secretary, they receive invitations to the meeting, ete., the 
same as the regular members. 

Honorary membership may be extended to such resident scientists 
as are prevented from fulfilling the obligations of regular membership ; 
it may further be extended to non-resident and foreign scientists who 
have excelled in scientific pursuits and insome way have given evidence 
of their interest in the welfare of the Academy. There is no limit to 
the number of honorary members. 

The honorary members are entitled to participate in the meetings of 
the Academy of which they are, in each case, informed by invitation. 
They are at liberty to make scientific communications and to take part 
in the deliberations of business affairs. 

The corresponding members are composed of scientists, non-residents 
of Berlin. They retain the corresponding membership in the event of 
their locating at Berlin. Each class offers one hundred places for eor- 
responding members. 

The corresponding members are entitled to take part in the publie 
and other meetings of the Academy and of the class to which they, re- 
spectively, have been assigned and to make scientific communications. 
They are also permitted to be present at business meetings, but have 
no vote in the same. 

The business of the Academy is conducted by four permanent secre- 
taries, of which each class furnishes two. 

The secretaries are elected for life and draw a salary of 1,800 mark 
annually, which amount is also paid to the surviving widow or orphans 
for the period of one year succeeding the death of the incumbent. 

The secretaries range according to the seniority of their election. 

Each of the secretaries carries a seal. 

Each of the two classes elect their secretaries out of their own mem- 
bers and in secret session. The election has to receive the King’s sane- 
tion. 


92 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


It is the duty of the secretaries to conduct the business of the Acad- 
emy and to execute its orders. The manner of arranging the duties 
among their number is left to their discretion. 

In the presidency and the duties of that office and in the conduct of 
the affairs of the general Academy, the secretaries change successively 
every four monthsin accordance with their seniority, unless they arrange 
among themselves for some other method of succession. In case of en- 
forced absence of the presiding secretary the last secretary has to take 
his place. All four secretaries being unavoidably detained from pre- 
siding, the senior of the ordinary members assumes the office. 

The business secretary is styled the presiding secretary; he carries 
the great seal of the Academy and supervises the officials and clerks of 
the Academy. He calls the extraordinary meetings of the members 
and the meetings of the secretaries; he issues the invitations and pre- 
sides at all meetings; in case of a tie his vote is decisive; he signs the 
protocols and arranges for the execution of the various resolutions. He 
has charge of the correspondence of the Academy, opens all communica- 
tions, submits them and then takes charge of further action. He is re- 
sponsible for the observance of the statutes, and for that purpose com- 
municates directly with the minister. In submitting his charge of four 
months he has to surrender to his successor a complete inventory made 
in the presence of the archivist. 

The presiding secretary, or his substitute, is the only person per- 
mitted to institute legal proceedings in the name of the Academy, for 
which purpose he may receive special identification on the part of the 
ministry. Money may be paid to the cashier of the ministry. 

Within the classes of the Academy the respective secretaries assume 
the presidency and the execution of all business affairs for the term of 
from four to four months. 

The regular salaried officials of the Academy—at present an archivist, 
one clerk, one door-keeper and one messenger—are appointed for life or 
any specified term in general session and by recommendation of the col- 
lege of secretaries. The appointments have to receive the approval of 
the ministry. 

The following rules are in force regarding meetings, labors, and pub- 
lications : 

The members participate in the meetings according to the rights of 
their respective grade. Others, not members, may be permitted to at- 
tend the scientific meetings ; they have to be recommended by a mem- 
ber and introduced to the presiding secretary. 

The meetings of the Academy are held every Thursday and alternate 
with those of the entire Academy and by those of the classes. 

At each regular meeting a scientific paper is to be read by one of the 
regular members, at the expiration of which other members are permitted 
to make scientific communications or in any way to introduce scientific 
objects. 

The general Academy is empowered to submit questions to the secre- 





ae one 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 93 


tary of the respective classes for action or report; or a special commis- 
sion or commissioner may be appointed for report on some scientific or 
business question ; the appointment of such commission is made by or- 
dinary election, or, if required, by secret ballot. 

The general Academy holds three public meetings annually ; the one 
on July 1 in memory of Leibnitz, its first president, a second one on 
January 24in commemoration of the birth of Frederick LI, the re-organ- 
izer of the Academy, and the third on the birth-day of the reigning King. 
If these days do not fall upon Thursday, the succeeding Thursday is set 
aside for such public meeting. 

The secretaries alternate in the conduct of the presidency on these 
special occasions, and the presiding officer is required either to make 
mention of the occasion by a few introductory remarks or to read a 
special paper on the subject. 

In the meetings held in memory of Leibnitz, regular members, elected 
during the year, make their first speech or deliver their first lecture, 
each being responded to by one of the secretaries. Hulogies of de- 
ceased members are read during the course of the meeting. The busi- 
ness of the public meeting consists of the announcement of prizes, the 
reading of annual reports on the changes in the personnel, and of other 
papers explanatory to the works and results of the scientific enterprises 
or foundations connected with the Academy. Papers read in regular 
session may, upon consent of the Academy, be read again in these pub- 
lic meetings. 

In accordance with the intention of its foundation, it is the duty of 
the Academy to render assistance to the scientific enterprises of its 
members or scientists generally which require combined activity of sev- 
eral scientists, or which, on account of their compass or expense, would 
require the assistance of the Academy. A further duty of the Academy 
requires it to manage foundations of a strict scientific character, and to 
encourage or reward, by the giving of prizes, investigations, or researches 
in certain defined directions. 

The Academy publishes “ Sitzungsberichte” and ‘ Denkschriften,” 
the editing of which devolves upon the college of secretaries, subject 
to regulations adopted by the entire Academy. The members receive 
copies, beginning with the year of their admission. 

Explicit permission of the Academy or one of its classes is absolutely 
required for the publication in the academic proceedings of any scien- 
tific paper. The request for publication must be accompanied by the 
ready manuscript, and the proposition may be voted on at once. Ifthe 
expense or any other important point should require a further consid- 
eration a commission may be appointed for the purpose, or the subject 
may be referred to the board of secretaries or to one of the classes of 
the Academy. 

Upon the request of one of the members present the acceptance for 
publication of any paper or any proceeding connected therewith may 
be voted on by secret ballot. 


94 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 
LI8f OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 


Miscellanea Berolinensia, t. 1-7, Berlin, 1710-1743, 4to. . 

Histoire de VAcadémie Royale des Sciences,t. 1-25, années 1745-1769 ; ibid., 1746-1771, 
Ato. 

Nouveaux Mémoires, années 1770-1786 ; ibid., 1772-1728, Ato. 

Mémoires, années, 1787-1804; ibid., 1792-1807, 4to. 

Sammlung der deutschen Abhandlungen, 1788-1803; ibid., 1793-1807, 4to. 

Abhandlungen, 1804-1885; ibid., 1815-1886, 4to. 

Bericht iiber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen, 1836-1855; ibid., 
1836-1855, 8vo. 

Monatsberichte aus den Jahren 1856-1881 ; ibid., 1856-12881, 8vo. 

Sitzungsberichte der k Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1882 ff; 
ibid., 1832-1886, 8vo. 

Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus den Sitzungsberichten 
der k. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Jahrg, 1882 ff., Berlin, 
1882-1886, 8vo. 

Astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir das Jahr 1776; ibid., 1774, 8vo. The same for 1777- 
1829 ; ibid., 1775-1826, 8vo. 

Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir das Jahr 1830; ibid., 1828, 8vo. The same for 
1831-1867 ; ibid., 1829-1865, 8vo. 

The regular annual revenues of the Academy consist of (1) The income 
from its own endowments; (2) dotation of 62,229 mark ($15,587) given 
as an annual revenue in place of the endowment of King Frederick 
William IfI (Royal decree of August 16, 1809); (3) assistance by the 
government ; (4) its own profits. 

The expenditures are: (1) Payment of salaries and remunerations ; 
(2) prizes, publications of the Academy, care and increase of the library, 
all rendered domestic expenses required, including heating, lighting, 
and repairs; (3) for scientific purposes. With regard to these all pos- 
sible equality should be secured for each of the two classes. 

Any surplus may be added to the income for the coming year or added 
to the principal. 

The funds available during the years 1886-87 amounted to 208,982 
mark ($52,245.) 

The scientific proportion was 194,695 mark ($48,674), of which the 
following disbursements were made: (1) Salaries, 111,600 mark 
($27,900); (2) real expenses, 83,095 mark ($20,774,) as follows: (a) Publi- 


cation of Abhandlungen und Sitzungsbericihte, 22,800 mark ($5,950), 


(b) assistance to scientific enterprises, 53,000 mark ($13,250); (¢) prizes 
3,295 mark ($824); (d) inerease of the library, 3,000 mark ($750.) 

The expenses of administration were 14,287 mark ($3,572) of which 
5,715 ($1,429) were for personal, and 8,572 mark ($2,143) for essential 
expenses. 

The financial management provides, as far as possible, an equal 
share for each of the sections, Separate accounts are kept only with re- 
gard to items2 band2¢. The physico-mathematical class may annually 
dispense over 22,900 mark ($5,725) under 2b, and 2,425 mark ($606) 
under 2c, From this amount the class has to meet each eighth year the 





Pha NAO ANCE ARE 


jae A AEE 


ee 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. dD 


academic prize of 5,000 mark ($1,250), and in intervals of twelve, 

twelve, and two years, respectively, the prizes of 2,000 mark ($500) on 

account of the Eller legacy, 2,000 mark ($500) on account of the Co- 

thenius legacy, and 1,800 mark ($450) on account of the Steiner legacy. 

The physico-mathematical class has the benefit of the interest re- 

sulting from the ‘‘ Humboldt Stiftung fiir Naturforschung und Reisen.” 

This endowment, founded by collections after the death of Alexander von 

Humboldt, received the royal sanction by decree of December 19, 1860; 

its management rests in the hands of a special curatorship, and is in- 

tended to assist prominent talent of all nations in the direction pursued 

by Alexander von Humboldt himself and to give pecuniary assistance to 

workers on natural sciences and in the execution of expeditions. 

The following enterprises have been assisted thus far from the inter- 

est of the capital to the amounts specified in each case : 

Journey of Dr, Reinhold Hensel to the La Plata regions for the purpose of collecting 
fossil remains (1863-1865, and publication in 1867), 30,657 mark ($7,664). 

Expedition of Dr. Georg Schweimfurth for the botanical exploration of the south- 
western Nile regions (1868-1871), 33,600 mark ($8,400). 

Continuation of Prof. Reinhold Buchholtz’s zoological exploration of Cameroous 
(1872), 6,450 mark ($1,612). 

J. M. Hildebrandt, expediticns in east Africa and Madagascar in 1876-1877. Allow- 
ance, 14,500 mark ($3,625), 

Dr. Karl Sachs, journey to Venezuela in order to study the electric eel. Allowance, 
1876-1877, and for publication in 1881, 14,500 mark ($3,625). 

Dr. Otto Finsch, journey for scientific investigations in Mikra and Melanesia. Allow- 
ance, 1878-1883, 36,550 mark ($9,138). 

Prof. Gustav Fritsch, journey to Egypt for investigation of electric eel. Allow- 
ance, 9,000 mark ($2,225). 

Dr. Eduard Arning, journey to the Sandwich Islands for the study of Lepra. Allow- 
ance, 1883-1884, 10,000 mark ($2,500). 

Continuation of Dr. Paul Guessefeldt’s travels in the Chilian Andes, 1883. Allow- 
ance, 6,000 mark ($1,500), 

Journey of Prof. Georg Schweinfurth in Egypt for the geological exploration of the 
Arabian desert, 1884. Allowance, 5,000 mark (1,250). 


Il.—THE ROYAL FREDERICK WILLIAM’S UNIVERSITY. 


The document establishing the University was executed by King 
Frederick William III, at Kénigsberg, in Prussia, on the 16th of Au- 
gust, 1809. 

By the treaty of Tilsit, on July 9, 1807, Prussia had been deprived of 
a considerable portion of its domain and the territory of the King 
restricted to about 5,000,000 inhabitants. 

By a short but impressive proclamation of July 24, 1807, the King 
relieved his subjects beyond the river Elbe from fealty. In that procla- 
mation he says: * Inhabitants of those beloved and trusted provinces, 
realms, and towns, you are well acquainted with my views and with the 
events of the last year. My army was conquered and peace had to 


96 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


be concluded under the best possible conditions. The tie of 1ove and 
confidence of centuries is to be severed. Fate decided, and the father 
separates himself from his children, but no fate, no power may extin- 
guish your memory in my heart.” Strong and sincere, too, was the love 
of the inhabitants of those surrendered provinces for their king. Deep 
was the sorrow in Halle and among the members of the university 
which Napoleon had dissolved on the 20th of October, 1806. A deputa- 
tion, consisting of Schmalz and Froriep was sent to Memel, and in their 
name and that of their colleagues requested the King, in a petition of 
August 22, 1307, to consider the establishment of a scientific institution 
at Berlin. Hufeland, present in Memel, supported the wishes of the 
delegation. 

On September 4, 1807, the King issued an order to Privy Councillor 
Beyme to the effect that, in view of the loss by the state of the Uni- 
versity of Halle owing to the surrender of the domain west of the 
river Elbe, one of the most important and perfect educational establish- 
ments had ceased to exist and that it should be one of the first duties 
of the government, in the consideration of a reorganization of the state, 
to provide for the erection of some such establishment in the best pos- 
sible manner; that the universities at Frankfort and Konigsberg were 
not adapted to compensate for the loss, the former on account of the 
insufficiency of local auxiliary means and the latter on account of its 
great distance from the national capital; that Berlin, however, com- 
bined all the means adapted for such an educationalestablishment with 
the least possible expense and with the greatest possible advantage 
for its usefulness. In view of these facts the establishment at Berlin of 
such an institution in connection with the existing Academy of Sciences 
was decided upon. All the funds which had formerly been devoted to 
the support of the university at Halle were to be employed for the pur- 
pose, and Privy Councillor Beyme was instructed to secure for the 
new university the services of the prominent professors of Halle before 
other chances were offered to and accepted by them. 

Frederick the Great, in his endeavors to re-model and re-organize the 
state, was not in position to do much towards universities ; he was sat- 
isfied with having restored the proper rank to the highest representative 
of science, and only occasionally he alluded to the need of high schools. 
On April 7, 1784, he wrote to Frankfort that “the students should re- 
ceive such instructions as to enable each of them to learn something 
useful so as to be enabled to render efficient service to state or church, 
since he thought more of this than of any formalities.” All other care 
he left to his minister, von Zedlitz, who himself had become a pupil of 
the great Kant. The two universities, Kénigsberg and Halle, received 
prompt attention; Forster and Wolff had been appointed, and the neces- 
sity of a fixed plan of instruction had repeatedly been pointed out. This 
being most noticeable in the study of law, a regular schedule was pre- 
pared in 1771. In 1787 the higher educational council took the place 





THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN, on 


of the board of curators of universities. The “General Laws for the 
Royal Prussian Universities, February 23, 1796,” provide that applica- 
tions for public positions can be entertained only of persons who have 
graduated from the university. 

On January 8, 1805, Minister von Massow submitted his report on a 
suitable arrangement of the universities, in the preface of which he 
says: “Ithas long been a recognized fact that the universities, considered 
as establishments of education or at least of instruction, should be im- 
proved and arranged in a way conforming to their principal object. In 
order to realize such project and to remedy the abnormal conditions, 
remnants of gray antiquity, two principal obstacles have to be over- 
come, namely, the dominant character of the scientific man in his one- 
sidedness (partiality), and the want of funds ; the improvement of their 
own financial condition will have to be the means to overcome their 
obstinacy.” 

A number of reformatory orders were issued during the following 
years: A royal order of April 7, 1804, fixed the academic term at three 
years. This was made public by circular letter of October 12, 1804, of 
the minister of justice, who adds that the candidates for promotion 
could be examined only upon proof of their having completed the pre- 
scribed course of studies. A further order of November 27, imposes 
that condition on all aliens or foreigners, who were applicants for pos- 
itions requiring academic education. 

The want of sufficient means too was a source of great complications. 
The amounts which, at the time of the establishment of the universities, 
had been ample, now barely covered the most urgent necessaries; the 
budgets were insufficient to permit even an approach towards securing 
the requirements demanded by progressing science. Since the equip- 
ment of Halle the grants, by the State, to all universities had been but 
very small, Frederick William II, during the eleven years of his reign, 
having been able to spare but 12,270 thaler ($10,200,) for the combined 
needs of all the universities, and their number having increased to nine 
in 1802 the vital question of their existence demanded an early settle 
ment. 

A commission appointed for the purpose, decided on the abolishment 
of a portion of the antiquated establishments. Frankfort’s income was 
increased from 12,846 to 15,314 thaler ($9,635 to $11,485); Erlangen 
from 30,000 to 57,768 florins ($12,857 to $24,757); Halle from 18,116 to 
36,113 thaler ($13,587 to $27,085). Means of instruction were provided 
and collections purchased for Frankfort and Konigsberg. Halle was 
enriched by the appointment of professors of repute, and the salaries 
were increased by allowances from the royal treasury. In 1805 the 
number of students had increased at Frankfort to 307, Konigsberg to 
300, and at Halle to 944. 

The surrender required by the treaty of Tilsit of the Halle University, 
notwithstanding the oppressed condition of the State, demanded im- 

H, Mis, 224——7 





98 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


mediate action with regard to the establishment of a new university 
which could then be commenced in conformity with the experiences 
gained by the long-continued inquiries into an improved orgauization. 

Although it can not beestablished by documentary evidence, it is suf- 
ficiently well known that long before the unfortunate events of 1806 
the cabinet of Frederick William III had already considered the ad- 
visability of founding a university at Berlin. Privy Councilor Beyme 
therefore was well informed on the subject when in 1807 he was re- 
quested to formulate plans for the establishment and organization of 
a university at the capital of the Kingdom. It may even be positively 
asserted that it was Beyme himself with whom the project originated. 

He was deeply interested in universities; he was an adherent and 
friend of Fichte; he had induced the King to grant him asylum at Ber- 
lin; he was instrumental in having him appointed at Erlangen, and was 
responsible for the appointments of Schleiermacher and Steffens to Halle 

Ata large number of scientific institutions, established at an earlier 
day—the Academy, the Military Academy for Officers, the Artillery 
and Engineers’ School, the Military Cadet Establishment, the Mining 
School, etc.—scientifically educated teachers were employed. The 
science of medicine was the best provided for.. The “ Collegium medico- 
chirurgicum” represented a medical faculty for the education of young 
army physicians. In 1806 the staff of that establishment was formed 
by twenty professors (eighteen regular and two assistant). 

Since Frederick’s time lectures were held on other scientific subjects 
for purposes of practical instructions ; thus, on law and legal proceed- 
ings in the department of justice, and in forestry and technology by the 
general directory. TheAcademy of Arts instituted courses of lectures 
for the development of the artistic taste. There were high schools con- 
ducted by teachers of repute, some of them members of the Academy. 
Since however an intermediate step was wanting between the two, 
greater demands were made on both teachers and pupils which elevated 
them almost to the dignity of an university. There were further, the 
library, the botanical garden, the observatory, the natural history col- 
lection of the academy, the collections of the mining and smelting de- 
partment, the anatomical theater, the collection of physical, astronom- 
ical, and chirurgical apparatus, the royal and the academic coin collec- 
tions and the picture gallery in the royal castle. 

Since the beginning of the reign of Frederick William ITI additions had 
been made to the number of the existing older establishments. In 1798 
the Eschke Institute for Geaf-mutes was enlarged from means furnished 
by the royal treasury; in 1799 the Academy for Architects was founded 
and the military establishment enlarged; in 1805 attempts were made for 
the improvement of military education, and lectures were instituted for 
artisans. In 1804 the academy for young officers was founded, in 1805 
the statistical bureau, and in 1806 the Institute for the Blind and the 
Agricultural Institute. All branches of knowledge were cared for, 





? 
‘ 
: 
7 
* 
b 


Pee re oe ee er 


_——  ¥ 


—— 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. v9 


Soon after Fichte’s appointment Jena furnished a second celebrated 
teacher. In 1800 Hufeland was appointed professor and director of 
the “Collegium medico-chirurgicum.” The academy elected him to 
membership; the medical affairs were intrusted to him, and in his posi- 
tion as physician to the King opportunities were not wanting which 
enabled him to render decisions on scientific questions. 

For the improvement in agricultural knowledge Thaer was called in 
1804, and he at once prepared for the establishment of his ‘‘ Agricult- 
ural Institute.” 

Alexander von Humboldt, upon the return from his expedition around 
the world, on September 3, 1804, declared his intentions to enter the 
services of the state. It was about this time that Beyme expected to 
organize the new establishment. The programme of Gottingen—or 
rather thespirit of the programme freed from all abuses,—a general scien- 
tific educational establishment, was his plan for the Berlin University. 

Owing to the threatening conditions, however, the project was not 
consummated. Soon crushing blows demoralized the state ; on October 
27, 1806, Napoleon entered the city of Frederick the Great. s 

After the treaty of Tilsit, when the King and his council prepared the 
organization of the great reform, the plan for the new university formed 
one of the points under consideration and this gave rise to a multitude 
of opinions, objections, and deliberations. 

During all these deliberations the patriotism and the scientific zeal 
of the professors who had already received their commissions, had been 
demonsrated ; they had entered on their course of lectures. The Uni- 
versity existed, although not by official recognition. It was formed 
by the four professors: Schleiermacher, Schmalz, Fichte, and Wolf, 
each of whom represented a faculty. 

On December 3, 1808,the French evacuated Berlin. Among the changes 
which took place in the national administration was the appointment of 
Wilhelm von Humboldt to take charge of the public instruction. 

In April, 1809, Humboldt left for Kénigsberg in order to personally 
urge before the King a final determination. A building became neces- 
sary, both in order to enable the professors to appear as public teachers 
and to secure an appreciation of the scheme by the inhabitants. The 
palace of Prince Henry had been repeatedly suggested for the purpose. 
Frederick the Great had constructed it during the years 1754-1764, and 
by death it had reverted to the crown. Frederick William III gave 
favorable consideration to Humboldt’s wishes and donated the palace 
“for all time to come.” 

Greater difficulties appear to have presented themselves in obtaining 
security for the required means. Hufeland in 1807 already had shown 
the desirability of endowment by real estate; Humboldt shared his 
views and endeavored to gain the annual means by obtaining donation 
in the form of private domain belonging to the crown. In his memorial 
on the subject, of July 24, 1809, Humboldt says: “It may appear 


100 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


strange that the section of public instruction at the present moment of 
time ventures to advocate a plan, the execution of whith would lead 
one to the supposition of quieter and happier days.” He continues by 
saying that only such high educational establishments as the Berlin 
University is intended to be, can exert an external influence, and that 
by such a foundation the King would be instrumental in combining with 
him firmly everyone throughout Germany interested in education and 
enlightenment; he would instill new zeal for the rejuvenation of his 
realm and offer to German science a never-hoped-for asylum at a time 
when part of Germany had been destroyed by war and another part 
was governed over by a stranger. Thus the patriotic ideal became 
prominent in the plan for the foundation of the new university. 

Wilhelm von Humboldt finally recommended formally its foundation 
at Berlin, to bear the time-honored name of University, since the nature 
of things requires a division of scientific institutes into schools, univer- 
sities, and academies. He asked in the name of the University for a 
fund of 60,000 thaler, ($45,000,) and for the two academies—the Academy 
of Sciences and the Academy of Arts—a fund of 4,000 thaler ($3,000) 
additional to their present means. 

By order of August 16, 1809, the King proclaimed that he considered 
the plan for higher education within and without the limits of the realm 
of such importance as to prohibit any further delay in the foundation 
of a University at Berlin which should be endowed with the privilege 
to confer academic honors. 

An annual amount of 150,000 thaler ($112,500,) was granted to all the 
scientific establishments at Berlin, and the palace of the late Prince 
Henry deeded under the name of the ‘“‘ University building.” 

At the time of financial trouble the establishment of a new univer- 
sity presented a grave economic problem. The King however did not 
withhold his private fortune to aid the state or the people. The gold 
plate was withdrawn from the royal tables and coined and the remains 
were sold. 

At last the stage for the settlement of the question of internal ad- 
ministration was reached. A royal decree of May 30, 1810, appointed 
a commission for the purpose. ; 

The appointment of professors continued at salaries averaging be- 
tween 1,200 to 1,500 thaler ($900 to $1,125), with from 200 to 500 thaler 
($150 to $375) added for travelling expenses. 

On September 22, 1810, the section of public instruction submitted 
to the King its final report, in which it was stated that ‘“‘Thus this 
important institute has been opened in accordance with the will of your 
Majesty, and the section recognizes with respectful thanks the pow- 
erful protection and grateful privileges accorded the university to 
which alone it owes its rapid and healthy establishment. For among ail 
the renowned universities of Kurope there is not one possessed of such 
“a number of tried teachers, with such scientific means, and with such 
splendor in building.” 








THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 101 


Indeed, it was an important moment when the section submitted 
the first programme of the lectures which contained such celebrated 
names. It was the often-promised seed which at last was being sown. 

The staff was formed of fifty-eight teachers, of which twenty-four 
were regular professors, nine secondary professors, fourteen private 
lecturers, Six members of the academy, and five teachers of modern 
languages. One hundred and sixteen courses of lectures were an- 
nounced, of which the theological faculty had ten, the medical thirty- 
four, philosophical sixty-two, and the faculty of law ten. 

The general specialties of science were pretty well represented; the 
introduction of German antiquity as a subject for historic philological 
study was new. Heindorf, in his introductory address, impressively 
urged on the students the expectations held of them, for the improve- 
ment of the newly created university. 

By order of September 28, Schmalz was nominated rector, and 
Schleiermacher, Biener, Hufeland, and Fichte, deans. On October 1 the 
section requested the rector to begin matriculations, and on October 
6 this act was performed on six students. 

On October 10,1810, upon the invitation of the rector, the first as- 
sembly took place, at the university building, consisting of sixteen pro- 
fessors. It was opened by the rector with an address; in place of oath 
of office he bound the professors to this duty by pressure of hand, where- 
upon the senate of the university was declared constituted. 

The senate ruled that each faculty should conter honors upon the 
graduates, and that the use of the lecture-rooms was to be arranged ac- 
cording to a compensating table. The lectures were set to begin on 
October 19, to which general rule, however, exceptions were permitted, 
thus Hufeland commenced his lectures and the instructions at the poli- 
clinical institute on the 15th, Griife on the same day, Fichte on the 
21st of October, while a few did not commence until the beginning of 
November. 

As an external mark of distinetion the following epigram was pro- 
posed by Wolf: 

‘“ Universitati Litterarie Fridericus Guilelmus III rex. A. CIptocce 
vit.” It was recommended by Battemann and sanctioned by the 
King. 

A change in the administration occurred at about the time of the open- 
ing of theuniversity. By decree of November 20, 1810, a new presi- 
dent was appointed for the department of public instruction, and the 
decree was communicated to all German universities. The acts of the 
Berlin University begin with it. It stated: “You will be convinced 
yourself of the importance which the department of worship and public 
instruction now intrusted to your keeping exerts upon the welfare of 
the state and its inhabitants, even upon that of humanity. The object 
which the section of worship must always have in view is the advance- 
ment of true religiousness without compulsion or mysterious fanatism, 


102 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


and liberty of consience and toleration without public offense. In its 
position as leading oftice it should direct its efforts toward enabling all 
classes to obtain a thorough training in science and general knowledge, 
and to disseminate clear conception and such opinions as tend to create 
usefulness in practical life, true patriotism, obedience to and confidence 
in the Government and the constitution. Most especially however it 
should guard against the introduction, into science, of the spirit of ex- 
clusiveness, which is nowhere more reprehensible than in objects pertain- 
ing to human knowledge.” 

The winter term of 181213 began under increasing excitement. The 
first news of the destruction, in Russia, of the French army, reduced 
the number of participants to the lectures. Teachers and pupils were 
seized by irresistible desire to regain the fatherland and its most holy 
possessions. 

On February 3, the King called his people to arms; the word had been 
given and all restraint ceased ; the lectures were abandoned, many pro- 
fessors dismissing their pupils with impressive words. On March 28, 
Schleiermacher read from the pulpit the King’s ‘call to arms.” 

Quiet again reigned in the halls of learning ; as far as the excitement 
permitted, the remainder re-commenced their labors. In the bulletin 
of March 18, the rector announced, that notwithstanding the small num- 
ber of students remaining—most of them being foreigners—the lectures 
interrupted during the exciting days would be resumed in the coming 
summer, Only fifteen professors resumed their lectures. 

Upon the re-entry at Berlin, on March 31, 1814, of the returning vic- 
tors, the thought at once was expressed to erect a monument to the 
memory of those who had perished for the good of the country. On 
July 16, the senate resolved to engrave their names upon a monument 
to be erected in the large hall. 

The University however gave a further proof of its appreciation and 
eratitude, by conferring the honorary doctor title upon the following: 

Hardenberg—patriz in discrimine posite sospitatorum felicissimum ; 
Bliicher—Germanice libertatis vindicem acessimum, glorie Borussice 
recuperatorum in victum, felicem, immortatum, Tauenzien, York, Kleist, 
Biilow,—victoriis, preclarissimis de patrisimmortaliter meritos, German- 
ormum libertatis vindices; Gneisenau—consiliis sapientissimis, promp- 
tissimis, saluberissimis in procliorum discrimine de patria immortaliter 
meritum, Germanorum libertatis vindicem. 

On February 9, 1815, the anniversary of the war-like action of the 
students had been celebrated, and on April 7 the King called to arms 
again. A second hot and bloody summer followed and for a second 
time Paris surrendered. 

During the Franco-Prussian war of 1870~71, eight hundred students 
and professors joined the army, and of this number thirty-eight stu- 
dents and one private lecturer lost their lives. On August 3, 1875, the 
rector unveiled a tablet erected to the memory of the brave young men. 


3 





4 


a ee ee ee 


a a 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 103 


The oration of Prof. Dr. Mittermaier, of Heidelberg, delivered in the 
name of the representatives of the German and Swiss Universities on 
October 15, 1860, the fiftieth anniversary of the Berlin Alma Mater 
bears witness to the fact that its scientific development fully realized 
the expectations expressed in the reseript of November 23, 1810. 

The University preserves a grateful memory to all who principally 
contributed to its developments. Thus the birthday of King Frederick 
William II] and of the reigning King are celebrated by orations. 

In addition to the busts of Kings Frederick William III and IV busts 
of thirty-three rectors and professors adora the aula. 

As regards the organization of the University the propositions of 
Schleiermacher were adopted- The faculties of the present day were 
considered the fundamental columus of the structure. His memorial 
with regard to the organization of the theological faculty served as : 
basis for the others. 

On December 28, 1510, the regulation of the academic jurisdiction was 
issued as fundamental law for all Prussian Universities. As a means 
of protection, the Department of Instruction, on February 8, 1811, is- 
sued to the students a “ecard of recognition.” On February 20,1811, ree- 
tor and senate informed all universities of the opening and joined the 
union. The present statutes were sanctioned by the King on October 
31, 1816, and delivered on April 26, 1517. 

Based on these statutes a later order of January 29, 1858, gave spe- 
cial statutes to each of the faculties. Those of the medical and philo- 
sophical faculties have repeatedly been altered since. 

The decrees of 1819 and 1834, based on the resolutions of the German 
Parliament, had originated under influences of principles and conditions 
which in consequence of the political movement of 1848 had experienced 
such modifications as to induce the Government to relieve the Prussian 
universities from the unjust suspicion expressed in those decrees and to 
return to them the independence required for the development of an 
active corporate life. 

Upon request the universities furnished reports as to a comfortable 
change with regard to academic jurisdiction and discipline. 

On October 29, 1879, a law was promulgated relating to the question 
of jurisdiction and discipline at the national universities. 

At the opening of the University fifty-eight professors were appointed; 
during the summer term of 1886 their number had increased to two 
hundred and egighty-three, distributed among the faculties as follows : 
Theology, seventeen; law, twenty-two; medicine, one hundred and two ; 
philosophy, one hundred and forty-two. 

The salaries for the regular professors range between 3,000 ($750) and 
12,000 mark ($3,000) annually, and for the secondary professors from 
900 to 4,800 mark ($225 to $1,200.) 

An almost regular increase has been noticed in the number of stu- 
dents. It may suffice here to state that while for the winter term of 


104. THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


1810 one hundred and ninety-eight students were received at the 
University (and for the summer term twenty-nine), the number of 
matriculations for the corresponding terms of 1886 were two thousand 
one hundred and sixty-seven, and one thousand and seventy-one, respect- 
ively. 

Notwithstanding the comparatively short period of its existence, the 
University has already become the recipient of many rich bequests for 
the benefit of worthy and needy students. 

In order to promote diligence among the students prize questions are 
propounded annually in accordance with the following ministerial regu- 
lations : 


REGULATION OF SEPTEMBER 16, 1824, WITH REGARD TO PRIZE QUESTIONS. 


(1) The faculties of the Royal University are to publish annually 
prize questions for solution by the students. 

(2) These prize questions are to relate to strictly scientific subjects, 
and, although the fundamental knowledge may have become known in 
the academic lectures, they must be of such a character as to demand 
thorough study and independent research in order to show, in the 
answers, the amount of education received and the individual judgment. 

(3) One prize question each is to be published annually by the theo- 
logical, juristical, and medical faculties, and two by the philosophical 
faculty, the latter alternating from year to year between one general 
philosophical and one historical, against one philologhical and one 
mathematical or physical. 

(4) Hach faculty selects its own questions alternately from its various 
branches. The member to whose specialty the question belongs is the 
privileged questioner. The proposition has to be made in writing and 
be submitted to the faculty in regular session on the 20th July, and is 
accepted with two-thirds majority. 

(5) All prize questions are published annually, on the birthday of 
the King, by means of a Latin programme. 

(6) Only students of the Berlin University are admitted to competi- 
tion, and the essay has tobe written in Latin. 

(7) Nine months are allowed for the essay, viz, from August 3 of one 
year to May 3 of the following year. 

(8) The replies have to be delivered to the University secretary in 
sealed envelopes and addressed to the respective faculty. Each essay is 
to contain a sealed slip bearing on its inside the name of the writer and 
on the outside the motto which has to be written in the essay under- 
neath the title. These essays have to be delivered to the faculty un- 
opened. Before a decision can be made it is necessary that the essays 
circulate among all members of the faculty ; the member who has pro- 
pounded the question then has to make an explicit report of all the es- 
says and submit the same to the faculty at the latest on the 20th of July, 
when the papers will be discussed as to their merits. Every regular 


ei 





: 
< 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 105 


professor is required to be present at that meeting or to make a satis- 
factory excuse. The majority decides as to the award. 

(9) A number of essays of insufficient value having been received 
only by any faculty, it retains the award until the year following, when 
two questions will be propounded. In the case of unsatisfactory results 
to the second issue, the ministry reserves the right for future action. 

(10) The prize consists of a gold medal in the value of 25 dueats 
($60). 

(11) The festive proclamation of all the prizes takes place on August 
3, the birthday of the King, following immediately upon the oration. 
The public speaker of the University is required to announce, in brief, 
the decisions of the faculty of each of the essays. Thereupon the en- 
velope containing the motto of the victorious student is opened and 
read, together with the name of the essayist. 

(12) The envelopes containing the names of the unsuccessful candi- 
dates are not opened, but may be withdrawn from the secretary, together 
with theessay. The crowned essay is also returned to the writer after a 
copy has been made of it for the archives of the University, and may 
be published by the author for his own benefit. 

The same rules are adopted with regard to the municipal prizes, of 
which one to the value of 225 mark ($56) is placed at the disposal of 
each faculty. The prizes were founded, together with stipend, on occa- 
asion of the fiftieth anniversary of the University. 

Statistics of prize questions for the years 1825-1885 show the fol- 
lowing results: 537 questions were propounded during the past sixty 
years; 779 essays have been submitted, and of these 292, 37.5 per cent. 
have received the prize ; 25, 3.2 per cent., the second reward ; and 108, 
13.9 per cent., public acknowledgment. With regard to the distribu- 
tion by faculties the following result is shown: 


| Second |Acknowl- 


Prizes. 
No. of | | award. edgment. 
Faculty. ques- | Essays. 
tions. | | P | lp / pee 
Ol, ay er | Per 
No. No. | No.| 
| cent. cent. ‘cent. 


| | 
MHeolOk ye. <<c ccs etelate eae eaten a= 111 151 | 60 | 39.7) 4 | 2.6 | 22 | 14.6 
UTIs Prudence .. 23 cccnccet~ o22s 111 Zen: | 59 | 2652.) 4 | 12.8. | 36°), 1680 
IMI CIN Ola cas taicrcie ss caa n'a wae eto = 110 115 | 64°) 5547/4 Sipe) 23 20,0 
Philosophy ...---. -----.---.----| 205 288 | 109 | 37.8 | 13] 4.5 | 27 | 9.4 





106 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 
Institutes connected with the University. 


The University Library.—The first impulse towards establishing an 
independent library for the University was given in 1829, both by the 
rector and the senate of the University and by the chief librarian of the 
Royal Library, Prof. Dr. Wicken. In areport to the proper department 
of the Government it was stated that the Royal Library had become in- 
sufficient for the wants of the professors and students of the University, 
and that for those a separate library had become necessary. The es- 
tablishment of such a library was then decided by royal decree of Feb- 
ruary 20, 1831. 

The resources of the library were at first very moderate, and consisted 
of 500 thaler ($375), collected from the students; furthermore, it was 
decided that each doctor upon promotion, each private lecturer upon 
his qualification, and each professor upon receiving his appointment, 
was to pay 5 thaler ($3.75) towards the support of the library. For its 
location some rooms were allotted in the Royal Library. The chief 
librarian of the Royal Library was designated as principal librarian, 
and two officials given him for the performance of the administrative 
work. 

The establishment prospered, notwithstanding the many difficulties 
presenting themselves. The moderate means were carefully invested 
in suitable books, and the library further increased by many donations 
and by the compulsory additions exacted from the publishing houses 
of the palatinate Brandenburg. 

The library lends books for home perusal and is also used as a read- 
ing-room. 

For the lending of books the library is open daily from 9 A. M. to 2 
P. M.; on Saturdays, only to 1 p.m. The reading-room is open daily 
from 9 A. M. to 7 P.M.; on Saturdays to 1 P.M. only. During the sum- 
mer vacations the library is open from 11 A. M. to 1 P. M., but the read- 
ing-room remains closed. 

The budget of the library, exclusive of salaries, is put at 10,500 
mark ($2,625) for books and binding, and 4,300 ($1,075) for incidentals. 

The personnel consists of a librarian, three custodians, two assist- 
ants, two auxiliary helpers, two library messengers, and one porter. 


The Mathematical Seminary.—The first “seminary aet,” the request for 
the establishment of a mathematical seminary, originated on April 6, 
1860, and is worded as follows: 

“In the mathematical sciences more than in any other branch of scei- 
ence it is necessary that not alone the substance of the lecture is under- 
stood, but that the students, and especially the more advanced, should 
have an opportunity for instruction in the application of the object of 
their studies. For that purpose the establishment of a mathematical 
seminary in connection with the University appears to present the best 
solution. In the opinion of the petitioners such a mathematical scien- 









tpg VaR LEMP ee EE MERE 15. 


aN Lr Ret 


i 


tet 8 (SRA OT 9 “sina ed EH RR el eile Ve Tee a ok RR 


er | 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 107 


tific seminary would tend to promote the mathematical education of 
the students and exert a greatand favorable influence upon their prac- 
tical training as teachers.” 

An annual appropriation of 500 thaler ($575) was requested for the 
support of the seminary, of which sum one-half was to be devoted to 
the acquisition of a special library and the other half to prizes. 

On April 23, 1861, the ministry authorized the announcement of sem- 
inary exercises under certain provisional regulations, and the sum of 
250 thaler ($187.50) was allowed for the purchase of books. On April 
26, 1861, the students were invited to participate. The alphabetical 
list of the members of the first mathematical seminary is dated May 5, 
1861. 3 
On October 15, 1861, the draft of regulations for the mathematical 
seminary was submitted to the University and accepted October 7, 
1864. 

The regulations of October 7, 1864, are as follows: 

(1) The mathematical seminary is a public institute established in 
connection with the University and has for its object the instruction of 
such students of mathematical sciences as have already obtained a cer- 
tain degree of proficiency by aiding them in the independent applica- 
tion and by affording them literary assistance, thus enabling them later 
on to promote and increase mathematical studies. 

(2) The minister of education has the appointment of two professors 
of the philosophical faculty to supervise the exercises of the students. 

(5) Only those matriculated students can be admitted as ordinary 
members who devote themselves especially to the study of mathematics 
and have been engaged in that study for at least one year at some uni- 
versity. Foreigners are eligible on the same conditions. 

(4) The admission is granted upon the presentation to the director 
of a discourse and an essay, the examination of which will prove 
whether the applicant possesses sufficient knowledge and interest to 
advantageously partake of the privilege. The essay may be omitted 
upon special occasions in which the director’s testimonial is sufficient 
guaranty for the efficiency of the applicant. 

(5) The number of ordinary members is limited to twelve. The di- 
rectors, however, are empowered to exceed that number by the appoint- 
ment, as extraordinary members, of a few students possessing the neces- 
sary requirements for admission. 

(6) Any remiss member may, after having been cautioned and admon- 
ished by the director, be excluded from attending the seminary. 

(7) The meetings of the seminary take place weekly, at such a time 
as will permit its extension to two hours or more. 

(8) The scientific exercises of the seminary are both oral and in writ- 
ing. ‘The oral exercises consist in the free discussion of known mathe- 
matical problems or of questions propounded by the director, or, at times, 
by some of the students, and in addresses by the students on the results 


108 ‘THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


of their own experiments or on the results of their studies. The exer- 
cises in writing consist in the execution of problems given by the di- 
rector, and are arranged in such succession that they will cover the 
entire field of mathematics, and combined, tend to its better understand- 
ing, and also in the preparation of larger essays or demonstrations, the 
subjects of which are given by the director or are selected by the 
students themselves. The board of directors examine and judge these 
essays. 

(9) The students who excel in both oral and other exercises are— 
toward the close of each course—to be reported to the minister of edu- 
cation with recommendations for the prizes set apart for the purpose. 
These semi-annual reports contain also a statement of the exercises held 
and the general state of the seminary. 

(10) A library of the best and most useful mathematical works is to 
be maintained for the free use of the students and for use in the meet- 
ings of the seminary. 

The annual appropriation for the seminary, since April 25, 1864, has 
been 1,200 mark ($300), of which 750 mark ($187.50) are expended 
for the library and 450 ($112.50) for prizes. The latter however were 
established by order of March 14, 1884, 


The Observatory and Computation Institute-—The first impulse for the 
establishment of the Beriin Observatory was given toward the end of 
the seventeenth century by the acceptance, on the part of the Protest- 
ant powers of Germany, of the Gregorian calendar. King Frederick 
I, in order to emancipate the country from foreign researches and labors 
which had largely entered into consideration on important occasions, 
resolved to utilize this change which affected all domestic affairs, by 
establishing an observatory and a society of sciences. He therefore 
ordered the erection of a square tower, 84 feet high and 40 feet a side, 
the second floor of which was to be reserved for the society of sciences, 
while the third floor was to be utilized by the astronomer of the society 
for purposes of observation. The building was dedicated on January 
19. 17 11 

The first astronomer of the society, Gottlieb Kireh, had been ap- 
pointed in July, 1700, but he died (July 25, 1710) before the completion 
of the building. 

On October 15, 1828, King Frederick William III granted a request 
of Alexander von Humbold for the purchase of a Fraunhofer refractor. 
The instrument was received in March, 1829, but remained in the pack- 
ing cases. 

On August 10, 1850, permission was given for the purchase of a site 
for a new observatory which was to be located in sufficiently close prox- 
imity to the academy and the university to enable employés of the ob- 
servatory to continue their connection with those establishments. The 
building was completed in 1835. 





i 


THE NATIONAL ‘SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN, 109 


In 1868 a new meridian circle by Pistor and Martius was purchased ; 
in 1869 a hermetically sealed pendalum clock by I*. Tiede and in 1879 a 
universal transit by C. Bamberg. 

The publication of the ‘“ Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch,” which 
had been under the care of the director of the observatory, was in 1874 
transferred to a special division of the observatory, known by the name 
of * Astronomisches Rechen-Institut” (Astronomical Computation In- 
stitute). 

The Computation Institute, in addition to its regular staff, gives employ- 
ment to five regular and to a varying number of temporary assistants. 

The Institute also contains rooms for the exercises of the Univer- 
sity Seminary for the instruction, in scientific calculation, of a number 
of students. 

The budget of the observatory for regular expenses is fixed at 11,340 
mark ($2,835), and that of the Computing Institute at 8,800 mark 
($2,200), to which for the latter are added 15,000 mark ($3,750), to be 
used in the publication of the ‘“ Astronomisches Jahrbuch,” together 
with the compensation of any computers required for the same. 

In close connection with the “Astronomisches Jahrbuch,” the publiea- 
tion of which was begun in 1772 by order of the Royal Academy (and 
the one hundred and thirteenth annual volume of which has just been 
published), the observatory, since its reconstruction in 1835, has em- 
ployed itself prineipally with the determination of positions of fixed 
stars, planets, and comets. 

The results of these observations are published partly in five folio 
volumes, entitled ‘ Beobachtungen der kéniglichen Sternwarte zu Ber- 
lin,” and partly in the “ Astronomische Nachrichten.” 

Five planets belonging to the group between Mars and Jupiter and 
thirteen comets have been discovered at the observatory. 

A remarkable fact is to be recorded in the annals of the observatory 
in that the planet Neptune, the existence of which had been surmised 
by Bessel in 1823 from some inexplicable irregularities in the motion of 
Uranus, and the location of which had been calculated by Le Verrier 
and Adams on the basis of these disturbances was really discovered in 
the calculated place on September 23, 1846, by Galle, with the aid of 
the Fraunhofer refractor. 


The Meteorological Institute.—-This Institute owes its existence to the 
exertions of Alexander von Humboldt, as a result of which, the King 
by order of October 17, 1847, caused its establishment under the direc- 
tion of the Royal Statistical Bureau, of which it formed an independent 
scientific division until Mareh 31, 1886. 

Negotiations for the re-organization of themeteorological bureau pend- 
ing for ten years at last terminated in the spring of 1885, and Dr. von 
Bezold, professor at the technical high school at Munich, who had been 
induced to accept the newly created chair of meteorology at the Berlin 
University, was appointed director of the Meteorological Institute, 


110 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The Institute is to be regarded as a central point for the collection, 
computation, and publication of meteorological stations of North Ger- 
many, the meteorological systems of Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, Hesse, 
the Saxon states and other smaller states having combined with it. 

The system represents the following arrangemént of stations : 

(a) One hundred and thirty stations of Class 11, that is, such stations 
making three observations daily of all the instruments. 

(b) Fifty stations of Class IIT, at which a limited number of instru- 
ments is observed twice daily. 

(c) Highty rain-fall stations. 

At present a plan is under consideration for the incorporation in the 
system of the stations (about one hundred and fifty) of the ‘ Society 
for Agricultural Meteorology in the province of Saxony and in the Uck- 
ermark,” and of the stations of the ‘‘Agricultural Central Association 
of Lithunia and Masuren.” 

Theappropriation for the Institute for the administrative year 188687 
amounted to 73,060 mark ($18,265), of which 32,560 ($8,140) were in- 
tended for salaries of officials, assistants, and computors, 21,000 mark 
($5,250), for the payment of observers on stations, and 19,500 mark 
($4,875) for other expenses. For architectural changes within the 
rooms occupied, and for the purchase of instruments, 44,000 mark 
($11,000) were allowed by special act and further amounts promised 
during the coming year. 


The Physical Institute-—Upon the extensive space lying between the 
Neue Wilhelmstrasse, Schlachtgasse, Dorotheenstrasse and river Spree 
two large buildings are located, each of 108 meter frontage, of which 
the one along the Dorotheenstrasse has been fitted up for the Physio- 
logical and Pharmacological Institutes, while that facing the Spree is 
occupied by the Physical and the Second Chemical Institutes, all being 
provided with the required directorial dwellings. 

The total cost of the entire structures is 4,500,000 mark ($1,125,000), 
of which 200,000 ($50,000) were paid for the foundations of the Physi- 
ological Institute, 310,000 ($77,500) for that of the Physical Institute, 
120,000 ($30,000) for that of the Pharmacalogical Institute, 110,000 
($27,500) for that of the Chemical Institute and 60,000 ($15,000) for 
those of the dwelling houses, representing 800,000 mark ($200,000), 
or almost one-fifth of the entire cost of construction. 

Until the year 1833 the University did not possess any proper col- 
lection of physical apparatus, though a few instruments employed in the 
course of lectures by professors had been purchased and placed in the 
hands of professors using them for scientific investigation. It is true 
that the University had allowed 500 thaler ($375) annually for in- 
creasing the collection of physical apparatus, yet the money was gen- 
erally employed for other purposes. ‘The want of proper apparatus be- 
came apparent when Professor Magnus, the late director of the col- 





: 
: 
: 
+ 
: 
| 


A a 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 111 


lections, desired to employ a number of them in illustrating some phys- 
ical lectures. On that occasion Baron von Altenstein, the minister of 
instruction, proposed to professor Magnus to purchase the required in- 
struments from his own means and suggested a repayment by the 
state, of 500 thaler ($375) for four successive years, in consideration of 
which a certain proportion of the apparatus was to become national 
property. 

The proposition was accepted and the instruments thus purchased 
formed the nucleus of the present physical collection. At the expira- 
tion of the above contract a similar arrangement was made, being 
renewed annually until 1543, when, upon the recommendation of Min- 
ister Eichhorn, the collection was placed in possession of a certain 
allowance per year, which formed the only means ever placed at its dis- 
posal with the two exceptions of the donations of the collection used 
at the university for illustrating Goethe’s color theories, and of a col- 
lection in the hands of Prof. Paul Erman, and transterred to the insti- 
tute upon his death. Both collections combined represented only 
twenty-seven pieces, so that almost the entire collection may be said to 
have been procured from private means. 

Since 1844 the collection had its rooms in the university building, 
but space was wanting to enable physical researches to be executed. 

The personal collection of apparatus and the library of Professor 
Magnus, bequeathed to the university, formed the foundation of the: 
physical laboratory of the university. Rooms were assigned upon the 
first floor of the east wing and connected with basement rooms con- 
taining the collections by means of winding stairs. 

The present building was begun in 1873, and in 1878 had progressed 
sufficiently to justify the removal from the university building. 

After the first few terms of instruction all available space had been 
occupied, and further applications for admittance had to be rejected. 

The present director of the institute is Privy Councillor of Govern- 
ment, Professor Dr. von Helmholtz. 


The Mineralogical Museum.—The collection of minerals established 
by Privy Councillor of Mines Dietrich Karsten, in 1789, by order of 
Minister Heinitz, consisted of Karsten’s private collection, which he 
had presented to the State in 1781, and of the purchased collections of 
Councillor of Mines Ferber and Privy Councillor of Finanee Gerhard. 
In i801 it had been placed in the mint building, and by royal decree of 
October 18, 1510, became incorporated in the collections of the univer- 
sity under the conditions that the mining department should be recog. 
nized as co-partner and should be consulted in case of required changes- 
In September, 1814, it was placed on exhibition in the university build- 
ing after having been named, in May, 1814, the Mineralogical Museum 
of the University. 


112 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN, 


For the support and increase of the museum 1,000 thaler ($759) were 
allowed annually since August, 1816, which amount has since been in- 
creased to 5,020 mark ($1,255), not to include the personal expenses. 

The museum contains the following divisions: 

(1) Systematic mineralogical collection. 

(2) Display collection of large specimens. 

(3) Collection of cut stones and rocks. 

(4) Meteorite collection. 

(5) Systematic geognostie collection. 

(6) Geographical collection, or the geognostic collection of the vari- 
ous countries of the earth. 

(7) The paleontological collection. 

(8) The library, with collection of charts, well supplied with topo- 
graphical maps and geognostic maps by the L. v. Borch collection. 


The First Chemical Institute.—It is certainly a very remarkable fact 
that of all the German universities that of Berlin should have been the 
very last to organize a chemical institute, comprising everything re- 
quired for the present state of science, since the chemists connected 
with the University during the first fifty years of its existence occupy a 
prominent place among the most celebrated investigators of the present 
century. 

But if, notwithstanding such illustrious representations, a great 
chemical institute was not established until about twenty years ago, it 
must be considered that at the time of the foundation of the University 
chemistry was already existing in the academy of sciences, and that the 
chemical chair at the University was generally occupied by the academical 
chemist, and hence the University was relieved, in a measure, from the 
responsibility of providing laboratories for the chemical professors. 

The Chemical Institute of the University owes its existence to the 
energy of the Minister of Education in demanding the appointment of a 
university professor for the chemical chair. 

The selection of a proper site was the next difficulty to overcome, and 
this was accomplished by the purchase, for the sum of 72,000 mark 
($18,000) from the Academy of a portion of its own estate, to which suf- 
cient additional ground was obtained for the erection of an edifice, which 
was begun in 1865 and completed in 1867. 

In addition to the sum estimated, 75,000 mark ($18,750) were expended 
on the internal arrangements; thus, counting all necessary expenditures, 
including the 72,000 mark ($18,000) paid the academy and two-thirds of 
the purchase money paid for the additional lot (only two-thirds of the 
ground having been used in the erection of the building), 954,000 mark 
($238,500) were willingly paid by the Prussian Government for the 
erection of the new institute. 


The Second Chemical Institute.—This institute was established simul- 
taneously with the Pharmacological Institute, and opened on Easter, 





——_ 


ee eee ee ee 


rie 


9 ined oft eet ee eds Maes 





THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 113 

1883. It serves specially for the study of inorganic, analytic, and min- 
eral chemistry, and stands under the direction of Prof. Dr. Karl Fried- 
rich Rammelsberg. ° 

For the practical teaching two divisions have been established. In 
the synthetic laboratory the students are employed in the preparations 
of chemical substances and the easier problems of quantitative analysis, 
while in the analytical division quantitative analysis forms the princi- 
pal subject. 

The budget for regular expenditures of the institute, including the use 
of water and gas has been fixed at 11,285 mark ($2,821). 


The Technological Institute.—This Institute originated in the private 
laboratory of Professor Wichelhans. To this were added the techno- 
logical collections of the late Professor Magnus, and by decree of Sep- 
tember 11, 1873, the first means were provided for the ‘establishment 
of a technological laboratory and for the tectnological colleetion of the 
University.” In April, 1883, the newly created Technological Institute 
was removed to its present quarters under the direction of Prof. Dr. 
Karl Hermann Wichelhans. 

The publications of the institute are printed principally in the “Be- 
richte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,” in the “ Verhandlungen 
des Vereins zur BefoOrderung des Gewerbetleisses,” and in the “ Patent- 
Schriften.” 


The Botanical Garden.—The greater part of the present Botanical 
Garden was, at about the middle of the seventeenth century, employed 
for the growing of hops, to be used in the electoral brewery. In 1679, 
on occasion of the abolishing of the brewery, Elector Frederick William 
ordered the garden to be planted in fruit trees and garden truck. 

Under the reign of King Frederick I the entire internal arrangement 
was changed. Glass-houses were erected, oranges were raised, and the 
kitchen garden changed into a royal pleasure garden. 

Under Frederick William I the plans were changed; the garden 
began to expand and to assume a really botanical character; but the 
reform had barely begun when the garden was transferred to the keep- 
ing of the Society of Sciences. It again lost its botanical character, 
since, in planting medicinal herbs and plants for the royal pharmacy, 
the practical king had sought to utilize it to the fullest extent. The 
society could not afford to expend more than 600 mark ($150) a year on 
the garden, and furthermore, its great distance from the city rendered 
it difficult to find a suitable person to supervise it. 

In 1809, on oceasion of the founding of the University, the Academy 
of Sciences was relieved of the Botanical Garden, which was then placed 
under the University, with a guarantied income of 13,000 mark ($3,250). 

In 1820 the present winterhouse was erected, and in 1821 the oldest 
palm house; the latter, however, proving too small it was replaced by 
the present succulent house, In 1832 the garden possessed eighteen 

H. Mis. 224——8 


114 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


greenhouse divisions, representing a combined length of 350 meters 
(1,148 feet) with 7,920 kilometer cubic contents. 

On July 22, 1852, the Victoria Regia bloomed for the first time in a 
building erected for its exclusive tse. 

In view of the principal object of the garden, the advancement of sci- 
entific botany, it should be the effort of the director to collect in his 
garden extensive material for scientific botanical research, and to see 
that it represents the entire vegetable kingdom to completeness. 

The scientific means at the command of the garden are the library, 
the microscope with auxiliary apparatus, all of which, together with 
the catalogues of plants, are preserved in the offices of the palm house. 

The working force consists of two principal assistants (foremen), fifteen 
regular assistants, ten younger assistants, some of them voluntary assist- 
ants without compensation, one overseer, one engineer, One mason, 
one cabinet-maker, one carpenter, one glazier, one house-keeper, seven- 
teen laborers, seven to ten char-women, and ten to twelve boys. 

The plants cultivated in the garden during the year 1886 comprise 
18,837 species, varieties, and forms. The budget is fixed at 85,365 
mark ($21,341). 

The garden is open to the public every day (except Saturday, San- 
day, and legal holidays) from 8 A. M. to7 P.M, (in winter until dusk). 
Strangers are admitted at any day. 

The public makes very good use of this permission, more especially 
during the period of blooming of the Victoria Regia, and also when the 
plantation of gourds is at its height. From six to seven thousand vis- 
itors have been recorded in a single day. 

Special permission by card to visit the grounds is given to any one 
desiring to investigate or study, and this special permission includes 
the privilege to visit portions closed against the ordinary public, and 
it also entitles the bearer to receive flowers or other material for in- 
vestigation. Plants or parts of plants are also furnished to non-resi- 
dent botanists. The garden supplies the University and Royal Schools 
with the material required for botanical lectures. 


The Botanical Museum.—Collections of curious objects from the 
vegetable kingdom as well as of dried and mounted plants had been 
commenced by the Society (later Academy) of Sciences in the last cen- 
tury. The first herbarium presented to the society which possessed a 
really scientific value was that of Andreas Gundelsheimer, consisting 
of oriental specimens. Another important collection was begun by Lud- 
wig Stosch in the Netherlands, France, and the Pyrenees by order of 
King Frederick I. The Royal Library, too, and the Art Collection con- 
tained a few collections of plants bound up in book form, of which the 
oldest and most interesting is that of J. 8. Elsholz, the court physician 
of the great elector and director of the pleasure garden, The “ Gesell- 





THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 115 


schaft naturforschender Freunde” at Berlin, too. had its own cabinet 
of natural curiosities, but all these divisions were gradually transferred 
to the Botanical Museum. 

The Royal Herbarium proper, which did not receive the designation 
“Royal Botanical Museum” until 1879, existed since 1518, when the 
Willdenow collection of plants was purchased for 56,000 mark (39,000. ) 

The collections were at first deposited in the rear portion of the build- 
ing (Dorotheenstrasse 10) belonging to the Academy, and in 1822 were 
transferred to a house which had been purchased as a dwelling house for 
the officials of the garden, but which had been let to the “ School for 
Gardeners.” 

In 1824 the herbarium of Inspector Otto was purchased, comprising 
between fourteen and fifteen thousand species and Leopold von Buchs 
presented his collection made at the Canary Islands. 

A new feature was now introduced, that of the lending out of collec- 
tions. Until then they had been used and studied in the building by 
but few people ; now any botanist employed in morphological and floral 
studies could have the required material sent him; thus the herbarium 
obtained a number of collaborators who voluntarily undertook the 
determination of species, which resulted in the acquisition of a number of 
original specimens. Upon the return of a collection the duplicates were 
divided and employed in exchange with the leading establishments of 
London, St. Petersburg, Paris, ete. The budget for the purchase of 
plants being limited to 720 mark ($180), only collections of the greatest 
importance could be procured from these means. 

Although the means for running expenses were thus limited, the Gov- 
ernment provided liberally on extraordinary occasions to secure the 
acquisition of large and important private collections. 

By such means the Kunth herbarium was obtained, which consisted of : 
(1) A general collection of about 44,500 species in about 60,000 speci- 
mens, comprising many duplicates, from the Paris Museum, and about 
3,000 originals to ‘ Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth Nova Genera et 
Species ;” (2) a collection of dried plants from the botanical garden at 
Berlin, comprising 10,300 species; and (3) a collection of woods. The 
price paid was 24,000 mark ($6,000). 

The Link herbarium purchased in 1852 for 4,500 mark ($1,125) 
enriched principally the European flora, especially by specimens col- 
lected by himself in Portugal and Greece. It also increased the collec- 
tion of fungi. The arrangement of garden plants, too, was of great 
importance. The entire collection represented 3,113 eryptogams and 
16,382 phanerogams. 

The von Nees von Hserbeck collection of glumacexw was purchased 
in 1855 for 2,700 mark ($675). It contained 9,559 species. 

The collection of lichens of Major von Flotow was purchased in 1857 
for 6,000 mark ($1.500), 


116 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


Two donations were received which, aside fromthe transportation, 
did not cause further expense. One of them, the herbarium of Lieu- 
tenant General von Gansauge, obtained in 1871, contained about 15,000 
species, while that of Professor Laurer, received in 1874, contained a 
rare collection of lichens and of mosses. 

Upon the death, in 1877, of A. Brauns, the state purchased his collec- 
tions for 21,000 mark ($5,250), the Academy of Sciences his scientific 
manuscripts for 4,000 mark ($1,000). They were transferred to the 
museum on condition that they were to be preserved and made 
accessible to specialists. The botanical collections consisted of: (1) a 
morphological herbarium of forty-three maps; (2) an herbarium of 
phanerogams of considerable extent, which excelled by its wealth of 
forms and localities; (3) a valuable herbarium of cryptogams ; (4) a 
collection of fruits and seeds, among which the cycadie, conifer, and 
jJuglandie deserve special mention. 

Owing to the want of sufficient accommodation the herbarium was, 
in 1857, transferred to Berlin, and assigned rooms in the éast wing of 
the University. Here the collections remained until March, 1880, when 
they wereremoved to the new building, erected at a cost of 280,000 mark 
($70,000) for the building and 80,000 ($20,000) for its internal arrange- 
ment. 

At about that time the large and precious Mettenius collection of 
ferns was purchased for 6,000 mark ($1,500). 

The most valuable collection of Dr. Georg von Martens was pre- 
sented by his heirs. It comprised 12,459 species and contained among 
others the originals employed in “ Schiibler and Martens flora of Wiir- 
temberg,” valuable collections made by the Wiirtemberg Travelers 
Society, and also 4,101 species of salt water alge in the best possible state 
of preservation and fully described by the former owner. 

Finally the herbarium of the late Professor Lorentz was received 
(who died in the Argentine Republic), which contained a large and crit- 
ical collection of mosses as well as a rich herbarium of the Argentine 
flora, being largely the originals employed in ‘* Griesebach’s determina- 
tion of the Argentine plants.” 

Access to the collections is granted to any one personally known or 
properly introduced. Any one desiring to compare or study plants or 
other objects receives permission upon application, and is furnished 
desk and temporary desk-room. Responsible botanists within the Prus- 
sian domains can obtain the use of objects at their respective homes 
for a limited period of time. Non-resident botanists can obtain that 
privilege only upon special permission from the department. 

The collections of the museum are open to the general public in sum- 
mer on Monday and Thursday afternoons. 


The University Garden.—Owing to the great distance of the botanical 
garden the establishment of a garden as auxiliary means in the botan- 


. . . . . . = s 
ical instructions received early consideration soon after the founding of 





At a pe 


5 Gare ee Oe S 


at) 


ue. 


| 
| 





THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 117 


the University, and in 1820 the space in the rear of the University was 
employed tor the purpose. The garden was intended to contain the 
principal officinal plants and those resembling these; and also, as far as 
practicable, economical, technical, and commercial plants; while in the 
surrounding vacant spaces, ornamental trees and shrubs were to be 
planted. The establishment was completed in 1821~22. It was pro- 
vided with a green-house containing a cold and a hot division. The 
plants were furnished by the botanical garden, under the care of which 
the new plantation was placed. In 1837 if was made independent, by 
the appointment as University gardener, of Mr. Sauer, of the botanical 
garden. As long as but one regular chair existed at the University for 
botany, the incumbent always held the appointment of director of both 
the Botanical and University gardens. 

The garden has not increased in extent. A small earth-house was 
added to the existing green-house. Another small dirt-house without 
furnace serves for the wintering of less sensitive plants. The heating 
of the other houses is effected by means of hot water through copper 
pipes. In the selection of green-house plants special attention was 
given to those used for officinal and domestic purposes. 


The Botanical Institute.—This Institute was established in 1878 on the 
top floor of the old Exchange Building. A large hall with favorable 
light was set aside for microscopical examinations by beginners, and 
several other rooms were given to the more advanced students. A small 
chamber served as dark-room and a large corner room was fitted up as 
a physiological laboratory. The director, the assistants, and the mes- 
senger had each one room assigned; an assembly room and a lecture 
hall seating from thirty to thirty-five were also provided. 

In the autumn of 1883 the Institute was transferred to its present lo- 
cation, the situation of which, in the vicinity of the University and of 
the University garden, may be pronounced as very favorable. 

The Institute possesses at present nineteen large and twenty-eight 
small microscopes, together with all the required auxiliary apparatus 
(prisms, micrometer, goniometer, etc.), twenty-six demonstration micro- 
scopes for use in lectures, one microtom, one micro-spectroscope, one 
solar spectroscope, one large spectral apparatus by G. & S. Merz, one 
heliostate by Heele, one achromatic lens by Steinheil (81 millimeters 
aperture), one cathetometer by Heele, one compression-pump with lever 
by Pfeil, one double-action air-pump, one double aspirator by Warm- 
brunn & Quilitz, one gas-regulator, one gasometer, one astatic mirror 
galvanometer by Siemens & lace oneaeenerce battery, three klino- 
stats, among which one very large and powerful by Heele, one auxan- 
ometer with self-registering clock-work, two pair of balance-scales, and 
numerous smaller apparatus and models for physiological research. 

The budget, exclusive of administration and salaries of assistant 
and messenger, was 5,950 mark ($1,482.50) until 1885 when, in consid- 
eration of lessened necessities, it was decreased to 3,930 mark ($982.50), 


118 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The direction of the Institute is combined with the chair of anatomy 
and physiology of plants at the Royal University. 


The Institute of Vegetable Physiology.—The Institute was created in 
1873, and in 1880 united with the botanico-microscopical laboratory of the 
Agricultural High School in such a manner that the use of the scientific 
apparatus and inventory belonging to the University is available to the 
students of either of these establishments, while the means of support 
are to be furnished by the Department of Agriculture exclusively. 

The object of the Institute is the study of morphology, development, 
and physiology of the plants. For this purpose lectures are delivered 
and practical instruction furnished ; the students also have an oppor- 
tunity for making individual examinations. 

The Institute contains (1) a hall for the students in microscopy, seat- 
ing twenty, and facing north; (2) a room for the director; (5) a room 
seating four for chemical work ; (4) a large room for the assistant and 
six of the advanced students. This room also contains the library. 
(5) A dark-rocm ; (6) a room for physiological research and containing 
a Pfeffer rotary apparatus ; (7) two greenhouses, in which the objects 
for microscopical and physiological research are produced ; (8) a small 
experimental garden. 

The Institute is well provided with optical instruments and physiolog- 
ical apparatus ; it also contains extensive collections for instruction, 
comprising the subject of morphology, productionand development, and 
the physiology of plants. 


The Zodlogical Museum.—The establishment of the Zodlogical Museum 
is contemporaneous with the foundation of the University. The Museum 
was located in the University building since its erection, but from the 
beginning the plan and execution exceeded the material required for 
demonstration, and that in the direction of creating a basis for the sys- 
tematic knowledge of all living animals, thus to form a zodlogical center 
for Germany similar to that at Paris, London, Leiden, Vienna, for their 
respective countries. The Museum was planned by Count Joh. v. Hoff- 
mannsegg, who made the first donation, consisting of several thousand 
specimens of Brazilian mammals, birds, and reptiles. The principal 
and fundamental stock was formed by the donation, by the royal col- 
lections, of a number of natural history objects, consisting of mammals, 
birds, insects, and shells; to these were added the following original 
collections : 

(1) The collection of fishes of Dr. Marcus Elieser Bloch, practicing 
physician at Berlin. Originals (partly dried, partly in SieoRen described 
in his ‘ Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands,” 1782-1785, and 
‘“ Naturgeschichte der ausliindischen Fische,” 1785-1795. 

(2) The collection of crustacea, of Joh. Friedr, Wilh. Herbst, pastor at 
the Church of St. Mary, and purchased for 447 thaler ($312.75). Grigi- 
nals used in his ‘* Naturgeschichte der Krabben und Krebse,” 1790-1804. 





ME eee gh Wind 


we Cy 


aphid. 


aoe 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 119 


(3) A large collection of corals, presented by counsellor of the court, 
Dr. Gerresheim of Dresden, whose oil portrait has been placed in one of 
the halls of the Museum. The collection serves as basis to Ehrenberg’s 
systematic classification of corals. 

A few but highly important original specimens of fishes and conehy- 
lie from Northeast Asia were presented by P.S. Pallas, explorer of 
Russia. 

Of other collections added by explorers at the earlier times the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned: Krebs and Bergius, South Africa; C. G. 
Ehrenberg and Hemprich, Egypt, Nubia, and the coasts of the Red 
Sea; Sello and v. Olfen, Brazil and the La Plata regions; von Sack, 
Deppe, and Schiede, Mexico; Carl Ehrenberg, West Indies, principally 
St. Thomas; J. Cabanis and Zimmermann, southern portion of North 
America; v. Minutoli, Canary Islands; v. Sack, Cyprus; Eversmann, 
Bokhara; Lamare-Picquot, Maskarena, and Bengal (purchased in 1836 
for 6,000 thaler) ($4,500); Lhotsky and Schayer, Australia, ete. 

The museum is provided with a fair library, which is placed in the 
rooms of the director and custodians. 

The budget was, in 1810, fixed at 2,200 thaler ($1,650), of which 1,900 
($1,425) were paid for salaries (exclusive of that of the director). In 
1837 the budget was increased to 3,550 thaler ($2,662.50) (salaries 3,400, 
($2,550) ); in 1843 to 5,565 thaler ($4,173.75). At present the amount 
allowed is (exclusive of the director’s salary) 1,800 mark ($450) 54,670 
mark ($13,667.50), from which salaries are paid to the curators 3,300 
($825) and 4,800 mark ($1,200), together with allowance for dwelling to 
assistants, and taxidermists from 1,200 to 2,400 mark ($300 to $600), 
while 22,960 ($5,740) are set aside for incidentals, of which amount 
one-half is reserved for purchases. 

The museum is open to the general public every Thursday and Friday 
from J2 to2 P.M. Owing to the fact that the exhibition halls are not 
heated, the attendance varies with the season; it is most numerous on 
holidays. Classes of schools may be admitted any day upon proper 
application. Studentsare supplied with tickets which admit them every 
forenoon. Artists, upon receiving permission from the director, have 
an opportunity of drawing and sketching. Scientific geologists are 
admitted at any hour of the day 


The Zoological Institute—When, upon the death of Prof. Wilhelm 
Peters, director of the museum, a separation of the University protes- 
sorship and direction of the Royal Zoological Museum had been de. 
cided on, the establishment of a Zoological Institute, devoted exclu- 
sively to the needs of academic instruction and to scientific investiga- 
tion, became urgent. 

The Natural History Museum.—The Zoological Museum and the Zoo- 


logical Institute were, in 1888, removed to a new building, which bears 
the name “ Natural History Museum.” 


12U) THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The building consists of three stories above the basement. ‘The front 
portion is intended to contain the Mineralogical Museum; it forms almost 
a square around a glass-covered court, which serves as an entrance to 
the rear portion of the building containing the Zoological Museum. 


The Zoological Garden.—Vhe history of the Berlin Zoological Garden 
antedates that of any similar establishments of Germany. 

Its nucleus was the collection of live animals of King Frederick Will- 
iam III, located upon the “* Pfaueninsel,” near Potsdam. Upon his death 
Professor Lichtenstein, the naturalist, influenced King Frederick Will- 
iam IV to consign the animals, as a beginning, to a zoological garden, 
the erection of which, in the neighborhood of the capital, had already 
been considered. 

The former pheasant garden (Koénigliche Fasanerie) was given up to 
the enterprise, which soon was called into existence by a syndicate, with 
the assistance of money grants from the Government. 

For a number of years the garden served principally for scientific 
investigations until, in about 1865, by the establishment of gardens else. 
where the general attention was drawn toward it. A comparison with 
the more recent establishment proved rather unfavorable to the home 
garden. A visit of the Queen Augusta to the zoological garden at 
Cologne gave rise to the consideration of important improvements, sug- 
gested with the view of making the Berlin garden worthy of the. dis- 
tinction of being located in the national capital. 

The first step was the formation of a company which issued shares to 
the amount of 300,000 mark ($75,000) and effected an additional loan of 
1,500,000 mark ($375,000). The ground was donated by the Govern- 
ment, and Dr. H. Bodinus, former director of the Cologne garden, was 
invited to assume the directorship. So energetically did he proceed 
that the first concert could be arranged for in the garden in the sum- 
mer of 1870, before the commencement of the Franco-Prussian war. 
The new establishment had extended its usefulness and combined the 
scientific investigations with amusement. 

Inrapid succession the various buildings were now erected which were 
to serve as quarters for the many animals, so that, in addition to the 
old buildings, accommodations were prepared for the mammals, animals 
of prey, birds of prey, for the antelopes, birds, elephants, ete. Consid- 
erable additions were made to the stock of animals, and thus, within a 
remarkably short space of time, an establishment was created which, 
while it could favorably compare with any other existing garden, was 
also worthy its rank, and took a conspicuous place among the points of 
interest of the residence of the German Empire. 

With regard to the collection it may be said that it comprises repre- 
sentatives of most all the important mammals and birds, in as many 
species and specimens as can successfully be provided for. 

The more recent construction of a house for monkeys has offered an 


‘ 
2 
2 





ST 


— 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 121 


opportunity for a rich and carefully selected collection of those ani- 
mals. 

The Aquarium.—The aquarium, constructed during the years 186769 
(by the genial architect H. Luer), is an original and interesting struct- 
ure, rich in grottoes and caves, and is intended to harbor animals of 
other classes besides aquatic animals. The marine invertebrates are 
principally represented. 

The Berlin Aquarium, in its arrangement and facilities for the obser- 

vation and study of the lower ciasses of animals, offers considerable 
means for natural history instruction, and thus aids materially in the 
development of natural history study. 

To scientists it offers facilities by placing at their disposal the mate- 
rial collected from many places and seas. 


II.—THE MILITARY MEDICAL INSTITUTES. 


[Omitted here. } 
IV.—THE AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL. 


With regard to agricultural instruction in the margraviate Branden- 
burg it may be stated that a chair for agriculture was founded in 172 
at the University of Frankfort on the Oder. 

In 1806, by invitation of King Frederick William [Ll Albrecht Thaer 
established the first German agricultural academy under the name of 
“ Royal Academic School of Agriculture at Méglin.” 

In 1810, the trying time for the Kingdom, when the development of 
economie and industrial resources assumed the greatest importance in 
the struggle to supply means for a successful warfare, the agricultural 
school became incorporated in the University; the distance, however, 
preventing the close relationship anticipated, a separation again took 
place. 

Notwithstanding the discontinuance of agricultural lectures, some few 
agriculturists continued in their attendance to the University, and the 
authorities kept up their relationship to the agricultural academy in 


_ order to enable students in the branches of political sciences to complete 


their studies by participating in the practical course of instruction. 

While in most of the Prussian provinces special agricultural schools 
were established, the agricultural central union of the district of 
Potsdam insisted on having the connection kept up between the Royal 
Academic School of Agriculture and the University at Berlin. 

In 1860 the old agricultural academy at Moéglin ceased to exist and 
an agricultural school was established at Berlin, which at first, accord- 
ing to sections 1, 3, 4, and 5, of the programme illustrating the object 
of the institute, was depending on the University in so far as being open 
to all matriculated students. 

The present requirements exact of an agriculturist a more thorough 


‘scientific training than was expected at the agricultural school at 


MOglin. 


122 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


Since 1866 the students are required to register at the central bureau 
of the Agricultural Department instead of at the University as formerly. 
In 1867 the Department of Agriculture began the establishment of an — 
agricultural museum, the nucleus being formed by the exhibits re- : 
turned from the Paris exhibition. 4 
3 

: 





The demand for increased accommodations becoming felt more press- 
ingly each year, the east portion of the site formerly occupied by the 
Royal Iron Foundry, was assigned to the erection of an agricultural 
building while the remaining portions were to be devoted to buildings 
for the Geological Institute and Mining Academy, and for the natural 
history Museum of the University. % 

The agricultural building was erected during the years 187680 
and opened in 1880, with the International Fishery Exhibition, which 

‘was held in the portion of the building intended for the agricultural 
museum. The opening of the museum, therefore, had to be deferred 
until after the close of the exhibition. 

By royal decree of February 14, 1881, the united institute and museum 
received the name ‘“ Agricultural High School.” Its constitution was 
arranged for by provisional statutes of May 27, 1881, of the Minister 
of Agriculture. * 

The constitution provides for the appointment of a commission for 
the decision of points of organization and to submit propositions. 

The directors of the various divisions have been granted considerable 
freedom of action and separate funds have been placed at their dis- 
posal. 

The corps of teachers is presided over by a rector whose election 
rests with the above-named commission, subject to confirmation by the 
ministry. 

The business affairs of the establishment are conducted in part by a 
board of trustees and partly by the Ministry of Agriculture. 

The degree of education required for admission is that demanded to 
secure the privilege of voluntary service in the army. 

An addition was made to the scope of the institute by the establish- 
ment, in 1883, by ministerial decree of October 10, 1882, of a geodetic 
and technical course for surveying. Special teachers have been em- 
ployed for the purpose. The students of geodesy are required to pos- 
sess the degree of the highest class of a gymnasium or real school. 

The museum is to serve the double purpose of academic instruction 
and of being the central institute which enables investigators to engage 
in special studies; by its exhibits it also serves for the education of the 
people. 

The budget for 1886~87 fixed the expenses of the high school at 
224,970 mark ($56,242.50): its income is 39,328 mark ($9,832); hence 
an appropriation of 185,642 mark ($46,410.50) is required. | 

Examinations take place for (1) agriculturists, (2) land surveyors, (3) 
technical culture, (4) agricultural teachers. 


» 


‘ 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 123 


Three prize questions are propounded at the close of each summer 
term, which pertain (1) to agriculture, (2) fundamental sciences, (3) 
technic of cultivation. The award is 150 mark ($37.50) in eaeh case. 
Essays of merit, though not quite up to the standard of perfection, 
receive honorable mention. 


The Central Library.—lIts object and purpose is to offer to professors 
and students of the agricultural high school all necessary scientific 
means, and in its capacity as the most complete specific library, to aid 
all interests. For this purpose much attention is given to its comple- 
tion in all branches of agriculture, forestry, ete. 


The Physical Cabinet and the Meteorological Observatory.—The collection 
contains the apparatus required for instruction in physics. They are 
employed by the students in the course of lectures and in investigations. 
A series of meteorological apparatus has been provided, which serves 
the purpose of instruction. Three daily readings are made of the in- 
struments prescribed forstations of thesecond class; the results are pub- 
lished by the Prussian Meteorological Institute. A number of automatic 
apparatus register the progress of pressure, temperature, precipitation, 
force, and velocity of wind, and these automatic records serve in the 
preparation of essays on climatology, etc. The entire arrangement is 
that of a station of the second order. A regular exchange of barograms 
has been arranged with Hamburg, Magdeburg, Wien, and Copenhagen 


The Chemical Institute—The principal object of the institute is the in- 
struction of the students in general chemistry, qualitative and quantita- 
tive analysis. Itis located in a building adjoining the Agricultural High 
School, and also accommodates the laboratory of the Society for the 
Production of Beet Sugar in the German Empire. The ground floor 
contains a large work room arranged for fifty students, and is provided 
with skylight; furthermore an auditory, having a capacity of one hun- 
dred and forty. The upper floor accommodates the private laboratory 
of the director and a few rooms intended for special investigations. 

The chemical instruction comprises: (1) In winter, lectures on inor- 
ganic, and (2) in summer, on organic chemistry ; (3) practical exercises 
in qualitative and quantitative analyses, and other chemical experi- 
ments, for which purpose the laboratory is open daily from 9 A. M. to 5 
P. M. 

The Mineralogic-Pedological Institute.—In view of the existing connec- 
tion between mineralogy, geology, and agriculture a chair of mineralogy 
and pedology (zéd0v, earth, soil, and 2dyos) was provided at the re- 


organization, in 1881, of the agricultural high school. The occupant 


has also the charge over the recently created mineralogic-geologic- 
pedological museum. 

Its collections resolve themselves into the two classes for (a) educa- 
tion and (b) exhibition. 


124 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


(a) The educational collections contain minerals, rocks, and soils of 
importance in agriculture ; the collection has been made instructive by 
the selection of specimens showing the changes produced by exposure. 

(b) The exhibition collections are placed in horizontal and perpendic- 
ular glass cases, and represent a well organized and described material 
for the instruction in and contemplation of the composition and variety 
of the native soil. 

The mineralogical coliection is arranged according to the Zirkel sys- 
tem, and shows the more important minerals in their characteristic forms. 

The petrographic collection is arranged according to Credner’s sys- 
tem, and exhibits characteristic forms of rocks. The exhibition hall 
also contains several geological charts, of which may be specially men- 
tioned that of the Harz Mountains and the Thuringian forest, which is 
composed of eighty-one sheets. 

The geological and pedological collection is exhibited in the adjoining 
hall. Commencing with the most recent formations, it passes through 
the various layers of humus, clay, lime, gravel, sand, and ferriferous 
soils, including the organic inclosures of alluvium, diluvium, and tertiary 
periods which connect with the mesozoic, paleozoic, and archaic periods. 

Chemical analyses, microscopic preparations, solutions, reliefs, pro- 
files, and tableaus complete the objects. Illustrations of sceneries be- 
longing to the various geological periods and illustrating their pecu- 
liarities are suspended above the exhibition cases. 

The pedological division has found accommodations along the light 
court of the museum. It contains apparatus for examination of the 
soil, the mineral fertilizers, fuel, representations of Thuringian brown 
coal industry, manipulations of asphaltum, flint, and peat, and indus- 
tries. 


The Agronomic-Pedological Institute—The Institute embraces two 
divisions, the agronomic-pedological and agricultural-chemical labor- 
atory, and the division for soil, fertilizer, and irrigation and drainage. 

The agronomic-pedological laboratory purports to promote the scien- 
tific explorations ef the soil in its relation to the structure of plants and 
to its cultivation, and to offer facilities for the study and execution of 
agronomic-pedological and agricultural-chemical experiment. 

The agronomic-pedological laboratory consists of a large room for the 
accommodation of the assistant and twenty students, and contains all 
apparatus for agricultural-chemical and physical examination and 
analysis. 

The Institute of Vegetable Physiology.—The Institute was established 
in 1881, and comprises a laboratory for physiological work, with dark 
room, microscopic room, chemical division, green-house, and experi- 
mental garden. It possesses all the necessary apparatus, instruments 
and collections, and a library. ‘The Institute prepares the physio- 
logical experiments required in the lectures, and offers opportunity to 
the student to practice vegetable physiology and pathology. To the 





” 
a 
¥ 
+. 
i 
2 
) 
A 


nr a ee 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 125 


director, his assistants, and the practitioners it affords means for spe- 
cial investigation in vegetable physiology and the diseases of culti- 
vated plants. 


The Vegetable Division of the Museum.— When the request was made on 
the agriculturists to furnish exhibits for the Paris Exposition of 1867 
they readily responded, but expressed themselves desirous of transfer- 
ring their exhibits, after the close of the exposition, to the Government, 
to serve in the foundation of an agricultural museum. This proposi- 
tion was accepted, and many objects were added to those exhibits, by 
donation or by purchase. The products of agriculture, of course, re- 
ceived the first consideration, and thus the wealth of the division may 
be explained. Corresponding to the enlargement of the agricultural 
administration to a department of agriculture, lands, and forests, the 
science of forestry has received consideration, and the collection of 
woods has becomea very complete one, owing to donations of foreign 
governments, especially of those of India, Japan, and of the French 
colonies. 


The Zoological Institute.—The collections of the Institute are rela- 
tively complete, especially with regard to the osteology of mammals; it 
contains the collection of skulls and skeletons of Herm von Nathu- 
sius and those of the abandoned agricultural academies of Eldena and 
Proskau. In addition to the skulls of other mammals it contains large 
collections of the skulls of horses, hogs, cattle, sheep, and dogs of the 
various breeds, domestic and foreign, which in completeness can not be 
excelled by any other museum. The remaining divisions of the zoolog- 
ical collections are generally restricted to the European animals of 
interest or importance tothe agriculturist, without, however, excluding 
such foreign animals as may be required in the systematic study of the 
animal kingdom. The Institute proposes to investigate all zoological 
questions relating to agriculture, and to carefully trace the derivation 
and evolution of all domesticated animals, for which purpose a special 
interest is given to the fossil and subfossil remains of the domestic 
animals and to their relatives. 


The Institute of Animal Physiology.—Since the enlargement of the 
last year, the institute has the use of two largeand four small laborato- 
ries, Which are provided with all improvements required for the analy t- 
ical and vivisectory labors of the institute. It also controls a stable 
with divisions for the various animals and some basement rooms which, 
on account of their good light, are well adapted for the keeping of ani- 
mals under observation. A small respiratory apparatus has found room 
in the basement. 

The institute possesses the required apparatus for microscopical 
work and for the study of material changes of the mechanism of the 
nervous system, of respiration and cireulation. Additions to the appa- 
ratus are made whenever needed, as far as the means at disposal per- 
mit. 


12G THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The institute serves for instruction in so far as it aids the lectures on 
animal physiology, sanitation, ete., by actual demonstration and experl- 
ments. 


The Zoo-technical Institute.—The means by which the Zoo-technical 
Institute expects to succeed, excepting the necessary apparatus, ete., 
are found in the representations, models, and, as regards sheep- 
raising, of samples of wool. The wealth of the collection and the cor- 
rectness of the representations render this portion of the museum a 
permanent animal exhibition, with however the additional advantage 
that the model does not represent one single act, but that each typical 
appearance of the agricultural domestic animal has been shown therein. 
It is a further object of the Zoo technical Museum to keep before the 
pubiie all possible phases of animal industry of the nation. 

The Institute is in charge of Privy Councellor, Prof. Dr. H. Settegast. 


The Institute of Geodetic Instruction.—The geodetic collection, 
founded in 1883, contains ten theodolites (three with microscopes), two 
compass apparatus, eleven levelling instruments, of which two are for 
exact work having all auxiliary apparatus, one sextant, one prism circle, 
one engineer’s table, one Fortin barometer, four aneroids, three Amler 
planimeters, two precision planimeters, two pantographs, apparatus 
for the examination of the above instruments, demonstration apparatus, 
and surveying apparatus. Available for instruction are further a geo- 
detie library, a collection of plans, and a series of forty-two wall-dia- 
grams representing geodetic instruments. 

The surveying exercises are—during the summer—executed in the 
open air; in winter, indoors in a large hall which has been constructed 
for the purpose. Two large rooms are used in geodetic computations 
and drawing; adjoining these is the room of the assistant, which con- 
tains the collection of plans, and that of the professor, which contains 
the library. 


Division of Machinery and Models.—The collection,located in a hall of 
the ground floor, consists of measuring apparatus, actual machines, or 
models. Among the latter may be mentioned the Rausch models ex- 
hibited in the southern vestibule and show the historical development 
of hand implements and of the plow. The requirements of instruction 
and of practical use determine the enlargement of the collections; the 
additions, therefore, confine themselves principally to elements of con- 
struction and to apparatus for the testing of useful machinery. 

A collection of serviceable machinery in complete working order is 
employed for instruction. For that purpose an engine of 35 horse- 
power has been mounted in the hall. A water reservoir located in the 
hall contains a pulsometer, a centrifugal pump, an open archimedian 
screw, an overshot and an undershot wheel. Exhibitors have free use 
of space for terms of six months; the articles exhibited are published 
annually in the Deutsche landwirthschaftliche Presse. The space will 





iB 
> 
> 


\ 


—T es yo 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 127 


admit of the exhibition of about two hundred objects, including three 
to four locomotives and as many combined threshers. 


The Division of Fermentation and Starch-making.—This division repre- 
sents the above industries and belongs to the State only in so far as it 
occupies an official building and its director is one of the teachers of 
the agricultural high-school. The management is in the hands of the fol- 
lowing technical associations: The Society of Distillers in Germany, 
the Society and Experimental Institute for Brewing, and the Society of 
Starch Manufacturers in Germany. These associations, with a mem- 
bership of about three thousand, pay 100,000 mark ($25,000) annually 
towards the support of the division. 


The Division of Sugar Industry.—This division, supported by the Society 
for Beet-Sugar Industry in the German ae receives its rooms from 
the state free of expense, Its objects are: (1) the education of chemists 
for the sugar industry; (2) any ron ai required by a member of 
the society and the testing of instruments of precision; (3) the opening 
up of new fields regarding the composition of raw substances, auxiliary 
substances, and products of manufacture, as well as the development 
of technic and supervision of management. These objects are attained 
by the labors of the very completely organized laboratory, by lectures, 
and by attendance to the periodical meetings of the industrials. 


The Royal School for Gardening, and the National Nursery.—Although 
occupying separate localities, but closely related, both establishments 
owe their existence to the exertions, in 1823, of the general director of 
the gardens, Dr. Lenné, who secured the means necessary for their es- 
tablishment from the munificency of King Irederick William III, from 
the interested departments of the government, from the society for the 
promotion of horticulture in the Prussian states and from the stock- 
holders of the national nursery. The royal decree of August 20, 1823, 
granted them the privileges of a corporation. 

The Gardening school, whose principal object was the education of the 
various grades of gardeners, had its practical division at Schéneberg, a 
suburb of Berlin, while the division for scientific and artistic instrue 
tion was located upon the “ Pfaueninsel,” near Potsdam. Owing toinsuf- 
ficient results caused by the separation the divisions at Schoneberg were 
abandoned and combined with the establishment at Potsdam. 

The principal building of the establishment, in addition to the apart- 
ment set aside for the inspector, contains halls for instruction and for 
the collections, as also accommodation for twenty-seven apprentices 
which number, however, is generally exceeded. This arrangement, to- 
gether with the permission of the Emperor of the freedom of the im- 
perial gardens for purposes of instruction, and the connection with the 
national nursery, affords great facilities. 

The National Nursery is located upon a territory of 200 acres in ex- 
tent. In addition to the training of young gardeners it has engaged in 


128 ‘THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


the examination of important pomological questions and subjects and ig 
testing and supplying to fruit-growers reliable standard trees. 

Both establishments have been placed under the care of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and are managed by a board of trustees composed 
of a representative of the Department of Agriculture, lands and for- 
ests, who is the president, a representative of the royal garden in- 
tendancy and a member of the society for the promotion of horticulture 
in the Royal Prussian state. The immediate administration is in the 
hands of Royal Garden Inspector Jiihleke, assisted by two inspectors 
and one secretary. 


V.—THE GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AND THE MINING ACADEMY. 


The Mining Academy.—This was called into existence by royal decree 
of September 1, 1860,. In its organization the same points were con- 
sidered which for some time prior had been adopted in the training of 
candidates for technical positions. 

The mining officials requiring an education which involves a knowl- 
edge of law, national economy, and the natural sciences, in addition to 
their technical attainments were, until then, required to finish their 
studies at some national university. In the organization of the Berlin 
Academy all branches had been provided for thus enabling the student 
to complete his studies without being obliged to visit a university. 
The programme of instruction therefore provided for the following 
branches: 

(1) Science of mining. (2) Mining, surveying and mathematical 
geography. (3) Practice of mine surveying and in drafting. (4) Sei- 
ence of salt mining. (5) Science of manufacture. (6) General metal- 
lurgy. (7) General assaying. (8) Blowpipe. (8) Iron mining. (9) 
Projecting of iron-works. (11) Assaying of iron. (12) Metallurgical 
technology. (13) Chemical technology. (14) Science of machinery. 
(15) Machines for mining and smelting works. (16) Construction. (17) 
Architectural construction. (18) Drawing. (19) Plane and spherical 
trigonometry, stereometry, and analytical geometry. (20) Descriptive 
geometry. (21) Differential and integral calculus. (22) Mechanics. 
(23) Mineralogy. (24) Mineralogical practice. (25) Petrography. 
(26) Petrographic practice. (27) Paleontology. (28) Paleontological 
determinations. (29) Fossil plants. (30) Geognosy. (31) Geology of 
quaternary formations. (32) General geology. (33) Analytical chem- 
istry. (34) Chemical laboratory. (35) Mining laws. 


The Geological Institute—The first beginning of the present institute 
may be traced back to the year 1862. ‘The office of the royal director 
of mines had commenced the construction of geological maps of the 
Rhine province and of Westphalia at a scale of 1:80000, of Nether and 
Upper Silesia at a scale of 1:100000, and for the province of Saxony it 
had undertaken a continuation of von Strombeck’s map of the district 
of Magdeburg. 





| 
| 


te Sie BA o> ft 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 129 


When, in the execution of that work, the maps of the general staff, 
which were prepared to ascale of 1: 25000, were compared, it was shown 
in a prominent manner that geological maps constructed according to 
that scale would be of infinitely greater value both for scientific and 
practical purposes than maps constructed at a scale of 1:100000. It 
was, therefore, decided to accept the scale of 1: 25000 as a basis for all 
the maps of the entire State. 

The execution of the survey and the construction of the maps on the 
prescribed scale was commenced in various portions of the State. First 
of all, attention was given to the provinces of Hesse and Hanover, 
which, in 1866, had been added to the Kingdom, because they would 
form a continuation of the survey already begun of the Harz Mount- 
ains and the Thuringian Forest. It then was extended to the former 
Duchy of Nassau, the southern portion of the Rhine province and to 
the plains of North Germany and to the provinces of Silesia. 

The Kingdom of Saxony, Alsace-Lorraine, and the Grand Duchy of 
Hesse have since adopted the Prussian plan and have consented to the 
construction of a geological map on a scale of 1: 25000. 

As regards the organization of the geological survey, it may be stated 
that since 1862 geological surveys were made by teachers of mineralogy 
at the mining academy at Berlin. The building of this academy con- 
tained the geological and mineralogical collections intended both for 
instruction and for explorations, and the results of the surveys were 
worked out in that building. 

On January 1, 1873, the Royal Geological Institute was established, 
and on April 8, 1875, received the final statutes, as follows: 

SEc. 1. It is the object of the Geological Institute to execute the 
geological examinations of the Kingdom of Prussia and to digest the re- 
sults in a manner to make them available and useful to science, as well 
as to the economic interest of the country. 

Sec. 2. In accordance with the above the Geological Institute 
will execute the following work: (1) The construction and publication 
of a geological map of the entire state, on the basis of the original 
surveys of the General Staff, on a scale of 1: 25000. This chart is to 
contain a representation of the geological formations, condition of the 
soil, and the occurrence of useful stone and minerals, and is to be ac- 
companied by descriptive text. (2) The construction of a geological 
chart on a basis of 1: 100000. (3) The publication of monographs on 
geological or mineralogical objects of special interest. (4) The publi- 
cation of essays on geological, paleontological, or montanistic con- 
tents, supplementing the geological chart. (5) The collection and 
preservation of all documents obtained in the construction of the publi- 
cations. All these, together with profiles and other representations 
and illustrations, will be combined in the Geological Museum, to which 
are to be connected the technological collections of the ‘“‘Museum of 
Mining and Metallurgy.” These combined collections will afford a very 

H. Mis. 224——9 


130 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


complete representation of the geological structure, composition of 
soil, mineral wealth, and of the industries of the country based thereon. 
(6) The collection and preservation of geological specimens and infor- 
mation relating thereto. 

Src. 3. The superintendeney of the Geological Institute will be 
placed into the hands of two directors appointed by the King, one of 
them to be the director of the Royal Mining Academy. The works of 
the Geological Institute will be performed, under their direction, by 
geologists of the Government and assistants. 

Src. 18. The Geological Institute and the Mining Academy are placed 
under the Ministry of commerce, industry, and public works. The 
director of the mining academy is to conduct the business of the Insti- 
tute. He will be assisted by a board of trustees, to be appointed by 
the Minister of commerce, industry, and public works, who are obliged 
to participate in the organic arrangement and in the determination of 
the regular course of instruction. 

The library consists of about 36,000 volumes, relating to mining, 
smelting, salines, mineralogy, geology, geography, ethnography, pale- 
ontology, and scientific explorations. A large portion is represented 
by the former mining library of the department. 

Its use is intended primarily for the Institute and the Academy, ana 
their professors and students, as well as for the other divisions of the 
department of public works. The privilege may however be extended 
to other persons. Connected with the library is a reading-room, which 
is open to the public on all days of the week from 10 A. M. to 2 P. M., 
but is closed during the month of September. 


VI.—THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL. 


The Technical High School originated on April 1, 1879, in the uniting 
of the Royal Academy for Architects (founded in 1799) with the Tech- 
nological Institute (founded in 1821). 

Its organization is regulated by a constitutional statute of July 28, 
1882. Its object is to afford a higher education in all technical and in- 
dustrial branches and to promote the sciences and arts which form part 
of technical education. 

The Technical High School presents five divisions: (1) architecture ; 
(2) civilengineering; (3) machine emgineering and naval architecture ; 
(4) chemistry and metallurgy ; (5) general sciences. 

The regular professors receive their appointment from the King. 

The plan of instruction applies to a yearly term; the students have 
the selection of the lectures and of the exercises desired by them. 

Admittance is granted to graduates trom Prussian high schools. 
Others may be accepted upon the personal decision of the rector as to 
their qualification. 

Each division is managed by a director, who is assisted by a commit- 
tee selected from among the teachers of the respective divisions, while 
the rector and the senate supervise the entire high school. : 


rT 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 131 


Each division is complete in itself. It is the duty of the committees 
of teachers to oversee the scientific instruction of the students within 
their own section. Its president, elected from among their own num- 
ber, communicates with the rector and the senate. 

The senate consists of the rector, as presiding ofticer, the retired rec- 
tor (prorector), the chiefs of the divisions, the chief of the section of 
naval architecture, and a number of teachers appointed by the various 
committees for the term of two years. 

The position of private lecturer may be obtained by adhesion to one 
of the existing divisions. The applicant is required to furnish the fol- 
lowing documentary evidence: (1) a curriculum vitae; (2) graduation 
from a high school (gymnasium or realschule); (3) testimonial of a 
tbree-years academic study and proof of the successful performance of 
the first technical examination required by the state or of the diploma 
examination at some German technical high school, or of the doctor de- 
gree of some German university ; (4) proof of a continued three-years 
course of scientific or artistic study following the university term; (5) 
a manuscript or printed essay on the specialty of the applicant (archi- 
tects may replace the essay by plans or by bringing satisfactory proof 
of having had charge of some important construction) ; (6) an official 
testimonial of character, and in case the applicant is a German, proof 
of his having performed his military duties. All the above conditions 
having been complied with to the satisfaction of the division, the appli- 
cant is required to hold one lecture and to subject himself to an exami- 
nation. 

The corps of teachers at present consists of fifty-seven professors 
and twenty-four private teachers. 


The Mineralogical Institute.—In addition to the lecture-rooms the Insti- 
tute comprises: (1) The laboratory for crystallographic-physical, and 
chemico-mineralogical experiments; (2) a mineralogical collection ; (3) 
a geological collection; (4) the mineralogical museum. 

The lectures combine a course for the practical determination of min- 
erals by microchemical tests and by blow-pipe, determinations of rocks, 
and instructions for geological surveying. 

The public museum, comprising two halls, contains: (1) The system- 
atic mineralogical collection (Tamnan); (2) a mineralogic-technical 
collection ; and (3) the geoiogical collection. 

The geological room contains a collection from the Gotthard Tun. 
nel, together with geological profile of the Gotthard in the plane of the 
axis of the tunnel; projection, 1:2000; a geological collection arranged 
according to formations. 


The Laboratory for Inorganic Chemistry.—The laboratory has room for 
sixty-six operators; they occupy two larger and two smaller halls. 
Separate rooms are provided for special work. 

An auditory of one hundred and seventy seats is situated within the 
middle section; it connects with rooms for preparation and collections. 


132 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The Laboratory of Organic Chemistry.—Erected by Prof. A. Baeyer in 
1860, with eighteen students as part of the former Technical Academy. 
It was enlarged to forty places on occassion of the re-construction of the 
Technical High School. It is used by students of the fifth and sixth 
terms. The studies comprise analytical and preparative exercises in 
the field of organic chemistry; facilities are given for independent 
researches. 

The Metallurgical Laboratory.—The institute is the most recent of the 
laboratories of the Technical High School. In addition to the lecture 
rooms, and the room for the instruction of drawing and projecting, of 
smelting works, ete., the Laboratory comprises: (1) the metallurgical 
laboratory ; (2) the assaying laboratory, and the metallurgical collec- 
tion. 

The assay laboratory of sixteen seats, and separated from the assay 
room by a glass door, occupies a separate room. It is provided with 
all necessary apparatus, consisting of muffles, wind furnaces of various 
sizes, tables, and quenching troughs, ete. 

A forge oil some storage rooms eoruplere the facilities of the labor- 
atory. 

The Laboratory confines itself to the examination of metals, flux, 
smelting products, fuel; it pays special attention to gas analysis in its 
relation to generator gases, noxious gases, etc.; to electrolysis; to the 
examination and production of fire-proof articles. 

The Laboratory of Technical Chemistry.—Established in 1884, the Lab- 
oratory occupies rooms on the second floor for an auditory and chemico- 
technological collection consisting principally of raw materials of inter- 
est to the chemical industry, especially those employed in ceramics, 
glass manufactory, textile industry, manufactory of sugar, also inter- 
mixtures, and finished articles. 

The Photo-chemical Laboratory.—It was established in 1864 as part of 
the instructions of the Technological Institute; photographic experi- 
ments were added in 1865, experiments with intermittent light in 1870, 
spectral analysis in 1873, lectures on electric-lighting in 1881, and lect- 
ures on interior application of electric light in 1886. The object of the 
Laboratory has received due consideration in the re-organization of the 
Technical High School. 

The Royal Mechanico-technical Institute.—The object of the Institute 
is to make official tests of materials required in technics, with the ex- 
ception of building materials, and to undertake scientific examinations 
in that direction. It was established in 1871, and in 1878 received its 
present organization, which provides for the general supervision of this 
and of its connection with and relation to other similar establishments 
by the royal commission for the supervision of the technical experi- 
mental institutes. 

The Institute comprises three divisions, of which the first is to ex- 
periment on finished articles of metals, belts, ropes, chains, woods, 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 133 


machinery, etc., while the second division has to test on the principle 
of Wohler-Spangenberg duration experiments, and the third is confined 
to the official testing of paper. A mechanical workshop has been 
placed under the charge of the second superintendent. 

The Institute owns two excellent machines for the testing of finished 
articles, having a power of 100,000 and 50,000 kilograms (system Wer- 
der and Marten’s), six smaller machines for the same purpose, eleven 
machines for duration tests, photographic, microscopic, ete., apparatus. 


The Royal Testing Station of Building Materials.—This was founded on 
March 1, 1871, in connection with the Technical High School; it decides 
as to the quality of cements and other building material furnished to 
the Government. The station owns apparatus for the testing of dura- 
bility and other physical properties of burnt and unburnt artificial 
stone, natural stone, cement, plaster, lime, clay pipes, and all other 
building material. 

The hydraulic press of the station, of 140,000 kilograms (308,646 
pounds) pressure, permits the test of bodies (including pillars of brick 
or natural stone) of 1 meter height and of 55 by 55°™ diameter. Tests 
can be made both as to the stone and to the binding material. . 

A 20-fold lever is employed in testing the resistance of cylindrical 
bodies, and a 30-fold lever is used in the testing of elasticity of roofing 
paper and of the adhesiveness of mortar. 

Tests of clay pipes are made by horizontal pressure of from 20 to 30 
atmospheres to 1 to 3 meters internal diameter. 

The tests of cement are made in accordance with the rulings of No- 
vember 12, 1878, of the Ministry of commerce, industry, and public 
works. 

With regard to adhesiveness of cement and cement mortar, a 50-fold 
normal lever apparatus is used with sample piece of 59 centimeters at 
the point of rupture; in pressure tests and break tests the hydraulic 
press, a 500-fold lever and a 20-fold lever are employed. 

With regard to fineness of grain, sieves of from 600, 900, and 5,000 
-meshes to the square centimeter are employed. In ail cement tests the 
officially introduced normal sand alone finds employment. 

A horizontal disk of emery, operated by a gas-motor, which also oper- 
ates a diamond plane machine used in finishing the bodies for pressure 
tests, is employed in the experiments as to the wear of the building ma- 
terials. 


VII.—THE VETERINARY COLLEGE AND THE MILITARY SCHOOL OF FAR- 
RIERY. 


[Omitted here. ] 
VIII.—OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL INSTITUTES. 


The Astro-physical Observatory.— Until the first quarter of the present 
century astronomy employed itself almost exclusively with the discovery 


Puy 


134 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


of mechanics of the heavens; and the physical conditions of the stars 
received but occasional, and more accidental than systematic, attention 
from a few astronomers. Astro-physies had not fully developed itself as 
a branch of astronomy. When, then, later, more attention was given to 
certain changes on the surface of the sun and to other phenomena, the 
observations were restricted to the use of such apparatus as was then 
found in a well-equipped observatory, and not much difficulty was expe- 
rienced in combining new requirements with the existing apparatus. It 
was not until the more extending field of study brought physical and — 
chemical examinations in contact with the astronomical, and more es- 
pecially since theapplication ofthe spectral analysis upon the astro-phys- 
ical investigations proved the most powerful means for the discovery of 
the substances of which the heavenly bodies are composed, and since 
photography had begun to be employed in fixing certain events observed 
in the skies, it was not until then that the needs of separate establish- 
ments was fully recognized, equipped with suitable instruments not re- 
quired by observatories of the older kind. Such an establishment is 
now found in the Astro-physical Observatory at Potsdam. 

As early as 1860 it was suggested to establish, in the vicinity of Berlin, 
an Observatory for the physical examination of the sun. The conditions 
however were then not favorable, and it was not until 1871 that the 
first steps were taken towards the realization of the project. The Crown 
Prince, whose attention had been called to the effort by Prof. D. Schell- 
bach, managed to have propositions invited with regard to the subject 
from the director of the Berlin Observatory to which it was planned to 
connect the proposed solar observatory. To this the director responded 
on September 30, 1871, by submitting a memorial. It was proposed to 
establish an observatory in the vicinity of Berlin well-equipped for the 
direct, spectroscopic, and photographie investigation of the surface of 
the sun, this observatory at the same time to be the central station for 
magnetic and meteorological observations. 

The Academy of Sciences, at the request of the Government, on April 
29, 1872, while recognizing the interest of the subject, objected to the 
execution of the proposition from the stand-point that the scientific re- 
quirements would demand the establishment of two institutes, of which 
one should be devoted to astro-physics and the other to tellurian phys- 
ics; it opposed an organic combination of the two on the ground that 
its scope would be too large for a successful administration. In this 
case however the observations of the sun would have to form but a 
part of the labors of the astro-physical institute. 

The Minister of Education then called together a special commission 
under the presidency of Privy Counsellor E. du Bois-Reymond, which, 
in accordance with the academic consideration, recommended at first 
the establishment of an astrophysical observatory, with the proviso, 
however, that, in the case of uncertainty of the early erection of a tel- 
lurian observatory, such magnetic observations should be provided for 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 135 


which are of essential interest in the study of the sun’s activity. A 
plan was prepared with regard to the establishment, organization, and 
equipment of the observatory, which was accepted by the Royal Gov- 
ernment and sanctioned by legislative action of 187374. 

The cost of the building for astrophysical observations was 874,000 
mark ($218,500). ‘ 

The budget for the Observatory is 71,600 mark ($17,900), of which 
42,000 ($10,500) are paid out for salaries and compensation. 

The astro-physical institute is not an establishment for teaching, but 
is intended exclusively for the scientific investigation of this new branch 
of astronomy. Since the short existence of the Observatory many scien- 
tists have taken part in its works, most especially as they relate to 
spectral analysis and photography. 

The Observatory possesses the following larger telescopes: 

One large refractor of 29.8 centimeters (11? inches) aperture and 5.4 
meters focus. Objective by Schréder, mountings by A. Repsold, Ham- 
burg. Placed in the central cupola. Refractor by Grubb of Dublin, 
aperture 20 centimeters (7% inches), focus 3.2 meters; in place in the 
west cupola. A refractor by Steinheil, 13.5 centimeters aperture and 
2.2 focus; placed in the east cupola. Photo-heliograph and mount- 
ings by Repsold, objective by Steinheil, aperture 16 centimeters and 
focus 4 meters; placed in the southern addition to the main building. 
Comet-seeker by Reinfelder and Hertel. 

The observatory possesses a large number of spectral apparatus, 
among them one large by Schroder, for observations of the sun, and 
one spectroscope by the same. John Browning furnished two spectro- 
scopes for observations of the stars and for solar protuberances, re- 
spectively. Other spectroscopes emanate from the shops of Hilger, 
London; Schmidt & Hvensch, Berlin ; Repsold, Hamburg; Topper, 
Potsdam. In connection with the prism apparatus some finely gradu- 
ated grates of glass and metal for the representation of grate spectra 
may be mentioned ; among these are some excellent ones by Wanschaff, 
Berlin. 

In addition to the larger apparatus for photographie work the equip- 
ment for laboratory work is excellent. For photometric representa- 
tions of spectral analysis a large Z6llner photometer by Wanschaff and 
several smaller photometers are employed. 


The Geodetic Institute—The purpose of the Institute is the improve- 
ment of geodesy by scientific investigations. At the time of its estab- 
lishment it was also intrusted with the Prussian portion of the European 
Geodetic Survey ; in fact that undertaking was the cause of the estab- 
lishment of the institute. The Kuropean Geodetic Survey developed 
itself out of the Middle European Survey. In 1862, at the suggestion 
of Lieutenant-General Baeyer—the collaborator of Bessels in the East- 
ern Prussian Geodetic Survey and chief of the trigonometrical division 


136 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


of the general staff of the Army—a convention took place of delegates 
of most of the German States, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, 
Sweden, Norway, etc., for the Geodetic Survey of the represented 
States. 3 

The Institute is divided into four sections, each of which has a chief, 
one regular and one temporary assistant. The field work of the sum- 
mer is computed during the winter and published. 

During Baeyer’s administration, from 1869 to his death, September 
10, 1885, the Institute measured the longitude of sixty-three places, 
obtained longitudinal differences of twenty-one places, and completed 
the astronomical work of twenty-seven stations of the trigonometrical 
system. The triangles were completed by elaborate work along the 
Rhine from Belgium to Switzerland and from the Middelrhein through 
Thuringia to Berlin, etc., and provided with two new base lines, ob- 
tained by means of measurements with a platin-iridium apparatus by 
Brunner at Paris. Pendulum observations were made at thirteen 
places, older ones corrected, new levels obtained from Swinemiinde to 
Constanz and to the frontier of the Netherlands and of the mean water 
height of the Baltic Sea. The greater portion of the work has already 
been published. 


The Museum of Ethnography.—sSince the middle of the present century 
ethnology and anthropology have begun to take definite shape as a 
science with well-pronounced objects and purposes. 

Of the exotic material which reached Europe as a result of the discov- 
eries of, and scientific journeys in foreign continents the objects which 
could be incorporated in natural history collections found their proper 
places in the zoological or botanical museums, while the objects relat- 
ing to man did not have any relation to the special studies of the 
times, and they therefore became more the subject of curiosity and 
wonder than of earnest consideration. 

These objects generally received a place in the section of foreign 
curiosities in most the cabinets enjoying a princely protection, and 
these sections followed the movement of their respective museums. 

Thus in Berlin, where from the days of the colonial policy of the 
Great Elector an interest had continued in that direction, and where 
the “ Silver Chamber” of the Royal Castle contained many ethnological 
articles, which, in the union of the old and the new museum were trans- 
ferred under the designation of “ Ethnographic division. ” 

In the new Museum one hall contained the pre-historic collections of 
Prussia, while three other halls contained everything of an ethnolog- 
ical character which had found its way thither by donation or purchase. 
The same arrangement existed in London, Copenhagen, Lyons, Munich, 
Gottingen, Wien, ete. 

In the middle of the present century however, when anthropological 
and ethnological studies experienced that powerful impulse which has 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 137 


produced their rapid development and when the movement originated 
in Engiand and France was transferred to Germany, it soon became 
apparent that the space devoted to these collections demanded an im- 
mediate enlargement. 

Deliberations to that effect commenced in 1873 and continued during 
the years 1873-1876, and finally, in 1880 resulted in the accomplish- 
ment of the desire for an independent ethnographical museum. 

The building was finished in the spring of 1886, at a cost of 2,000,000 
mark ($500,000). 


The Standard Measures Commission.—Article 18 of the law of August 
17, 1868, relating to weights and measures within the North German 
Confederation provides for the establishment of a standard measures 
commission, with its seat at Berlin and duties specitied as follows: 

‘“* A standard measures commission is to be appointed by the Confed- 
eration. The same is to be located at Berlin. It is the duty of the 
commission to see that all the measures within the Confederation 
are conducted on a uniform system. It has to prepare the standard 
and to communicate the same to all measure bureaus throughout the 
Confederation, and for that reason it is to be equipped with all neces- 
sary apparatus and instruments. The standard measures commission 
has to issue orders and prescriptions with regard to material, form, 
designation, and other conditions of weights and measures, and to de- 
termine the limit of errors. It decides on the kind of scales to be used 
in public and for special industrial purposes, and determines their ac- 
curacy. It is to issue all necessary prescriptions and formulas for the 
manufacture of weights and measures and to test the accuracy of any 
articles which may be offered for the purpose. The standard measures 
commission has to regulate the fees to be exacted by the measuring 
establishments, and in fact the entire technics of weights and measures. 

‘¢ All bureaus of measures within the North German Confederation, 
in addition to the local stamp, have to use the mark of the standard 
measures commission which will be furnished for the purpose. 

‘The standard weights and measures are to be preserved after true 
and attested copies have been made of them.” 

Article 22 of the law providing for the introduction of the new 
weights and measures, on and after January 1, 1870, called for the 
immediate formation of the conference in order to enable the bureau 
of measures to have the necessary facilities and standards in time for the 
testing and approving of any new weights and measures brought 
before them. 

As a result of the conference metrical regulations were established on 
July 16, 1869; and on July 21, 1869, the business instructions and the 
composition and organization of the standard measures commission 
were completed. 

According to the rules adopted, the standard measures commission 
was to consist of the director, assisted by the regular force required 


138 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


for the business affairs of the commission, and of attached members 
to be called in for conference; their number is to correspond to the 
demand. They are recommended for appointment of five years by the 
director and confirmed by the chancellor of the Empire. Their office is 
an honorary one, but members, non-residents of Berlin, are refunded 
expenses incurred on occasion of official business conferences at Berlin. 
All projects relating to the entire system of measures are to be consid- 
ered in full session. 

The business instructions provide that the director be assisted by two 
experienced technicians, well versed with gauging; further, some per- 
son or persons skilled in making mathematical computations or physical 
examinations, a secretary, a messenger, and the required number of 
clerks and copyists. 

The scientific publications of the commission relate to measurements, 
weighings, barometric, thermometric, and areometric examinations, 
to which are added experiments on alloys, inflammability of petro- 
leum, ete. 

The commission employs the following apparatus: universal com- 
parator, by A. Repsold Sons, at Hamburg; longitudinal comparator, by 
A. Repsold Sons, at Hamburg; universal cathetometer (vertical, trans- 
versal, and longitudinal comparator), by C. Bamberg, at Berlin; kilo- 
gram scale, within hermetical glass bell, by P. Stiickrath, at Berlin; 
scale of 100 grams by P. Stiickrath; scales of 500 milligrams, by P. 
Stiickrath; standard barometer and manometer, with vertical compar- 
ator; thermometers, and apparatus for the testing of air thermometers, 
by Fuess. 

In addition to the above the commission possesses a number of ap- 
paratus and instruments, consisting of comparators, scales, barometers, 
barographs, thermometers, alcoholometers, areometers, hollow meas- 
ures, gas-meters, cubic apparatus, petroleum tester, crucibles and fur- 
nace for alloy, measuring-scales of platinum, brass, crystal, iron, and 
aluminium. 

The more delicate apparatus are mounted in rooms having double 
walls of zine, the intervening space of which is tested by gas for the 
preservation of a constant temperature. They are lighted by Siemens’s 
regenerative shallow burners, the radiation of which is prevented by 
cloaks of water, while the light is carried through a hollow lens filled 
with a solution of alum and is retlected by mirrors upon the scales to be 
read. The instruments have been isolated by placing them upon pillars 
extending in wells to a depth of 8 meters. 


The Hydrographic Office of the Imperial Admiralty——On December 18, 
1853, Professor Berghaus suggested to Prince Adalbert, of Prussia, the 
establishment of a hydrographic office. The. plan was accepted, but 
its execution delayed on account of insufficient funds. The desirability 
and necessity of such an establishment becoming more urgent, a Direc- 


a 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 139 


tion of Navigation was established on June 28, 1854, to form a technical 
division of the naval office at Danzig. On account of insufficient force 
the institute had to limit its operations to the needs of the war navy. 

The Direction of Navigation at Danzig was dissolved on September 
25, 1861, and in its place a ‘‘ Hydrographic Bureau” was established to 
form a section of Division X of the Ministry of Navy. Its functions re- 
mained unchanged, and in addition it was commissioned with the current 
work of sea charts and with the collecting and tabulating of nautical 
informations, which, between the years 1863 and 1868, were furnished to 
the vessels of the war navy. In order to extend its usefulness to the 
mercantile marine these informations were published, since 1869, under 
the title of ‘‘ Nachrichten fiir Seefahrer,” at first as additions to the 
‘¢ Preussisches Handelsblatt” and since 1870 as additions tothe“ Marine 
Verordnungs- Blatt.” | 

The demands on the Hydrographic Office increased with the rapid 
increase of the war navy, until it became unable to do all the work 
expected of it. In January, 1874, therefore, it was enlarged and 
appointed a separate division of the Admiralty, with the following per- 
sonnel : 


One full captain (or admiral), in charge; two chiefs of division, five 
section chiefs (including the chief of the Wilhelmshaven Observatory), 
five assistants, one librarian, and a number of draughtsmen, engravers, 
and mechanics. 

For the business administration the following clerical force was ap- 
pointed: Two chiefs of bureaus, two registrars, two secretaries of chan- 
celry, and the required subordinates. 

The Hydrographic Office in first line serves the interests of the im 
perial navy, but its advantages are extended to the mercantile navy as 
far as possible. 

A survey of the entire territory of the North and Baltic Seas was 
begun in 1867 and completed in 1879; from 1880 to 1884 test measure- 
ments were made, scientific experiments instituted along the German 
coasts, and the knowledge of the physical conditions of the native seas 
improved. 


The Central Telegraph Bureau and the Telephone Service.—With regard 
to its importance in the telegraphic intercourse the Bureau at Berlin 
occupies the first place among the telegraphic stations of the Empire. 
It is attached to the second division of the Imperial Post-oftice Depart 
ment and serves as center of the telegraphic and pneumatic intercourse 
for Berlin. 

A few figures will exhibit the importance of the establishment and 
afford an illustration of its operations. 

The service of the Central Bureau gives employment to four hundred 
and ninety-two officials and one hundred and twenty-eight subordinates. 

The telegraphing business requires the application of fifty-four type 
apparatus, Hughes’s construction, one hundred and seventy-eight Morse 


140 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


apparatus, and fifty-one apparatus of a peculiar construction. Two 
hundred and eighty-two wires center at Berlin; of these fifty-six are 
underground and serve the larger circuit, thirty-seven, seventy, and 
twenty-eight overhead wires are used for foreign, the larger and smaller 
domestie circuits, respectively, while fifty-six underground wires accom- 
modate the city trade. Within the city limits all wires, with the ex: 
ception of those used in telephoning, are placed underground. 

One hundred and twenty-four batteries, representing 7,350 elements, 
together with eight batteries for special purposes representing 290 ele- 
ments, are employed in the central office. 

The Berlin service comprises 351.8 kilometers (218.6 miles) of lines, 
with 2,428.5 kilometers (1,509 miles) of wire; the pneumatic service 
comprises 40.5 kilometers ‘25 miles’ of lines. with 46.5 kilometers (29 
miles) of tubes. 

The pneumatic line commences at the Central Telegrap.a Bureau, 
radiates in six principal directions, and together with the branch lines 
forms connection with thirty-three pneu matie offices. Kach line runs one 
train every fifteen minutes in either direction, with a velocity of 1,000 
meters (5281 feet) per minute. The pressure and vacuum are produced 
at eight stations, each of which is provided witha double set of en- 
gines of a total force of 135 horse-power. Forty-four compartments of a 
total capacity of 772 cubic meters serve to hold the compressed air and 
the air ejected by the tubes. Each line controls a special series of sig- 
nals. 

The telephone service was established in 1881. At the beginning 
two central offices were established. Each of these received two switch- 
boards for fifty plugs each. The great advantages of immediate personal 
communication and the extraordinary simplicity of the arrangement 
became so apparent that this mode of communication soon came into 
general use. The increase is best illustrated by stating that from the 
end of November, 1881, to June, 1886, the number of participants had 
increased from 442 to 5,194, while the line had increased from 1,319 
to 10,477 kilometers (819 to 6,510 miles.) 

In order to enable the subscribers to communicate with their own 
homes or places of business from more distant parts and also to throw 
the service open to general utility, public stations were established 
which could be used by any one so desirous upon the payment of a small 
fee. At present there are twelve such stations. 

The constant increase in the number of telephones rendered it desira- 
ble to extend the telephonic service beyond the city limits. The prog- 
ress made in this field of technic, especially in the construction of long- 
distance microphones, rendered it practicable to establish, in November, 
1882, connection between Berlin and Charlottenburg ; in May, 1883, it 
was extended to Berlin and Potsdam; in December 1883 connection was 
made between the exchanges of Berlin and Magdeburg; in the years 
1884 and 1885 with the surburban places: Westend, Képenick, Steg- 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 141 


litz, Rixdorf, Gross Lichterfelde, Weissensee, Pankow, Rummelsburg, 
Friedenau, and Griinau. 

The greatest distance of 347 kilometers (215 miles) was accomplished 
between Berlin and Hanover, and a large number is projected between 
Berlin and Halle, Breslau, Leipzig, Hamburg, etc. 

The total cost of construction of the telephone service in Berlin to 
and including the year 188485 has been about 2,000,000 mark ($500,- 
000). Large amounts are required for the support and changes of 
lines and for their maintenance and operation. 

Until the beginning of the year 1886 the conduct and supervision of 
the telephone service was inthe hands of the Central Telegraph Bureau ; 
the extent and growing demand however made it desirable to establish 
the service on an independent basis with a rank of an office of the first 
class. The service, at present employs two hundred and seventy-five 
regular officials with a corresponding number of subordinates. 

The principal supervision of the erection of buildings for the tele- 
phonic service and of its administration, belongs to the Imperial Post- 
Office Department at Berlin, which has established a special division 
for the purpose. This is in charge of a councilor of post assisted by a 
telegraph inspector and ten officials for the business affairs of the bureau. 
To these, ten officials have been added who are employed in technical 
affairs, that is, in the preparation of plans and execution of the necessary 
building and changes in the lines and who have charge of a large number 
of laborers. And all decisions in telephonic affairs are rendered by tbis 
second division of the imperial post-office department. 

The Telegraph Workshop, etc.—The duties of the telegraph apparatus 
workshop comprise: (1) The manufacture of apparatus and parts of 
such, as well as of the materials and tools required ; (2) the changes and 
repairs to existing apparatus; (3) the making of contracts for the 
manufacture of apparatus and their parts, tools, materials, ete.; (4) the 
testing of apparatus, tools, materiais, or changes or repairs made at 
private shops; (5) the examination of the bills; (6) the care and stor. 
age of apparatus and their parts; (7) the transmission of apparatus 
and their parts; (8) the sale of condemned material; (9) the keeping 
of accounts with regard to tools, apparatus, and their parts, materials 
and equipment; (10) the keeping of a list of applicants for mechanical 
positions; (11) the employment of assistant mechanics appointed by 
the post-office department. 

The telegraph workshop is therefore divided into three branches, 
viz: (a) the bureau, (b) the mechanical work shop, (c) the carpenter 
shop and shipping office. 

The bureau gives employment to one official of the first class, and three 
of the second, while the mechanical workshop employs one official of the 
first class who supervises the force, consisting of twenty mechanics. 

Each mechanic has a separate and completely equipped place assigned 
within the shop. 


142 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


The cable examination-room serves in the first line for continued 
measurements of the underground lines of Berlin, which are made once 
a week; it is furthermore used for the accurate measurements and ex- 
periments with new batteries, apparatus, and switches, ete. The cur- 
rents of the two underground cables, Beriin and Thorn and Berlin and 
Dresden, are measured by the aid of two self-registering apparatus lo- 
cated in the testing-room. 

The use of underground cables made it desirable to test their elec- 
trical properties at regular, short intervals by measuring the resistance 
of the copper wire, the isolating resistance, ete., of the insulating mate- 
rial, etc. This had the effect of giving full information of the state of 
the cable at all times; any mechanical injury was at once indicated, and 
could be repaired without delay. These regular measurements offered 
an opportunity for the instruction to a large number of officials located 
throughout the Empire, thus enabling them to be of service in case of 
emergency. 


The Postal Museum.—The collections of the postal museum are located 
on the ground floor of the monumental building of the central Post- 
Office Department of the German Empire. 

The Postmaster-General, soon after entering upon his duties, endeav- 
ored to interest the official bureaus, private individuals, artists, scien- 
tists, ete., in his ideas, and succeeded therein in such a measure that at 
the beginning of the present decade already a pretty complete repre- 
sentation from the beginning of communication to the present days, was 
presented in the collections of the postal museum. 

In the mean time, by the incorporation, in 1876, of the telegraphy 
with the post, all the apparatus, models, materials, etc., collected by 
the former general director of telegraphy were transferred to the older 
sister establishment, and this collection being very rich and complete, 
the telegraph division of the postal bureau offers to the technician and 
to the physical science a rich source for earnest study, and especially 
a true historical picture of the development of the telegraph. 

The postal division, of course, is still more extended, for the history 
of communication is as old as man himself. In the museums are rep- 
resented the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Hebrews, and other people 
of antiquity; Egyptian hieroglyphs, papyrus with hieratic writing, and 
Niniveh writing upon terra-cotta plates are the proofs which those 
people offer. The little plates of the Greeks and Romans which were 
laid before the oracle of Dodons, the skytale written upon parchment, 
the well executed imitations of the rare “ tabelle duplices et trip- 
lices” and the ‘* Diptyches,” distributed by the Roman consuls upon the 
commencement of their terms of office, conclude the antiquity. The 
gradual development of more regulated forms of later periods, inchud- 
ing the Middie Ages, are illustrated by precious samples of writings 
emanating from the contemplative quiet of the monasteries, representa- 

tions of boats, wagons and teams, streets, ships, ete., etc., while the 


THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 143 


- modern cosmopolitan character of the “ post” is represented by natural 
models of all peoples and countries. Everything is represented, from 
the most primitive row-boat to the highly elegant steamer, from the 
‘dog post” to the six-horse postal carriage, railway post, pigeon post, 
field post, ete. Numerous illustrations of the homes of the post in all 
zones, and models of the stately buildings of modern times, complete 
the panorama. 


IX.—THE ROYAL LIBRARY. 


The establishment of a public library dates back to the year 1661, and 
is owing to the Grand Elector who ordered the collection of the frag- 
ments of the monasterial libraries and had them combined with the 
library of the castle, forming a collection comprising 1,618 European 
and Oriental manuscripts and 20,600 printed works, representing about 
90,000 volumes. Frederick I added to it the purchased Spanheim col- 
lection of books, and Frederick I the library and collection of charts of 
Colonel Quintus Icilius and other valuable purchases. The present 
building was erected in the years 1774-1780 by order of Frederick the 
Great; the books were transferred to it in 1782, and the reading-room 
was opened in 1784. 

According to the report of the director, in 1836, the library contained 
about 200,000 printed volumes, and 4,611 manuscripts. The growth of 
the library was such, that toward the end of the reign of Frederick 
William III, the lower floor of the building—used for the storage of 
books, had to be applied to the use of exposition. It was re-modelled 
during the years 1840 to 1842, and divided into two stories. The burn- 
ing in 1843, of the Royal Opera House, immediately opposite the library, 
called attention to the importance of fire-proofing the building, the 
provision of iron stairways, doors, etc., and of suitable water reservoirs. 

The extraordinary increase of the collections—amounting at present 
(1886) to 800,000 volumes, and 20,000 manuscripts, rendered it necessary 
to divide the elevation of the stories byemeans of iron ceilings, and to 
use a portion of the attic for the storage of books. 

The budget for 188687 allowed 96,000 mark ($24,000) for the pur- 
chase of books, manuscripts, journals, music, charts, and illustrations, 
and for the necessary expense for the binding of books. 


X.—THE ROYAL BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING. 


In 1850, when the Finance Department had under advisement the best 
method for preventing the manufacture of counterfeit money, a propo- 
sition was made to have all paper money and securities made at some 
central establishment. On April 30, 1851, a royal decree authorized 
the establishment of a bureau for the manufacture of paper money, 
bonds, and other securities, and a building was purchased for the put- 
pose at a cost of 5,380 thaler ($4,135). 


144 THE NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AT BERLIN. 


In 1852, the establishment commenced operations with a personnel 
consisting of four officials, two messengers, and fifteen laborers. At 
present nine hundred persons are employed. 

On August 1, 1852, the manufacture of postage stamps, stamped en- 
velopes,; newspaper wrappers, which until then had been made by pri- 
vate contract, was given to the bureau together with all the necessary 
machines and implements for the manufacture of the same, which had 
been the property of the Post-Office Department. 

At the close of the year 1860, when the Royal Lithographing Institute 
became combined with the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, it was 
found necessary to employ copper engraving with photographie and gal- 
vanoplastic processes in engraving of charts instead of lithography, 
and this change again was productive of an enlargement of the office 
together with a corresponding increase in machinery. 

A great source of revenue and profit was offered in the enormous sup- 
ply of postage stamps and cards required by the totally unexpected de- 
velopment of the postal service. This kind of work had formerly been 
performed by the printing office of Decker, which by decree of May 23, 
1877, had been purchased by the German Government for the sum of 
6,780,000 mark ($1,695,000) and had been placed under the jurisdiction 
of the Postmaster-General. 

By law of May 15, 1879, the Prussian Bureau of Engraving was pur- 
chased by the Imperial Government for a consideration of 3,573,000 
mark ($893,250) and consolidated with the printing establishment under 
the name, “ Royal Bureau of Engraving and Printing.” 

The amalgamation took place at once from a business point of view, 
the general supervision remaining in the hands of the chief of the Ger- 
man post and telegraph administration, in whose bureau a separate 
division was established under the name * Director of the Royal Bureau 
of Engraving and Printing.” 

In order to accommodate the increased force of the combined offices, 
the adjacent buildings were purchased in May, 1879, for the sum of 
517,500 mark ($129,375); the téaring down of the old buildings began 
at once and in the autumn of 1881 the new building was ready for 
occupation. 

The bureau at present employs ninety-five artists and regular mechan- 
ics, and seven hundred and seventy laborers (male and female), appren- 
tices, and porters. 

The work of the bureau increases from year to year although a great 
deal of it, not involving money or bonds, is now turned over to private 
industries. 

At present the ordinary work required by the Government and bu- 
reaus represents about 120,000,000 sheets, of which the Imperial Post 
and Telegraph Administration uses about 13,000,000 sheets and about 
60,000,000 cards, independent of the large amount of work ordered from 
private firms. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS.* 


BY G. W. DE TUNZELMANN, B. SC. 


H. Hertz has been engaged for some time past in a series of researches 
on electrical oscillations, which have led to results of very exceptional 
importance, and as these results throw considerable light on the nature 
of electrical action, it will be of interest to have a connected account 
of the investigations, to which I therefore propose to devote a short 
series of papers. 

In Hertz’s first paper on the subject, viz, *‘On Very Rapid Electrical 
Oscillations” (Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1887, vol. XXxI, page 421), he 
refers to a paper by Colley, ‘‘On Some New Methods for Observing 
Electrical Oscillations, with Applications” (ibid., vol. Xxv1I, page 432), 
who calls attention to the fact that Sir William Thompson in 1853, 
showed the possibility of producing electrical oscillations by the dis- 
charge of a charged conductor, and gives references to all the investiga- 
tions in the same direction which were known to him.t 


*From The Electrician (published in London), Sept. 14 to Noy. 16, 1888, vol. xx1, 
pp. 587, 625, 663, 696, 725, 757, 788; vol. xx, pp. 16, 41. 

+ For the benefit of readers who may wish to pursue the subject further the list is 
reproduced below :— 

[Joseph Henry was the first to experimentally demonstrate the oscillation of elec- 
trical discharges, in June, 1842. Proceedings American Philosoph. Soc., vol. U, pages 
193-196. Also, ‘‘Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry,” published by the Smithson- 
ian Institution ; vol. 1, page 200. ] 

Von Helmholtz, ‘‘Erhaltung der Kraft.” Berlin, 1847: Translated and published 
in Tyndall’s ‘‘Scientific Memoirs,” London, 1853, vol. 1, page 143. Also, ‘‘Gesam- 
melte Abhandlungen,” vol. 1, page 531. 

Sir William Thomson, L. £. D. Phil. Mag. 1853, vol. v, page 400. Also, ‘‘ Mathe- 
matical and Physical Papers,” vol. 1, page 540. 

Feddersen, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1858, vol. c1u, page 69; 1859, vol. Cvitl, page 
497 ; 1861, vol. cx, page 452; 1861, vol. cx, page 437; 1862, vol. Cxv, page 336; 
1862, vol. CXVI, page 132. 

Kirchhoff, ‘‘Gesammelte Abhandlungen,” page 168, containing remarks on and 
corrections of some of Feddersen’s results. 

Von Oettingen, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1862, vol. cxv, page 513; and Jubelband 
of same, 1874, page 269. 

Bernstein, Poggendorfi’s Annalen, 1871, vol. cXLU, pages 54-88. 

Schiller, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1872, vol. CLI, page 535. 

Mouton, Thése, Paris, 1876. Journal des Physique, 1876, vol. VI, pages 5 and 46. 

H. Mis. 224 10 145 





146 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


According to these investigations, the electrical oscillations produced 
in an open circuit by means of an induction coil are measured by ten 
thousandths of a second, while in the case of the oscillatory discharge 
of a Leyden jar they are about a hundred times as rapid, as was shown 
by Feddersen. 

According to theory, still more rapid oscillations should be possible 
in an open circuit of wire of good conducting material, provided its ends 
are not connected with conductors of any considerable capacity ; but it 
is not possible to determine from theory whether measurable oseilla- 
tions are actually produced. Some observations of Hertz’s led him to 
believe that under certain circumstances oscillations of this kind were 
produced, and his researches show that this is so, and that the oseilla- 
tions are about a hundred times as rapid as those observed by Fedder- 
sen; so that their periods are measured by hundred millionths of a 
second, and they therefore occupy a position intermediate between 
acoustic and luminous vibrations. 


Preliminary Experiments.—It is known that if in the secondary circuit 
of an induction coil there be inserted, in addition to the ordinary air 
space, across which sparks pass, a Riess spark micrometer, with its 
poles joined by a long wire, the discharge will pass across the air space 
of the micrometer in preference to following the path of least resistance 
through the wire, provided this air space does not exceed a certain 
limit, and it is upon this principle that lightning protectors for tele- 
graph lines are constructed. It might be expected that the sparks 
could he made to disappear by diminishing the length and resistance 
of the connecting wire; but Hertz finds that though the length of the 
sparks can be diminished in this way, it is almost impossible to get rid 
of them entirely, and they can still be observed when the balls of the 
microineter are connected by a thick copper wire only a few centimeters 
in length. 

This shows that there must be variations in the potential measure- 
able in hundredths of a volt in a portion of the circuit only a few centi- 
meters in length, and it also gives an indirect proof of the enormous 
rapidity of the discharge, for the difference of potential between the 
micrometer knobs can only be due to self-induction in the connecting 
wire. Now the time occupied by variations in the potential of one of 
the knobs must be of the same order as that in which these variations 
can be transmitted through a short length of a good conductor to the 
second knob. The resistance of the wire connecting the knobs is found 
to be without sensible effect on the results. 


L. Lorenz, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1879, Vol. vi1, page 161. 
Olearsky, Verhandlungen der Academie von Krakan, 1882, vol. vu, page 141. 
Kolacek, Beiblatter zu Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1883, Vol. vil, page 541 (abstract of 

a paper published in the reports of the Bohemian Scientific Society in 1882). 

Bichat et Blondlot, Comptes Rendus, 1882, vol. xctv, page 1590. 
Oberbeck, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1882, vol. xvi, pages 816 and 1040; 1883, vol. 

XIX, pages 213 and 265, 

> 


; 





HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 147 


In Fig. 1, A is an induction coil and 6 a discharge. The wire con- 
necting the knobs 1 and 2 of the spark micrometer 
M, consists of a rectangle, half a meter in length, 
of copper wire 2 millimeters in diameter. This rect- 
angle is connected with the secondary circuit of the 
coil in the manner shown in the diagram; and when 
the coil is in action, sparks—sometimes several 
millimeters in length—are seen to pass between the 
knobs 1 and 2, showing that there are violent elec- 
trical oscillations, not only in the secondary circuit 
itself, but in any conductor in contact with it. This 
experiment shows even more clearly than the previ- 
ous one that the rapidity of the oscillations is com- 
parable with the velocity of transmission of electrical 
disturbances through the copper wire, which, ac- 
cording to all the evidence at our disposal, is nearly Fis. 1. 
equal to the velocity of light. 

In order to obtain micrometer sparks some millimeters in length, a 
powerful induction coil is required, and the one used by Hertz was 52 
centimeters in length and 20 centimeters in diameter, provided with a 
mercury contact breaker, and excited by six large Bunsen cells. The 
discharger terminals consisted of brass knobs 3 centimeters in diame- 
ter. The experiments showed that the phenomenon depends to a very 
great extent on the nature of the sparks at the discharger, the micro- 
meter sparks being found to be much weaker when the discharge in 
the secondary circuit took place between two points, or between a point 
and a plate, than when knobs were used. The micrometer sparks were 
also found to be greatly enfeebled when the secondary discharge took 
place in a rarified gas, and also when the sparks in the secondary were 
less than half a centimeter in length, while on the other hand, if they 
exceeded 14 centimeters the sparks could no longer be observed be- 
tween the micrometer knobs. The length of secondary spark which 
was found to give the best results, and which was therefore employed 
in the further observations, was about three-quaiters of a centimeter. 

Very slight differences in the nature of the secondary sparks were 
found to have great effect on those at the micrometer, and Hertz states 
that after some practice he was able to determine at once from the 
sound and appearance of the secondary spark whether it was of a kind 
to give the most powerful effects at the micrometer. The sparks which 
gave the best results were of a brilliant white color, only slightly 
jagged, and accompanied by a sharp crack. 

The influence of the spark is readily, shown by increasing the distance 
between the discharger knobs beyond the striking distance, when the 
micrometer sparks disappear entirely, although the variations of po- 
tential are now greater than before. The length of the micrometer cir- 
cuit has naturally an important influence on the length of the spark, as 








148 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


the greater its length the greater will be the retardation of the electrical 
wave in its passage through it from one knob of the micrometer to the 
other. 

The material, the resistance, and the diameter, of the wire of which 
the micrometer circuit is formed, have very little influence on the spark. 
The potential variations can not therefore be due to the resistance, and 
this was to be expected, for the rate of propagation of an electrical dis- 
turbance along a conductor depends mainly on its capacity. and co-effi- 
cient of self-induction, and only to a very small extent on its resistance. 
The length of the wire connecting the micrometer circuit with the 
secondary circuit of the coil is also found to have very little influence, 
provided it does not exceed a few meters in length. The electrical dis- 
turbances must therefore traverse it without undergoing any appreciable 
change. The position of the point of the micrometer circuit which is 
joined to the secondary circuit, is on the other hand of the greatest 
importance, aS would be expected, for if the point is placed symmetric- 
ally with respect to the two micrometer knobs the variations of poten- 
tial will reach the latter in the same phase, and there will be no effect, 
as is verified by observation. If the two branches ot the micrometer 
circuit on each side of the point of contact of the connection with the 
secondary are not symmetrical, the spark can not be made to disappear 


entirely ; but a minimum effect is obtained when the point of contact is © 


about half-way between the micrometer knobs. This point may be 
called the null point. 

Fig. 2 shows the arrangement employed, e being the null point @ the 
rectangular circuit, ach is 125 centimeters long 
by 80 centimeters broad. When the point of con- 
tact is at a or b, sparks of from 35 to 4 millimeters 
in length are observed, when it is at e no sparks 
are seen, but they can be made to re-appear by 
shifting the point of contact a few centimeters to 
the right or left of the null point. It should be 
noted that sparks only a few hundredths of a milli- 
meter in length can be observed. If when the 
point of contact is at e another conductor is placed 
in contact with one of the micrometer knobs the 
sparks re-appear, 

Now the addition of this conductor can not pro- 
duce any alteration in the time taken by the dis- 
turbances proceeding from e to reach the knobs, 
and therefore the phenomenon can not be due simply to single waves 
in the directions ca and db respectively, but must be due to repeated re- 
flection of the waves until a condition of stationary vibration is attained, 
and the addition of the conductor to one of the knobs must diminish or 
prevent the reflection of the waves from that terminal. It must be as- 
sumed then, that definite oscillations are set up in the micrometer cir- 





Fics: 2. 


top Retard 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 149 


cuit just as an elastic bar is thrown into definite vibrations by blows 
from a hammer. If this assumtion is correct, the condition for the dis- 
appearance of the sparks at M will be that the vibration periods of the 
two branches e1 and e2 shall be equal. These periods are determined 
by the products of the coefficients of self-induction of these conductors 
into the capacity of their terminals, and are practically independent of 
their resistances. 

In confirmation of this, it is found that if when the point of contact is 
at e and the sparks have been made to re-appear by connecting a con- 
ductor with one of the knobs, this conductor is replaced by one of 
greater capacity, sparking is greatly increased. Ifa conductor of equal 
capacity is connected with the other micrometer knob the sparks disap- 
pear again; the effect of the first conductor can also be counteracted 
by shifting the point of contact towards it, thereby diminishing the 
self-induction in that branch. The conclusions were further confirmed 
by the results obtained when coils of copper wire were inserted into one 
or other and then into both of the branches of the micrometer circuit. 

Hertz supposed that as the self-indnetion of iron wires is, for slow 
alternations, from eight to ten times that of copper wires, therefore a 
short iron wire would balance a long copper one; but this was not 
_ found to be the case, and he concludes that, owing to the great rapidity 
of the alternations, the magnetism of the iron is unable to follow them 
and therefore has no effect on the self-induction.* 


Induction phenomena in open circuits.—In order to test more fully his 
conclusion that the sparks obtained in the experiments described in the 
previous section, were due to self-induction, Dr. Hertz placed arectangle 
of copper wire with sides 10 and 20 centimeters in length, respectively, 
broken by a short air space, with one of its sides parallel and close to 
various portions of the secondary circuit of the coil, and of the micro- 
meter circuit, with solid di-electries interposed, to obviate the possibil- 
ity of sparking across, and he found that sparking in this rectangle 
invariably accompanied the discharges of the induction coil, the longest 
sparks being obtained when a side of the rectangle was close to the dis- 
charger. 

A copper wire, 7 g h (Fig. 3), was next attached to the discharger, 
and a side of the micrometer circuit, which was supported on an insu- 
lating stand, was placed parallel to a portion of this wire, as shown in 
the diagram. The ae at M were then found to be on feeble 


. i a note in Rieder annis Ai ae Vv ais XXXI, page 543, ae Hever statest hat since 
the publication of his paper in the same volume, he had found that Von Bezold had 
published a paper in 1870 (Poggendorft’s Annalen, vol. CXL, page 541), in which he 
had arrived by a different method of experimenting at similar results and conclusions 
as those given by him under the head of Preliminary Experiments, 


150 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


uptil a conductor, C, was attached to the free end, h, of the copper wire, 
when they increased to 1 or 2 milli- 
meters in length. That the action of 
C was not an electrostatic one was 
shown by its producing no effect when 
attached at g instead of ath. When 
the knobs of the discharger B were 
so far separated that no sparking took 
place there, the sparks at M were also 
found to disappear, showing that these 
were due to the sudden discharges and 
not to the charging current. The 
sparks at the discharger which pro- 
duced the most effect at the micrometer 
were of the same character as those 
described in my last paper. Sparks 
ares b were also found to occur between the 
Fra. 3 micrometer circuit and insulated con- 
ductors in its vicinity. The sparks 
became much shorter when conductors of larger capacity were attached 
to the micrometer knobs, or when these were touched by the hand, show- 
ing that the quantity of electricity in motion was too small to charge 
these conductors to a similarly high potential. Joining the micrometer 
knobs by a wet thread did not perceptibly diminish the strength of the 
sparks. The effects in the micrometer circuit were not of sufficient 
strength to produce any sensation when it was touched or the circuit 
completed through the body. 

In order to obtain farther confirmation of the oscillatory nature ot the 
current in the circuit kih g (Fig. 3), the conductor C was again attached 
to h, and the micrometer knobs drawn apart until sparks only passed 
singly. A second conductor, C’, as nearly as possible similar te C, was 
then attached to k, when a stream of sparks was immediately observed, 
and it continued when the knobs were drawn still further apart. This 
effect could not be ascribed to a direct action of the portion of circuit 
ik, for in this case the action of the portion of circuit g h would be 
weakened, and it must therefore have consisted in C/ acting on the dis- 
charging current of C, aresult which would be quite incomprehensible 
unless the current in g h were of an oscillatory character. 

Since an oscillatory motion between C and C’ is essential for the pro- 
duction of powerful inductive effects, it will not be sufficient for the 
spark to occur in an exceedingly short time, but the resistance must at 
the same time not exceed certain limits. The inductive effects will there- 
fore be excessively small if the induction coil included in the circuit 
C C’ is replaced by an electrical machine alternately charging and dis- 
charging itself, or if too small an induction coilis used ; oragainif the 
air space between the discharger knobs is too great, as in all these cases 
the motion ceases to be oscillatory. 





HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 151 


The reason that the discharges of a powerful induction coil gives rise 
to oscillatory motion is that firstly, it charges the terminals C and C’ 
to a high potential; secondly, it produces a sudden spark in the inter- 
vening circuit; and thirdly, as soon as the discharge begins the resist- 
ance of the air space is so much reduced as to allow of oscillatory motion 
being set up. If the terminal conductors are of very large capacity, for 
example, if the terminals are in connection with a battery, the current 
of discharge may indefinitely reduce the resistance of the air space, but 
when the terminal conductors are of small capacity this must be done — 
by a separate discharge, and therefore under the conditions of the 
author’s experiments, an induction coil was absolutely essential for the 
production of the oscillations. 

As the induced sparks in the experiment last described were several 
millimeters in length, the author modified it by using the arrangement 
shown in Fig. 4, and greatly increasing the distance between the micro- 
meter circuit and the secondary circuit of the induction coil. The ter- 
minal conductors C and C’ were 3 meters apart, and the wire between 
them was of copper, 2 millimeters in diameter, with the discharger B 
at its center. 





¢ ad 
a ae 4 
Fig. 4. 


The micrometer circuit consisted, as in the preceding experiments, of 
a rectangle 80 centimeters broad by 120 centimeters long. With the 
nearest side of the micrometer circuit at a distance of half a millimeter 
from C B C’ sparks 2 millimeters in length were obtained at M, and, 
though the length of the sparks decreased rapidly as the distance of 
the micrometer circuit was increased, a continuous stream of sparks was 
still obtained at a distance of 14 meters. The intervention of the ob- 
server’s body between the micrometer circuit and the wire C B C’ pro- 
duced no visible effect on the stream of sparks at M. That the effect 
was really due to the rectilinear conductor C B OC’ was proved by the 
fact that when one or other, or both, halves of this conductor were re- 
moved the sparks at M ceased. The same effect was produced by draw- 


152 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


ing the knobs of the discharger B apart until sparks ceased to pass 
showing that the effect was not due to the electro-static potential differ 
ence of C C’, as this would be increased by separating the discharger 
knobs beyond sparking distance. 

The closed micrometer circuit was then replaced by a straight copper 
wire, slightly shorter than the distance C C’, placed parallel to C BC’, 
and at a distance of 60 centimeters from it. This wire terminated in 
knobs, 10 centimeters in diameter, attached to insulating supports, and 
the spark micrometer divided it into two equal parts. Under these cir- 
cumstances sparks were obtained at the micrometer as before. 

With the rectilinear open micrometer circuit sparks were still observed 
at the micrometer when the discharger knobs of the secondary coil cir- 
cuit were separated beyond sparking distance. This was of course due 
simply to electro-static induction, and shows that the oscillatory current 
in C C’ was superposed upon the ordinary discharges. The electro-statie 
action could be got rid of by joining the micrometer knobs by means of 
a damp thread. The conductivity of this thread was therefore sufficient 
to afford a passage to the comparatively slow alternations of the coil 
discharge, but was not sufficient to provide a passage for the immeas- 
_ureably more rapid alternations of the oscillatory current. Considerable 
sparking took place at the micrometer when its distance from C0 B C! 
was 1 or 2 meters, and faint sparks were distinguishable up to 3 meters. 
At these distances it was not necessary to use the damp thread to get 
rid of the electro-static action, as owing to its diminishing more rapidly 
with increase of distance than the effect of the current induction, it was 
no longer able to produce sparks in the micrometer, as was proved by 
separating the discharger knobs beyond speaking distance, when sparks 
could no longer be perceived at the micrometer. 


Resonance phenomena.—In order to determine whether, as some minor 
phenomena had led the author to suppose, the oscillations were of the 
nature of a regular vibration, he availed himself of the principle of reso- 
nance. According to this principle, an oscillatory current of definite 
period would, other conditions being the same, exert a much greater in- 
ductive effect upon one of equal period than upon one differing even 
slightly from it.* 

If then two circuits are taken, having as nearly as possible equal 
vibration periods, the effect of oue upon the other will be diminished by 
altering either the capacity or the co-efficient of self-induction of one of 
them, as a change in either of them would alter the period of vibration 
of the circuit. 

This was carried out by means of an arrangement very similar to that 
of Fig. 4. The conductor C C’ was replaced by a straight copper wire 
2.6 meters in length and 5 millimeters in diameter, divided into two equal 
parts, as before, by a discharger. The discharger knobs were attached 


*See Oberbeck, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1885, vol. xxVI, p. 245. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 153 


directly to the secondary terminals of the induction coil. Two hollow 
zinc spheres, 30 centimeters in diameter, were made to slide on the wire, 
one on each side of the discharger, and since, electrically speaking, 
these formed the terminals of the conductor, its length could be varied 
by altering their position. The micrometer cirenit was chosen of such 
dimensions as to have, if the author’s hypothesis were correct, a slightly 
shorter vibration period than that of CC’. It was formed of a square, 
with sides 75 centimeters in length, of copper wire 2 millimeters in di- 
ameter, and it was placed with its nearest side parallel to CB C’, and 
at a distance of 30 centimeters from it. The sparking distance at the 
micrometer was then found to be 0.9 millimeter. When the terminals 
of the micrometer circuit were placed in contact with two metal spheres, 
8 centimeters in diameter, supported on insulating stands, the sparking 
distance could be increased up to 2.5 millimeters. When these were re- 
placed by much larger spheres the sparking distance was diminished to 
a small fraction of a millimeter. Similar results were obtained on con- 
necting the micrometer terminals with the plates of a Kohlrausch con- 
denser. When the plates were far apart the increase of capacity 
increased the sparking distance, but when the plates were brought close 
together the sparking distances again fell to a very small value. 

The simplest method of adjusting the capacity of the micrometer cir- 
cuit is to suspend to its ends two parallel wires, the distance and lengths 
of which are capable of variation. By this means the author succeeded 
in increasing the sparking distance up to 3 millimeters, after which it 
diminished when the wires were either lengthened or shortened. The 
decrease of the sparking distance on increasing the capacity was natu- 
rally to be expected; but it would be difficult to understand, except on 
the principle of resonance, why a decrease of the capacity should have 
the same effect. 

The experiments were then varied by diminishing the capacity of the 
circuit C B C’ so as to shorten its period of oscillation, and the results 
contirmed those previously obtained, anda series of experiments in which 
the lengths and capacities of the circuits were varied in different ways 
showed conclusively that the maximum effect does not depend on the 
conditions of either one of the two circuits, but on the existence of the 
proper relation between them. 

When the two circuits were brought very close together, and the dis- 
charger knobs separated by an interval of 7 millimeters, sparks were 
obtained at the micrometer, which were also 7 millimeters in length, 
when the two circuits had been carefully adjusted to have the same pe- 
riod. The induced electro-motive forces must in this case have attained 
nearly as high a value as the inducing ones. 

To show the effect of varying the co-efficient of self-induction, a series 
of rectangles ab cd (Fig. 4), were taken, having a constant breadth 
ab, but a length ac continually increasing from 10 centimeters up to 
250 centimeters ; it was found that the maximum effect was obtained 


154 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


with a length of 1.8 meters. The quantitative results of these experi- 
ments are shown in Fig. 5, in which the abscisse of the curve are the 
double lengths of the rectangles, and the ordinates represent the corre- 
sponding maximum sparking distances. The sparking distances could 
not be determined with great exactness, but the errors were not suffi- 
cient to mask the general nature of the result. 





Fro. 6, 


Curve showing relation between length of side of rectangle (taken as abscissa) and 
maximum sparking distance (taken as ordinate), the sides consisting of straight 
wires of varying lengths, 


In a second series of experiments the sides ac and bd were formed of 
loose coils of wire which were graduaily pulled out, and the result is 
shown in Fig. 6. It will be seen that the maximum sparking distance 
was attained for a somewhat greater length of side, which is explained 
by the fact that in the latter experiments the self-induction only was 
increased by increase of length, while in the former series the capacity 
was increased as well. Varying the resistance of the micrometer cir- 
cuit by using copper and German silver wires of various diameters was 
found to have no effect on the period of oscillation, and extremely little 
on the sparking distance. 


er LN 


sod 


w& 


ee | 
ee 2 
So 
Fite 
Fei 
ee 


Ss 


Pre: 6: 


Curve showing relation between length of side of rectangle (taken as abscissa) 
and maximum sparking distance (taken as ordinate), the sides consisting of spirals 
gradually drawn out. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 155 


When the wire cd was surrounded by an iron tube, or when it was 
replaced by an iron wire, no perceptible effect was obtained, confirm- 
ing the conclusion previously arrived at that the magnetism of the iron 
is unable to follow such rapid oscillations, and therefore exerts no ap- 
preciable effect. 


Nodes.—The vibrations inthe micrometer circuit which have been con- 
sidered are the simplest ones possible, but not the only ones. While 
the potential at the ends alternates between two fixed limits, that at the 
central portion of the circuit retains a constant mean value. The elec- 
trical vibration therefore has a node at the center, and this will be the 
only nodal point. Its existence may be proved by placing a small insu- 
lated sphere close to various portions of the micrometer circuit while 
sparks are passing at the discharger of the coil, when it will be found 
that if the sphere is placed close to the center of the circuit the spark- 
ing will be very slight, increasing as the sphere is moved farther away. 
The sparking cannot however be entirely got rid of, and there is a bet- 
ter way of determining the existence and position of the node. After 
adjusting the two circuits to unison, and drawing the micrometer termi- 
nals so far apart that sparks can only be made to pass by means of 
resonant action, let different parts of the circuit be touched by a con- 
ductor of some capacity, when it will be found that the sparks disap- 
pear, owing to interference with the resonant action, except when the 
point of contact is at the center of the circuit. The author then en- 
deavored to produce a vibration with two nodes, and for this purpose 


A 





Fic, 7. 
he modified the apparatus previously used by adding to the micrometer 
circuit a second rectangle ef g h exactly similar to the first (as shown 
in Fig. 7), and joining the points of the circuit near the terminals by 
wires 15 and 24, as shown in the diagram. 


i 


156 HERTZS RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


The whole system then formed a closed metallic circuit, the funda- 
mental vibration of which would have two nodes. Since the period of 
this vibration would necessarily agree closely with that of each half of 
the circuit, and therefore with that of the circuit C C’, it was to be ex- 
pected that the vibration would have a pair of loops at the junctions 
1 and 3, and 2 and 4, and a pair of nodes at the middle points of cd 
andgh. The vibrations were determined by measuring the sparking 
distance between the micrometer terminals 1 and 2. It was found that— 
contrary to what was expected—the addition of the second rectangle 
diminished this sparking distance from about 3 millimeters to about 1 
millimeter. The existence of resonant action between the circuit C C’ and 
the micrometer circuit was however fully demonstrated, for any altera- 
tion in the cireuite fg h, whether it consisted in increasing or in decreas- 
ing its length, diminished the sparking distance. It was also found that 
much weaker sparking took place between c d or .g h and an insulated 
sphere, than between a e or bf and the same sphere, showing that the 
nodes were in c d and g h, as expected. Further, when the sphere was 
made to touch cd org h it had no effect on the sparking distance of 1 
and 2; but when the point of contact was at any other portion of the cir- 
cuit the sparking distance was diminished, showing that these nodes did 
really belong to the vibration, the resonant action of which increased 
this sparking distance. 

The wire joining the points 2 and 4 was then removed. As the 
strength of the induced oscillatory current should be zero at these points, 
the removal ought not to disturb the vibrations, and this was shown 
experimentally to be the case, the resonant effects and the position of 
the nodes remaining unchanged. The vibration with two nodal points 
was of course not the fundamental vibration of the circuit, which con- 
sisted of a vibration with a node between a and e, and for which the 
highest values of the potential were at the points 2 and 4. 

When the spheres forming the terminals at these points were brought 
close together, slight sparking was found to take place between them, 
which was attributed to the excitation, though only to a small extent, 
of the fundamental vibration. This explanation was confirmed in the 
following manner: The sparks between 1 and 2 were broken off, leaving 
only the sparks between 2 and 4, which measured the intensity of the 
fundamental vibration. The period of vibration of the circuit CC’ was 
then increased by drawing it out to its full length, and thereby increas- 
ing its capacity, when it was observed that the sparking gradually in- 
creased to a maximum, and then began to diminish again. The max- 
imum value must evidently occur when the period of vibration of the 
circuit CC’ is the same as that of the fundamental vibration of the 
micrometer circuit, and it was shown that when the sparking distance 
between 2 and 4 had its maximum value, the sparks corresponded to a 
vibration with only one nodal point, for the sparks ceased when the pre- 
viously existing nodes were touched by a conductor, and the only point 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES. ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. Le 


where contact could take place without effect on the sparking was be- 
tween aand e. These results show that it is possible to excite at will 
in the same conductor either the fundamental vibration or its first over- 
tone, to use the language of acoustics. 

Hertz appears to consider it very doubtful whether it will be possible 
to get higher overtones of electrical vibration, the difficulty of obtaining 
such lying not only in the method of observation, but also in the nature 
of the oscillations themselves. The intensity of these is found to vary 
considerably during a series of discharges from the coil even when all 
the circumstances are maintained as constant as possible, and the com- 
parative feebleness of the resonant effects shows that there must be a 
considerable amount of damping. ‘There are moreover many second- 
ary phenomena which seem to indicate that irregular vibrations are 
superposed upon the regular ones, as would be expected in complex 
systems of conductors. If therefore we wish to compare electrical os- 
cillations (from a mathematical point of view) with those of acoustics, 
we must seek our analogy in the high notes intermixed with irregular 
vibrations, obtained, say, by striking a wooden rod with a hammer, 
rather than in the comparatively slow harmonic vibration of tuning- 
forks or strings; and in the case of vibrations of the former class we 

_ have to be contented, even in the study of acoustics, with little more 
than indications of such phenomena as resonance and nodal points. 

Referring to the conditions to be fulfilled in order to obtain the best 
results, should other physicists desire to repeat the experiments, Dr. 
Hertz notes a fact of very considerable interest and novelty, namely, 
that the spark from the discharger should always be visible from the 
micrometer, as when this was not the case, though the phenomena ob- 
served were of the same character, the sparking distance was invaribly 
diminished. 

Theory of the experiments.—The theories of electrical oscillations 
which have been developed by Sir William Thomson, von Helmholtz, 
and Kirchhoff, have been shown* to hold good for the open-circuit oscil- 
lations of induction apparatus, as well as for the oscillatory Leyden-jar 
discharge; and although Dr. Hertz has not succeeded in obtaining defi- 
nite quantitative results to compare with theory, it is of interest to 
inquire whether the observed results are of the same order as those in- 
dicated by theory. ; 

Hertz considers, in the first place, the vibration period. Let T be the 
period of a single or half vibration proper to the conductor exciting the 
micrometer circuit; P its co-efficient of self-induction in absolute elec- 
tro-magnetic measure expressed therefore in centimeters; C the capac- 
ity of one of its terminals in electro-static measure, and therefore also 
expressed in centimeters; and v the velocity of light in centimeter- 
seconds. 


° 


* Lorentz, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1879, vol. vil, p. 161. 
? , ) ? 


158 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


Then, if the resistance of the conductor is small, 


1_zVvPO 
o 
In the case of the resonance experiments, the capacity C was approx- 
imately the radius of the sphere forming the terminal, so that C=15 
centimeters. The co-efficient of self-induction was that of a wire of 
length /=150 centimeters, and diameter d=4 centimeter. 


According to Neumann’s formula, 


p={ [% “dsds’, 


which gives in the case considered 


P=21( log i 0.75 = 1902, 





As however it is not quite certain that Neumann’s formula is ap- 
plicable to an open circuit, it is better to use von Helmholtz’s more 
general formula, containing an undetermined constant k, according to 
which 


) 


P=21 ( log! —0.75 +15 ) 

Putting k=1 this reduces to Neumann’s formula; for k=0 it reduces 
to that of Maxwell; and for k=—1 to Weber’s. The greatest difference 
in the values of P obtained by giving these different values to k would 
not exceed a sixth of its mean value, and therefore for the purposes of 
the present approximation it is enough to assume that k is not a large 
positive or negative number; for if the number 1902 does not give the 
correct value of the co-efficient for the wire 150 em. in length, it will give 
the value corresponding to a conductor not differing greatly from it in 
length. 

Taking P=1902°™., we have 7 ~CP=531™., which represents the 
distance traversed by light during the oscillation, or, according to Max- 
well’s theory, the length of an electro-magnetic «ther wave. The value 
of T is then found to be (50-4600) 1.77 hundred millionths of a second, 
which is of the same order as the observed results. 

The ratio of damping is then considered. In order that oscillations 
may be possible the resistance of the open circuit must be less than 


9» /P. For the exciting circuit used this gives 676 ohms as the 
G 


upper limit of resistance. If the actuai resistance r is sensibly below 
rT 

this limit, the ratio of damping will be e’?. The amplitude will there- 
fore be reduced in the ratio 1:2.71 in 

XP Fy) PR 616 215 

et 27’ OS 27 er. 
oscillations. Unfortunately we have no ‘means of determining the re- 
sistance of the air space traversed by the spark, but as the resistance 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 159 


of a strong electric are is never less than a few ohms we shall be justi- 
fied in assuming this as the minimum limit. From this it would follow 
that the number of oscillations due to a single impulse must be reckoned 
in tens, and not in hundreds or thousands, which is in accordance with 
the character of the experimental results, and agrees with the results 
observed in the case of the oscillatory Leyden-jar discharge. In the 
case of closed metallic circuits, on the other hand, theory indicates that 
the number of oscillations before equilibrium is attained must be reck- 
oned by thousands. 

Hertz compares lastly the order of the inductive actions of these 
oscillations, according to theory, with that of the effects actually ob- 
served. To do this it must be noted that the maximum electro-motive 
force induced by the oscillation in its own circuit is approximately 
equal to the maximum potential difference at its extremities ; for if 
there were no damping, these quanities would be identical, since at 
any moment the potential difference at the extremities and the E. M. 
F. of induction would be in equilibrium. In the experiments under 
consideration the potentiai difference at the extremities was such as to 
give a spark 7 to 8™™. in length, which must therefore represent the 
maximum inductive action excited in its own circuit by the oscillation. 
Again, at any instant the induced E. M. F. in the micrometer circuit 
must be to that in the exciting conductor in the same ratio as that of 
the co-efficient of mutual induction p of the two circuits to the co-efti- 
cient of self-induction P of the exciting circuit. The value of p for the 
case considered is easily calculated from the ordinary formule, and it is 
found to lie between one-ninth and one-twelfth of P. This would only 
give sparks of from $ to 3™™. in length, so that according to theory 
visible sparks ought in any case to be obtained; but, on the other hand, 
sparks several millimeters in length, as were obtained in the experi- 
ments previously described, can only be explained on the assumption 
that the successive inductive actions produce an accumulative effect ; 
so that theory indicates the necessity of the existence of the resonant 
effects actually observed. 


Dr. Hertz was at first inclined to suppose that as the micrometer cir- 
cuit was only broken by the extremely short air space limited by the 
maximum sparking distance under the conditions of the experiment, it 
might therefore be treated as a closed circuit, and only the total indue- 
tion considered. The ordinary methods of electro-dynamies give the 
means of completely determining the total inductive effect of a current 
element on a closed circuit, and would therefore in this case have 
sufficed for the investigation of the phenomena observed. He found 
however that the treatment of the micrometer circuit as a closed circuit 
led to incorrect results, so that it, as well as the primary, had to be 
treated as an open circuit, and therefore a knowledge of the total induc- 


160 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


tion was insufficient, and it became necessary to consider the value both 
of the E. M. F. induction and of the electro-static E. M. F. due to the 
charged extremeties of the exciting circuit at each point of the microm- 
eter circuit. 

The investigations to which these considerations led are described by 
Dr. Hertz ina paper ‘ On the Action of a Rectilinear Electrical Oscil- 
lation upon a Circuit in its Vicinity,” published in Wiedemann’s Annalen, 
1888, vol. XXXIV, page 155. 

In what follows, the exciting circuit will be spoken of as the primary, 
and the micrometer circuit as the secondary. Hertz points out that the 
reason that the electro-static effect can not be neglected is to be found 
in the extreme rapidity with which the electro-static forces change their 
sign. If the electro-static alternations in the primary were compara- 
tively slow they might attain a very high intensity without giving rise 
to a spark in the secondary, since the electro-static distribution on the 
secondary would vary so as to remain in equilibrium with the external 
E. M.F. This however is impossible, because the variations in direc- 
tion follow each other too rapidly for the distribution to follow them. 

In the presentinvestigations the primary circuit consisted of a straight 
copper wire 5 millimeters in diameter, carrying at its extremeties hollow 
zine spheres 30 centimeters in diameter. The centers of the spheres 
were 1 meter apart, and at the middle of the wire was an air space three- 
fourths centimeter in length. The wire was placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion, and the observations were all made at points near to the horizontal 
plane through it, which however did not of course affect their gen- 
erality, as the same effects would necessarily be produced in any plane 
through the horizontal wire. The secondary circuit consisted of a circle 
of 35 centimeters, radius, of copper wire 2 millimeters in diameter, the 
circle being broken by an air space capable of variation by means of a 
micrometer screw. 

The circular form was selected for the secondary circuit because 
the former investigations had shown that the sparking distance was 
not the same at all points of the secondary, even when the con- 
ductor as a whole remained unchanged in position, and with a circular 
circuit it was easier to bring the air space to any part thanif any other 
form had been used. To attain this object the circle was made movable 
about an axis passing through its center perpendicular to its plane. 

The circuits of the dimensions stated were very nearly in unison, and 
they were further adjusted by means of little strips of metal soldered to 
the extremities, and varied in length until the maximum sparking dist- 
ance was obtained. 

We shall follow Dr. Hertz in first considering the subject theoretic- 
ally, and then examining how far the experimental results are in accord- 
ance with the theoretical conclusions. It will be assumed that the E. 
M. F. at every point is a simple harmonic function of the time, but that 
it does not undergo reversal in direction, and it will further be assumed 


_—_ 


re 


HERTZS RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 161 


that the oscillations are at any given moment everywhere in the same 
phase. This will certainly be the case in the immediate neighborhood 
of the primary, and for the present we shall confine our attention to such 
points. Lets be the distance of a point, measured along the circuit from 
the air space of the secondary, and F the component E. M. F. at that 
point along the circular are ds. Then F is a function of s, whieh 
assumes its original value after passing once round the circle of cireum- 
ference S. It may therefore be expanded in the form 
9 9 2 
F=A4B cos” o "+ eee ee PBisin= St 

The higher terms of the series may be neglected, as the only resnlt of 
so doing will be that the approximate theory will give an absolute dis- 
appearance of sparks where really the disappearance is not quite com- 
plete, and indeed the experiments are not delicate enough to enable us 
to compare their results with theory beyond a first approximation. 

The force A acts in the same direction, and is of constant amount at 
all points of the circle, and therefore it must be independent of the eiec- 
tro-static E. M. F., as the integral of the latter round the circle is zero. 
A, then, represents the total E. M. F. of induction, which is measured 
by the rate of variation of the number of magnetic lines of foree which 
pass through the circle. If the electro-magnetic field containing the 
circle is assumed to be uniform, A will therefore be proportional to the 
component of the magnetic induction perpendicular to the plane of the 
secondary. It will therefore vanish when the direction of the mag- 
netic induction lies in the plane of the secondary. <A will consist of an 
oscillation, the intensity of which is independent of the position of the 
air space in the circle, and the corresponding sparking distanee will be 
called a. 

9 

The term B’ sin ~ 
vibration of the secondary, since it is symmetrical on opposite sides of 
the air space. 


gs can have no effect in exciting the fundamental 
kK 


The term B cos 2 = will give force acting in the same direction in 
the two quadrants opposed to the air space, and will excite the funda- 
mental vibration. In the two quadrants adjacent to the air space it 
will give a force in the opposite direction, but its effect will be Jess than 
that of the former one. For the current is zero at the extremities of 
the circuit, and therefore the electricity can not move so freely as near 
the center. This corresponds to the fact, that if a string fastened at 
each end has its central portion and ends acted on respectively by 
oppositely directed forces, its motion will be that due to the force at 
the centrai portion, which will excite the fundamental vibration if its 
oscillations are in unison with the latter. The intensity of the vibra- 
tion will be proportional to B. Let E be the total &. M. F. in the uni- 
form field of the secondary, g the angle between its direction and the 
plane of the latter, and # the angle which its projection on this plane 

H. Mis. 224 dd 





162 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


makes with the radius drawn to the air space. Then we shall have, 
approximately, - 
; 278 
— 4) 308 PoP a (ie tee —— A 
F=E cos ¢ sin ( 5 ) 


and therefore B= —E cos » sin 6 

B, therefore, is a function simply of the total E. M. F. due both to the 
electro-static and electro-dynamice actions. [twill vanish when g = 90°— 
that is to say, when the total E. M. F. is perpendicular to the plane of the 
circle, whatever be the position of the air space on the_circle. B will 
also vanish when 4 = 0, — that is to say, when the projection of the E. M. 
F. on the plane of the circle coincides with the radius through the air 


space. Ifthe position of the air space on the circle is varied, the angle. 


4 will vary, and therefore also the intensity of the vibration and the 
sparking distance. The sparking distance corresponding to the sec- 
ond term of the expansion for F can therefore be represented approxi- 
mately by a formula of the form / sin 6. 

Now the oscillations giving rise to sparks of lengths a and £ sin @ re- 
spectively are in the same phase. The resulting oscillations will there 
fore be in the same phase, and their amplitudes must be added together. 
The sparking distance being approximately proportional to the maxi- 
mum total amplitude, may therefore also be obtained by adding the 
sparking distances due to the two oscillations respectively. The spark- 
ing distance will therefore be given as a function of the position of the 
air space on the secondary circuit by the expression a+ sin 6. Since 
the direction of the oscillation in the air space does not come into con- 
sideration we are concerned only with the absolute value of this ex- 
pression, and not withit sign. The determination ofthe absolute values 
of the quantities @ and (6 would involve elaborate theoretical investiga- 
tions, and is moreover unnecessary for the explanation of the experi- 
mental results. 


dxperiments with the secondary circuit in a vertical plane.—W hen the 
circle forming the secondary cireuit was placed with its plane ver- 
tical, anywhere in the neighborhood of the primary, the following re- 
sults were obtained : 

The sparks disappeared for two positions of the air space, separated 
by 180°, namely, those in which it lay in the horizontal plane through 
the primary; but in every other position sparks of greater or less length 
were observed. 

From this it followed that the value of @ must have been constantly 
zero, and that # was zero when the air space was in the horizontal plane 
through the primary. 

The electro-magnetic lines of foree must therefore have been perpen- 
dicular to this horizontal plane, and therefore consisted of circles with 
their centers on the primary, while the electro-static lines of foree must 
have been entirely in the horizontal plane, and therefore this system of 
lines of foree consisted of curves lying in planes passing through the 
primary. Both of these results are in agreement with theory. 

+o 


ee ae ee se ee a 





HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 163 


When the air space was at its greatest distance from the plane the 
sparking distance attained amaximum value of from 2 to 3 millimeters. 
The sparks were shown to be due to the fundamental vibration, by slightly 
varying the secondary, so as to throw it out of unison with the primary, 
when the sparking distance was diminished, which would not have been 
the case if the sparks had been due to overtones. Moreover, the sparks 
disappeared when the secondary was cut at its points of intersection 
with the horizontal plane through the primary, though these would be 
nodal points for the first overtone. 

When the air space was kept at its greatest possible distance from 
the horizontal plane through the primary, and turned about a vertical 
axis, the sparking distance attained two maximaat the points for which 
p=, aud almost disappeared at the points for which p=90°. 





The lower half of Fig. 8 shows the different positions of minimum 
sparking. A A’is the primary conductor, and the lines m n represent 
the projections of the secondary circuit on the horizontal plane. The 
arrows perpendicular to these give the direction of the resultant lines 
of force. As this did not anywhere vanish in passing from the sphere 
A to the sphere A’, it could not change its sign. 

The diagram brings out the two following points : 

(1) The distribution of the resultant E. M. F. in the vicinity of the 
rectilinear vibration is very similar to that of the electro-static E. M. F. 
due to the action of its two extremities. It should be specially noted 
that near the center of the primary the direction is that of the electro- 
static E. M. F., showing that it is more powerful than the electro-dynamic, 

as required by theory. 

(2) The lines of foree deviate more rapidly Asti the line A A’ than 
the electro-static lines, though this is not soevident on the reduced seale 
of the diagram as in the author’s original drawings on a much larger 
seale. 

It is due to the components of the electro-static E. M. F. parallel to 
A A’ being weakened by the E. M. F. of induction, while the perpendie- 
ular components remained unaffected. 


164 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


Experiments with the secondary circuit in a horizontal plane.—The re- 
sults obtained when the plane of the secondary was horizontal can best 
be explained by reference to the upper half of the diagram in Fig. 8. 

In the position 7, with the center of the circle in the line A A’ pro- 
duced, the sparks disappeared when the air space occupied either of the 
b, or b’;, while two equal maxima of the sparking distance were obtained 
at a, and a’;, the length of the spark in these positions being 2.5 milli- 
meters. Both these results are in accordance with theory. 

In position JZ the circle is cut by the electro-magnetic lines of force, 
and therefore a does not vanish. It will however be small, and we 
should expect that the expression a+/ sin 4 would have two unequal 
maxima /+ta and /—a, both for 6=90°, and having the line joining 
them perpendicular to the resultant E. M. F., and between these two 
maxima we should expect two points of no sparking near to the smaller 
maximum. This was confirmed by the observations. 

The maximum sparking distances were 3.5 millimeters at a, and 2 
millimeters at a’. Now with the air space at ad,—the sphere A being 
positive,—the resultant E. M. F. in the opposite portion of the circle will 
repel positive electricity from A,and therefore tend to make it flow 
round the circle clockwise. Between the two spheres the electro-statie 
E. M. F. acts from A towards A’, and the opposite E. M. F. of induction 
in the neighborhood of the primary acts from A’ to A, parallel to 
to the former, and acting more strongly on the nearer than on the 
further portion of the secondary, tends to cause a current in the 
same direction as that due to the former, namely, in a clockwise direc- 
tion. Thus the resultant E. M. F. is the sum of the two as required 
by theory, andin the same way it is easily seen that when the air space 
is at ay, the resultant E. M. F. is equal to their difference. 

As the position 7/7 is gradually approached, the maximum disap- 
pears, and the single maximum sparking distance a3 was found to be 4 
millimeters in length, having opposite to it a point of disappearance @’3. 
In this case clearly a=/, An the sparking distance is given by the 
expression a (1+sin 4). The line a;a’; is again perpendicuiar to the 
resultant E. M. F. 

As the circle approaches further towards the center of A A’, a will be- 
come greater than /, and the expression a+/ sin 6 will not vanish 
for any value of 6, but will have a maximum a+/ and a minimum 
a—/, and in the experiments it was found that the sparks never entirely 


disappeared, but varied between a maximum and a minimum, as indi- 


cated by theory. 
In the position JV a maximum sparking distance of 5.5 millimeters 
was observed at a, and aminimum of 1.5 millimeter at a’, 
In the position V there was a maximum sparking distance of 6 millim- 
eters at a; anda minimum of 2.5 millimeters at a/;. In these experi- 


ments the air space should be screened off from the primary in the 


latter positions as well as in the earlier ones, in which it is unavoidable, 
as otherwise the results would not be comparable. ; 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 165 


In passing from the position JZ7 to the position V the line aa’ 
rapidly turned from its position of parallelism to the primary cireuit 
into a position perpendicular to it. In the latter positions the sparking 
was essentially due to the inductive action, and therefore the author 
was justified, in his former experiments, in assuming the effect in these 
positions to be due to induction. 

Even in these positions however, the sparking is not totally inde- 
pendent of electro-static action, except when the air space is half way 
between the maximum and minimum positions, and therefore 6 sin 6=0. 


Other positions of the secondary circuit.—Dr. Hertz made numerous 
observations with the secondary circuit in other positions, but in no 
case were any phenomena observed which were not completely in ac- 
cordance with theory. As an example of these consider the following 
experiment: 

The secondary was first placed in the horizontal plane in the position 
V (Fig. 8), and the air space was in the position a; relatively to the 
primary. The circle was then turned about a horizontal axis through 
its center and parallel to the primary, so as to raise the air space above 
the horizontal plane. During this rotation 6 remained equal to 909, 
and the value of 6 remained nearly constant, but @ varied approxi- 
mately in the same ratio as cos ¥, Y being the angle between the plane 
of the circle and the horizontal, for a is proportional to the number of 
magnetic lines of force passing through the circle. Let a) be the value 
of ain the initial position, then in the other positions its value would 
be a cos Y, and therefore the sparking distance should be given by 
the expression a) cos Y + (3, in which a was known to be greater than 
f. This was confirmed by observation, for it was found that as the air 
space inereased its height above the horizontal plane the sparking dis- 
tance diminished from 6 millimeters down to 2 millimeters, its value when 
the air space was at its greatest distance above the horizontal plane. 
During the rotation through the next quadrant the sparking distance 
diminished almost to zero, and then increased to the smaller maximum 
of 2.5 millimeters, which it attained when the circle had turned though 
180°, and was therefore again horizontal. Similar results were obtained 
in the opposite order, as the circle was rotated from 180° to 860°. When 
the circle was kept with the air space at its maximum height above the 
horizontal plane, and then raised or lowered bodily without rotation, 
the sparking distance was found to diminish in the former case and to 
increase in the latter, results completely in accordance with theory. 


Forces at greater distances.—Experiments with the secondary at 
greater distances from the primary are of great importance, as the dis- 
tribution of E. M. F. in the field of an open circuit is very different ac- 
cording to different theories of electro-dynamic action, and the results 


166 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


may therefore serve to eliminate some of them as untenable. in mak- 
ing these experiments however, an unexpected difficulty was encoun- 
tered, as it was found that at distances of from 1 to 1.5 meters from the 
primary the maximum and minimum, except in certain positions, be- 
came indistinctly defined ; but when the distance was increased to up- 
wards of 2 meters, though the sparks were then very small, the maximum 
and minimum were found to be very sharply marked when the sparks 
were observed in the dark. The positions of maximum and minimum 
were found to occur with the circle in planes at right angles to each 
other. At considerable distances the sparking diminished very slowly 
as the distance was increased. Dr. Hertz was not able to determine an 
upper limit to the distance at which sensible effects took place, but in 
a room 14 meters by 12, sparks were distinctly observed when the pri- 
mary was placed in one corner of the room, wherever the secondary 
was placed. When however the primary was slightly displaced, no 
effects could be observed, even when the secondary was brought con- 


siderably nearer. The interposition of solid screens between the two- 


circuits greatly diminished the effect. 

Dr. Hertz mapped out the distribution of force throughout the room 
by means of chalk lines on the floor, putting stars at the points where 
the direction of the KE. M, F. became indeterminate. A portion of the dia- 
gram obtained in this manner is shown on a reduced scale in Fig. 9, 


-_ _ -_ =-_ _ _-_ =— — 


— mr er me = 
tan ee 
= ae 
Ya 
ZANT 
wx & aS = 
- = << = 
=< = —_— — 
Fic. 9. 


with respect to which the following points are note-worthy: 

1. At distances beyond 3 meters the E.M. F. is everywhere parallel 
to the primary oscillation. Within this region, therefore, the electro- 
static E. M. F. is negligible in comparison with the EF. M. F. of induction. 
Now all the theories of the mutual action of current elements agree in 
giving an BH, M. F. of induction inversely proportional to the distance, 
while the electro-static E. M. F., being due to the differential action of 
the two extremities of the primary, is approximately inversely propor- 
tional to the cube of the distance. Some of these theories however 
are not in accordance with the experimental result that the effect dimin- 
ishes much more rapidly in the direction of the primary oscillation than 
iu a direction at right angles to it, induced sparks being observed at a 
distance exceeding 12 meters in the latter direction, while they disap- 
peared at a distance of about 4 meters in tWe former direction. 








HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 167 


2. For distances less than 1 meter (as already proved), the distribu- 
tion of E.M. F. is practically that of the electro-static E. M. F. 

3. There are two straight lines, at all points of which the direction of 
the E. M. F. is determinate, namely, the line in which the primary oscil- 
lation takes place, and the perpendicular to the primary through its 
middle point. Along the latter the E. M. F. does not vanish at any point, 
the sparking diminishes gradually as the distance is increased. ‘This 
again is inconsistent with some of the theories of mutual action of cur- 
rent elements, according to which it should vanish at a certain definite 
distance. A very important result of the investigation is the demon- 
stration of the existence of regions within which the direction of the 
E. M. F. becomes indeterminate. These regions form two rings encir- 
cling the primary circuit. Since the E. M. F. within them acts very 
nearly equally in every direction, it must assume different directions in 
succession, for of course it can not act in different directions simulta- 
neously. : 

The observations therefore lead to the conciusion that within these 
regions the magnitude of the EK. M. F. remains very nearly constant, 
while its direction varies. through ail the points of the compass at each 
oscillation. Dr. Hertz states that he has been unable to explain this 
result, as also the existence of overtones, by means of the simplified 
theory in which the higher terms of the expansion of F are neglected, 
and he considers that no theory of simple action at a distance is capa- 
ble of explaining it. If however the electro-static E. M. F. and the 
E.M.F.of induction are propagated through space with unequal veloc- 
ities it admits of very simple explanation; for within these annular 
regions the two E. M. F.’s are at right angles and of the same order of 
magnitude; they will therefore in consequence of the distance trav- 
ersed, differ in phase, and the direction of the resultant will turn 
through all the points of the compass at each oscillation. 

This phenomenon appears to him to be the first indication which has 
been observed of a finite rate of propagation through space of electrical 
actions, for if there is a difference in the rate of propagation of the elec- 
tro-static and electro-dynamie E. M. F. one at least of them must be 
finite. 

At the end of the paper in which the preceding experiments are de- 
scribed Dr. Hertz describes some observations which he has made on 
the conditions at the primary sparking point which affect the produc- 
tion of sparks in the secondary circuit. He finds that illuminating the 
primary spark diminishes its power of exciting rapid oscillations, the 
sparks in the secondary being observed to cease when a piece of mag- 
nesium wire was burnt, or an are lamp lighted, near the primary spark- 
ing point. The observed effeet on the primary sparks 1s that they are 
no longer accompanied by a sharp crackling sound as before. The effect 
of a second discharge is especially noteworthy, and it was found that the 
secondary sparks could be made to disappear by bringing an insulated 


168 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


conductor close to the opposed surfaces of the spheres forming the ter- 
minals at the primary air space, even when no visible sparking took 
place between the latter and the insulated conductor. The secondary 
sparking could also be stopped by placing a fine point close to the pri- 
mary air space, or by touching one of the opposed surfaces of the ter- 
minals with a pieze of sealing wax, glass, or mica. Dr. Hertz states 
that further experiments have led him to conclude that even in these 
cases the effect is due to light too feeble to be perceived by the eye, 
arising from a side discharge. He points out that these effects afford 
another example of the effects of light on electric discharges, which 
have been observed by E. Wiedemann, H. Ebert, and W. Hallwachs. 


Dr. Hertz’s next paper in order of publication in Wiedemann’s Anna- 
len, “On Some Induction Phenomena Arising from Electrical Actions in 
Dielectrics” (Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1888, vol. XXXTV., p. 273), contains 
an account of some researches undertaken with a view of obtaining direct 
experimental confirmation of the assumption involved in the most sug- 
eestive theory of electrical actions, viz, that of Faraday and Maxwell, 
that the well-known electro-static phenomena observed in dielectrics are 
accompanied by corresponding electro-dynamic actions. The method 
of observation consisted in placing a secondary conductor adjusted to 
unison, as regards electrical oscillations, with the primary, as near as 
possible to the former, and in such a relative position that the sparks 
in the primary produced no sparking in the secondary. As the equilib- 
rium could be disturbed and sparking induced in the secondary by the 
approach of conductors, it formed a kind of induction balance; but the 
point of special interest in connection with it was that a similar effect 
was produced when the conductors were replaced by insulators, pro- 
vided the latter were of comparatively large size. The observed rapidity 
of the oscillations induced in the di-electrics showed that the quantities 
of electricity in motion under the influence of di-electric polarization 
were of the same order of magnitude as in the case of metallic conduct- 
ors. 

The apparatus employed is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10, and 
was supported on a light wooden framework, not Shown in the illustra- 
tion. The primary conductor consisted of two brass plates, A.A’, with 
sides 40 centimeters in length, jomed by a copper wire 70 centimeters 
long and half a centimeter in diameter, containing an air space of three- 
quarters of a centimeter, with terminals formed of potished brass spheres. 
When placed in connection with a powerful induction coil, oscillations 
are set up, the period of which, determined by the dimensions of the 
primary, can be determined to a hundred millionth of a second. The 
secondary conductor consisted of a circle, 35 centimeters in radius, of 
copper wire 2 millimeters in diameter, containing an air space, tb? 





HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES, 169 


length of which could be varied by means of a screw from a few hun- 
dredths of a millimeter up to several millimeters. The dimensions 
stated were such as to bring the two conductors into unison, and see- 
ondary sparks up to six or seven millimeters in length could be ob- 
tained. 





Fic. 10. 


The circle was movable about an axis through its center perpendicu- 
lar toits plane, to enable the position of the air space to be varied. 
The axis was fixed in the position mn in the plane of A and A’, and 
half way between them. The center of the circle was at a distance of 
12 centimeters from the nearest points of A and A’. 

When / was in either of the positions a or @ lying in the plane of A A‘ 
no sparking occurred in the secondary, while maximum sparking took 
place at ) and b/ 90° from the former positions. The E. M.F. giving rise 
to the secondary sparks is, aS in previous experiments, partly electro- 
static and partly electro-magnetic, and the former being the greater will 
determine the sign of the resultant E.M.F. The oscillations must, for 
the reason previously explained, be considered as produced in the part 
of the secondary most remote from the air space. Assuming the E. M. F. 
and the amplitude of the resulting oscillation to be positive when / is 
in the position b’, they will both be negative when / is at b. 

When the circle was slightly lowered in its own plane the sparking 
distance was increased at b’ and diminished at }, and the nuil points 
lay at a certain distance below a and a’. The electro-static E. M. F. is 
searcely affected by such a displacement, but the integral of the EH. M. FP. 
of induction taken round the circle is no longer zero, and therefore gives 
rise to an oscillation which will be of positive sign whatever be the po- 
sition of f; for the direction of the resultant E. M. F. of induction is op- 


170 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


posite to that of the electrostatic E. M. F. in the upper half of the circle, 
and eoincides with it in the lower half where the electrostatic E. M. F. has 
been assumed to be positive. Since the new oscillation so produced is 
in the phase as the previously existing one, their amplitudes must be 
added to give the resultant amplitude, which explains the phenomena. 


Effects of the Approach of Conductors.—In making these observations 
it was found necessary to remove all conductors to a considerable dis- 
tance from the apparatus, in order to obtain a complete disappearance of 
sparking at the points aand a’. Even the neighborhood of the observer 
was sufficient to set up sparking when the air space f was in either of 
these positions, and the sparks had therefore to be observed from a 
distance. The conductor used for the experiments was of the form 
shown at C (Fig. 10), and consisted of thin metal foil. The objects kept 
in view in selecting the material and dimensions were to obtain a con- 
ductor which would give a moderately large effect, and having an os- 
cillation period less than that of the primary. 

When the conductor C was brought near to A A’, it was found that 
the sparking distance decreased at } and increased at 0’, and the null 
points were displaced upwards,—that is, in the direction of @. 

From the results of experiments already described it is evident that 
the effect of displacing A A’ upwards would be the same, qualitatively, as 
that of a current in the same direction as that in A A’ directly above it. 
The effect produced by the approach of C was the reverse of this, and 
could be explained by an inductive action, supposing there were a cur- 
rent in C in the opposite direction to that in A A’, which is exactly 
what must occur; for the electro-static E. M. F. would give rise to such 
a current, and since the oscillations in C are more rapid than those 
of this BE. M. F. the current must be in the same phase as the indue- 
ing E. M. F. The truth of this explanation was confirmed by the 
following experiments. The horizontal plates of the conductor C being 
left in the same position as before, the vertical plate was removed, 
and successively replaced by wires of increasing length and fineness, 
in order to lengthen the oscillation period of C. The effect of this 
was to displace the null points more and more in an upward direction, 
while at the same time they became less sharply defined, a mininum 
sparking taking the place of the previous absolute disappearance. The 
sparking distance at the highest point had previously been much less 
than at the lowest point, but after the disappearance of the null points 
it began to increase. Ata certain stage the sparking distance at the 
two positions became equal, and then no definite minimum points 
could be found, but sparking took place freely at all positions of f. 
Beyond this stage the sparking distance at the lowest point diminished 
and very soon two minimum points made their appearance close to it, not 
clearly defined at first, but gradually becoming more distinct, and at 
the same time approaching the points aa’, with which they ultimately 








iil AT cial a al ge Ms 


SSA 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. Vet 


eoincided, when the minimum points again became absolute null points. 
These results are in agreement with the conclusion drawn from the 
former observations, for as the oscillation period of C approaches that 
of A A’, the intensity of the current in the former increases, but a dif- 
ference of phase arises between it and the exciting E. M.F. When the 
two are in unison the current in C attains its maximum, and, as in other 
cases of resonance, the difference of phase gives rise to a slightly damped 
oscillation, having a period of about a quarter that of the original one, 
which makes any interference between the oscillations excited in the 
circle B by A A’ and C respectively impossible. These conditions clearly 
correspond to the stage at which the sparking distances at b and b’ were 
equal. When the oscillation period of C becomes decidedly greater 
than that of A A’, the amplitude of the oscillation in the former will 
again diminish, so that the difference in phase between it and the ex- 
citing E.M.F. will approach half of the original period. The current in 
C will therefore always be in the same direction as that in A A’, so 
that interference between the two oscillations excited in B will again 
become possible, and the effect of C will then be opposite to its original 
effect. When the conductor C was made to approach A A’ the sparks 
in B became much smaller, which is explained by the fact that its ef- 
fect will be to increase the oscillation period of A A’, and therefore to 
throw it out of unison with B. 


Liffects of the approach of dielectrics. —A very rough estimate shows 
that when a di-electric of large mass is brought near to the apparatus, | 
the quantities of electricity set in motion by di-electric polarization are 
at least as large as in metallic wires or thin rods. If therefore the ac- 
tion of the apparatus were unaffected by the approach of such masses 
it would show that in contradiction to the theories of Faraday and 
Maxwell, no electro-dynamic actions are called into play by means of 
di-electric polarization, or as Maxwell calls it, electric displacement. 
The experiments however showed an effect similar to that which would 
be produced if the di-electrie were replaced by a conductor with a very 
small oscillation period. In the first experiment made, the mass of di- 
electric consisted of a pile of books, 1.5 meter long, 0.5 meter broad, and 
1 meter high, placed under the plates A A’. Its effect was to displace 
the null points through about 10° towards the pile. A block of asphait 
(D, in Fig. 10), weighing 800 kilograms, and measuring 1.4 meter in 
length, 0.4 meter in breadth, and 0.6 meter in height, was then used in 
place of the books, the plates being allowed to rest upon it. 

The following results were then obtained : 

(1) The spark at the highest point of the circle was now decidedly 
stronger than that at the lowest point, which was nearer to the asphalt. 

(2) The null points were displaced through about 23° downwards, 
that is, in the direction of the block, and at the same time were trans- 
formed into mere points of minimum sparking, a complete disappear- 
ance being no longer obtainable. 


172 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


(3) When the plates A A’ rested on the asphalt block the oscillation 
period of the primary was increased, as shown by the fact that the 
period of B had to be slightly increased in order to obtain the max- 
imum sparking distance. 

(4) When the apparatus was moved gradually away from the block 
its action steadily diminished without changing its character. 

(5) The action of the block could be compensated by bringing the con- 
ductor C over the plates A A’, while they rested on the block, the null 
points being brought back to a and a’ when CO was at a height of 11 
centimeters above the plates. When the upper surface of the asphalt 
was 5 centimeters below the plates, compensation was obtained when C 
was placed at a height of 17 centimeters above them, showing that the 
action of the di-electric was of the order of magnitude which had been 
anticipated. 

The asphalt contained about 5 per cent. of aluminium and iron com- 
pounds, 40 per cent. of calcium compounds, and 17 per cent. of quartz 
sand. In order to make sure that the observed effects were not due 
to the conductivity of some of these substances, a number of further 
experiments were made. 

In the first place the asphalt was replaced by a mass of the same 
dimensions of the so-called artificial pitch prepared from coal, and ef- 
fects of a similar kind were observed, but slightly weaker, the great- 
est displacement of the null points amounting to 19°. Unfortunately 
this pitch contains free carbon, the amount of which it is difficult to 
determine, and this would have some conductivity. 

The experiments were then repeated with a conductor, C, of half the 
linear dimensions of the former one, and smaller blocks of various sub- 
stances, on account of the great cost of obtaining large blocks of pure 
materials. The substances used were asphalt, coal-pitch, paper, wood, 
sandstone, sulphur, paraffine, and also a fluid di-electric, namely petro- 
leum. With the smaller apparatus it was not possible to obtain quan- 
titative results of the same accuracy as before, but the effects were 
of an exactly similar character, and left little room for doubt of the 
reality of the action of the di-electrie. 

The results might possibly be supposed to be due to a change in 
the distribution of the electro-static E. M. F. in the neighborhood of 
the di-electric, but in the first place Dr. Hertz states that he has been 
unable to explain the details of the observations on this hypothesis, 
and in the second place it is disproved by the following experiment : 

The smaller apparatus was placed with the line 7 s on the upper near 
corner of one of the large blocks, in which position the di-electric was 
bounded by the plane of the plates A A’ and the perpendicular plane 
through rs, both of which are equipotential surfaces, so that if the 
action were electro-static no effect should be produced by the di-electric. 
It was found however to produce the same effect as in other positions. 
It might also be supposed that the effects were due to a slight conduc- 


Le She eR SS | a 


_— 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 173 


tivity, but this could hardly be the case with such good insulators as 
sulphur and paraffine. Suppose moreover that the conductivity of the 
di-electric is sufficient to discharge the plate A in the ten-thousandth of 
a second, but not much more rapidly. Then, during one oscillation, 
the plates would lose only the ten-thousandth part of their charge, and 
the conduction current in the substance experimented on would not ex- 
ceed the ten-thousandth part of the primary current in A A’, so that the 
effect would be quite insensible. 


It was shown in the experiments described in the last section, that 
when variable electrical forces act in the interior of di-electrics of specific 
inductive capacity not equal to unity, the corresponding electric dis. 
placements produce electro-dynamic effects. In a paper “On the 
Velocity of Propagation of Electro-Dynamic Actions,” in Wiedemann’s 
Annalen, 1888, vol. XXXIV, p.551, Dr. Hertz shows that similar actions take 
place in the air, which proves, aS was previously pointed out, that elec- 
tro-dynamie action must be propagated with a finite velocity. 

The method of investigation was to excite electrical oscillations in a 
rectilinear conductor in the same manner as in former experiments, and 
then to produce effects in a secondary conductor by exciting electrical 
oscillations in it by means of those in the rectilinear conductor, and at 
the same time by the primary conductor acting through the intervening 
space. This distance was gradually increased, when it was found that 
the phase of the vibrations at a distance from the primary lagged behind 
those in its immediate neighborhood, showing that the action is propa- 
gated with a finite velocity, which was found to be greater than the 
velocity of propagation of electrical waves in wires in the ratio of about 
45 to 28, so that the former is of the same order as the velocity of light. 
Dr. Hertz was unable to obtain any evidence with respect to the veloe- 
ity of propagation of electro-static actions. 





Fig. 11. 


The primary conductor A A’ (Fig. 11) consisted of a pair of square 
brass plates with sides 40 centimeters in length, connected by a copper 
wire 60 centimeters in length, at the middle point of which was an air 


174 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


space, across which sparks were made to pass by means of powerful 
discharges from the induction coil J. The conductor was fixed at a 
height of 1.5 meter above the base-plate of the coil, with its plates ver- 
tical, and the connecting wire horizontal. A straight line r s, drawn 
horizontally through the air space of the primary and perpendicular to 
the direction of the primary oscillation, will be called the base-line, 
and a point in this situated at a distance of 45 centimeters from the air 
space will be referred to as the null point. 

The experiments were made in a large lecture room, with nothing 
near the base-line for a distance of 12 meters from the primary con- 
ductor. The room was darkened during the experiments. 

The secondary conductor consisted either of a circular wire C, of 35 
centimeters radius, or of a square of wire B, with sides 60 centimeters 
long. The primary and secondary air spaces were both capable of ad- 
justment by means of micrometer screws. Both the secondary con- 
ductors were in unison with the primary, the (half) vibration period of 
each being joo-te4s-o00 (1-4/hundred-millionths) of asecond, as calculated 
from the capacity and coefficient of self-induction. Itisdoubtful whether 
the ordinary theory of electrical oscillations would lead to accurate results 
under the conditions of these experiments; but as it gives correct 
numerical results in the case of Leyden-jar discharges, it may be ex- 
pected to be correct as far as the order of the results is concerned. 
When the center of the secondary lies in the base-line, and its plane 
coincides with the vertical plane through the base-line, no sparks are 
observed in the secondary, the E. M. F. being everywhere perpendicular 
to the direction of the secondary. This will be referred to as “the first 
principal position” of the secondary. When the plane of the secondary 
is vertical and perpendicular to the base-line, the center still lying in 
the base-line, the secondary will be said to be in its “second principal 
position.” Sparking then occurs in the secondary when its air space is 
either above or below the horizontal plane through the base-line, but 
not when it is in this plane. As the distance from the primary was in- 
creased the sparking distance was observed to decrease, rapidly at first, 
but ultimately very slowly. Sparks were observed throughout the 
whole distance of 12 meters available for the experiments. The spark- 
ing in this position is due essentially to the BE. M. F. produced in the 
portion of the secondary remote from the air space. The total E. M. F. 
is partly electro static and partly electro-dynamic, and the experiments 
show beyond the possibility of doubt that the former is greater, and 
therefore determines the direction of the total E. M. F. close to the 
primary, while at greater distances it is the electro-dynamic E. M. F. 
which is the greater. 

The plane of the secondary was then turned into the horizontal, its 
center still lying in the base-line. This may be called “ the third prin- 
cipal position.” When the center of the cireular secondary conductor 
was kept fixed at the null point, and the air space was made to travel 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 175 


round the circle, vigorous sparking was observed in :ll positions. The 
sparking distance attained its maximum length of about six millimeters 
when its air space was nearest to that of the primary, and its minimum 
length of about three millimeters when the distance between the two 
air spaces was greatest. Jf the secondary had been influenced by the 
electrostatic force, sparking would only be expected when the air space 
was close to the base-line, and a cessation of sparks in the intermediate 
positions. The direction of the oscillation would, moreover, be deter- 
mined by the direction of the E. M. F. in the portion of the secondary 
furthest from the air space. There is however superposed upon the 
electro-statically-excited oscillation a second oscillation due to the E. 
M. F. of induction, which produces a considerable effect since its inte- 
gral round the circle (considered as a closed circuit) does not vanish ; 
and the direction of this integral E. M. F. is independent of the position 
of the air space, opposing the electro-static E. M. F. in the portion of 
the secondary next to A A’, and assisting it in the portion furthest from 
A A’, as explained in a previous paper. 

The electro-static and electro-dynamic E. M. F.s therefore act in the 
same direction when the air space is turned towards the primary con- 
ductors, and in opposite direction when the air space is turned away 
from the primary. In the latter position it is the E. M. F. of induction 
which is the more powerful, as is shown by the fact that there is no dis- 
appearance of sparking in any position of the air space, for when this 
is 90 degrees to the right or left of the base line it coincides with a node 
with respect to the electrostatic E.M. F. In these positions the in- 
ductive action in the neighborhood of the primary can be observed, in- 
dependently of the electrostatic action. 


Waves in Rectilinear Wires.—In order to produce in a wire by means 
of the primary oscillations a series of advancing waves of the character 
required for these experiments, the following arrangements were 
made: Behind the plate A was placed a plate P of equal size. A 
copper wire one millimeter in diameter connected P to the point m of 
the base-line. From m the wire was continued in a curve about a meter 
in length to the point n, situated about 30 centimeters above the air 
space, and was then further continued ina straight line parallel to the 
base-line for such a distance as to obviate all danger of disturbance from 
reflected waves. In the present series of experiments the wire passed 
through a window, and after being carried to a distance of about 60 
meters was put to earth, and a special series of experiments showed 
that this length was sufficient. When a wire, bent so as to forma 
nearly closed circuit with a small air space, was brought near to this 
straight wire, a series of fine sparks was seen to accompany the dis- 
charges of the induction coil. Their intensity could be varied by vary- 
ing the distance between the plates P and A. The waves in the recti- 
linear wire were of the same period as that of the primary oscillations, as 
was proved by their being shown to be in unison with each of the two 


176 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


secondary conductors previously described. The existence of station- 
ary waves showed that the waves in the rectilinear wire were of a 
steady character in space as well as in time. The nodal points were 
determined in the following manner: The further end of the wire was 
left free, and the secondary conductor was brought near to it, in such 
a position that the wire lay in its plane, and had the air space turned 
towards it. As the secondary was moved along the wire, points of no 
sparking were observed to recur periodically. The distance from the 
point » to the first of these was measured, and the length of the wire 
made equal to a multiple of this distance. The experiments were then 
repeated and it was found that the nodal points occurred at approxi- 
mately equal intervals along the wire. 

The nodes could also be distinguished from the loops in other ways. 
The secondary conductor was brought near to the wire, with its plane 
perpendicular to it, and with its air space neither directed completely 
towards the wire nor completely away from it, but in an intermediate 
position, so as to produce E. M. F.’s perpendicular to the wire. Sparks 
were then observed at the nodes, while they disappeared at the loops. 
When sparks were taken from the rectilinear wire by means of an in- 
sulated conductor, they were found to be stronger at the nodes than at 
the loops; the difference however was small, and was indeed scarcely 
distinguishable unless the position of the nodes and loops was previ- 
ously known. The reason that this and other similar methods do not 
give a well-defined result lies in the fact that irregular oscillations are 
superposed upon the waves considered; the regular waves however 
can be picked out by means of the secondary, just as definite notes are 
picked out by means of a Helmholtz resonator. If the wire is severed 
at a node, no effect is produced upon the waves in the portion of wire 
next to the origin; but if the severed portion of wire is left in its place, 
the waves continue to be propagated through it, though with somewhat 
diminished strength. 

The possibility of measuring the wave-lengths leads to various appli- 
cations. If the copper wire hitherto used is replaced by one of differ- 
ent diameter, or by a wire of some other metal, the nodal points retain 
their position unchanged. It follows from this that the velocity of prop- 
agation in a wire has a definite value independent of its dimensions and 
material. Even iron wires offer no exception to this, showing that the 
magnetic susceptibility of iron does not play any part in the case of 
such rapid motions. It would be interesting to investigate the behavior 
of electrolytes in this respect. In their case we should expect a smaller 
velocity of propagation, because the electrical motions are accompanied 
by motions of the molecules carrying the electric charges. It was found 
that no propagation of the waves took place through a tube 10 millimeters 
in diameter, filled with a solution of sulphate of copper; but this may 
have been due to the resistance being too high. By the measurement 
of wave-lengths the relative vibration periods of different primary con- 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. Pid 


ductors can be determined, and it therefore becomes possible to com- 
parein this manner the vibration periods of plates, spheres, ellipsoids, We. 

In the experiments made by Dr. Hertz, nodes were very: distinctly 
produced when the wire was severed at a distance of either 8 meters or 
5.5 meters from the null point of the base line. In the first case the 
nodes occurred at distances from the null point of —0.2 meter, 2.3 
meters, 5.1 meters, and 8 meters, and in the latter case at distances of 
—(.1 meter, 2.8 meters, and 5.5 meters. It appears therefore that the 
(half) wave-length in a free wire cannot differ much from 2.8 meters 
The fact that the wave-lengths nearest to P were somewhat smaller was 
to be expected from the influence of the plates and of the curvature of 
the wire. This wave-length, with a period of 1.4/ hundred-millionths of 
a second, gives, 200,000 kilometers per second for the velocity of prop- 
agation of electrical waves in wires. Fizeau and Gounelle (Poggen- 
- dorff’s Annalen, vol. LXXX, p. 158, 1850) obtained for the velocity in 
iron wires 100,000 kilometers per second, and 180,000 in copper wires. 
W. Siemens (Poggendorfi’s Annalen, vol. CLV, p. 309, 1876), by the 
aid of Leyden -jar discharges, obtained a velocity of from 200,000 to 
260,000 kilometers per second iniron wires. Dr. Hertz’s result is very 
nearly the mean of these, from which we may conclude that the order, 
at any rate, of the vibration period as calculated by him is correct. 
The value obtained cannot be regarded, independently of its agreement 
with experimental results otherwise obtained, as a fresh determination 
of the velocity, since it rests upon a theory which is open to doubt. 


Interference of the direct actions with those transmitted through the 
wire.—If the square circuit B is placed at the null point in the second 
principal position, with the air space atits highest point, it will be un- 
affected by the waves in the wire, but the direct action when in this 
position was found to produce sparks 2 millimeters in length. B was 
then turned about a vertical axis into the first principal position in 
which there would be no direct action of the primary oscillation, but 
the waves in the wire gave rise to sparks, and by bringing P near 
enough to A, a sparking distance of 2 millimeters could be obtained. 
In the intermediate positions sparks were produced in both these ways, 
and it would therefore be possible to get a difference of phase, such 
that one should either increase or diminish the effect of the other. 
Phenomena of this nature were, indeed, observed. When the plane of 
B was in such a position that the normal drawn towards A A’ was 
directed away from that side of the primary conductor on which P was 
placed, there was more sparking than even in the principal position; 
but if the normal were directed towards P the sparks disappeared, and 
only re-appeared when the air space was made smaller. When the air 
space was at the lowest point of 6, the other conditions remaining the 
H, Mis. 224 12 





178 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


same, the sparks disappeared when the normal was turned away from 
P. Further variations of the experiment gave results in accordance 
with these. 

It is easily seen that these phenomena were exactly what were to be 
expected. To fix the ideas, suppose the air space to be at the highest 
point and the normal directed towards P, as in Fig. 11. Consider what 
happens at the moment that the plate A has its greatest positive charge. 
The electro-static, and therefore the total E. M. F., is directed from A 
towards A’. The oscillation to which this gives rise in Bis determined 
by the direction of the E. M. F. in the lower portion of B. Therefore 
positive electricity will flow towards A’ in the lower portion, and away 
from A/ in the upper portion. 

Consider next the action of the waves. As long as A is positively 
charged, positive electricity will flow from the plate P. This current 
is, at the moment considered, at its maximum value at the middle 
point of the first half wave-length. A quarter of a wave-length further 
from the origin—that is to say, in the neighborhood of the null point— 
it first changes its direction. The E. M. F. of induction will here there- 
fore impel positive electricity towards the origin. A current will there- 
fore flow round B towards A’ in the upper portion and away from A‘ 
in the lower portion. The electro-static and electro-dynamic E. M. F.’s 
are therefore in opposite phases and oppose each other’s action. If 
the secondary circuit is rotated through 90 deg., through the first prin- 
cipal position, the direct action changes its sign, but not so the action 
of the waves, so that they now tend to strengthen each other. The 
same reasoning holds when the air space is at the lowest point of B. 

Greater lengths of wire were then included between m and n, and it 
was found that the interference became gradtally less marked, until 
with a length of 2.5 meters it disappeared entirely, the sparks being of 
equal length whether the normal were directed towards or away from 
P. When the length of wire between m and n was further increased, 
the distinction between the different quadrants re-appeared, and witha 
length of 4 meters the disappearance of the sparks was fairly sharp. 
The disappearance however then took place (with the air space at the 
highest point) when the normal was directed away from P, the opposite 
direction to that in which the disappearance previously took place. 
With a still further increase in the length of the wire the interference 
re-appeared and returned to its original direction with a length of 6 
meters. These phenomena are clearly to be explained by the retarda- 
tion of the waves in the wire, and show that here again the direction of 
motion in the advancing waves changes its sign at intervals of about 
2.8 meters. 

To obtain interference phenomena with the secondary circuit Cin 
the third principal position, the rectilinear wire must be removed from 
its original position, and placed in the horizontal plane through C either 
on the side of the plate A or of the plate A’. Practically it is sufficient 


F iil 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 179 


to stretch the wire loosely, and to fix it by means of an insulated clamp 
on each side of C alternately. It was found that when the wire was on 
the same side as the plate P the waves in it diminished the previous 
sparking, and when on the opposite side the sparking was increased, 
both results being unaffected by the position of the air space in the 
secondary circuit. Now it has been already pointed out that at the 
moment when the plate A has its maximum positive charge, and at 
which therefore the primary current begins to flow from A, the cur- 
rent at the first node of the rectilinear wire begins to flow away from 
the origin. The two currents therefore flow around C in the same di- 
rection when C lies between the rectilinear wire and A and in oppo- 
site directions when the wire and A are on the same side of C. The 
fact that the position of the air space is indifferent confirms the con- 
clusion formerly arrived at, that the direction of oscillation is that due 
to the electro-dynamic E. M. F. These interferences are also changed 
in direction when the wire m n, 1 meter in length, is replaced by a wire 
4 meters in length. 

Dr. Hertz also succeeded in obtaining interference phenomena when 
the center of the secondary circuit was not in the base-line, but these 
results were of no special importance, except that they confirmed the 
previous conclusions. 


Interference phenomena at various distances.—Interference may be 
produced with the secondary at greater distances than that of the null 
point, but care must then be taken that the action of the waves in the 
wire is of about the same magnitude as the direct action of the primary 
circuit through the air. This can be effected by increasing the distance 
between P and A. 

Nowif the velocity of propagation of the electro-dynamie disturbances 
through the air is infinite, the interference will change its sign at every 
half-wave length in the wire—tbat is to say, at intervals of about 2.8 
meters. If the velocities of propagation through the air and through 
the wire are equal, the interference will be in the same direction at all 
distances. Finally, if the velocity of propagation through the air is 
finite, but different from the velocity in the wire, the interference will 
change in sign at intervals greater than 2.8 meters. 

The interferences first investigated were those which oceurred when 
the secondary circuit was rotated from the first into the second prin- 
cipal position, the air space being at the highest point. The distance 
of the secondary from the null point was increased by half-meter stages 
from 0 up to 8 meters, and at each of these positions an observation 
was made of the effects of directing the normal towards and away from 
P respectively. The points at which no difference in the sparking was 
observed in the two positions of the normal are marked 0 in the table 
below. Those in which the sparking was least, showing the existence 
of interference, when the normal was directed towards P are marked +, 
and those in which the sparking was least when the normal was directed 


180 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


away from P are marked —. The experiments were repeated with 
different lengths of wire mn, varying by steps of half a meter from 1 
meter up to 6 meters. The first horizontal line in the table gives the 
distances in meters of the center of the secondary circuit from the null 
point, while the first vertical line gives the lengths of the wire m n, 
also in meters : 


TABLE I 
0 ii eles | BN IG 7] | 8] 
| | | | | 
Z 7 (cor er ene ca paalaealie Salis al 
ee sel PO SS tee EY EEN coal Boge Mon tbls) nom ret eaten ete 
Peso en ra fea lhe eral ore ere ae PU O;+}+/+i{+)4] 04 
SOO ZO aol has ot ere oe OG =| ae +/+] 0 0) o)o) 0) 
250 {ORs sy ea —/|0)0 HG ca) seein Ora Oks aes 
Pe ee ae pe pe EU ea eas et aR Th) Vial) aioe as | 
gaol eral arate esta paste ti alae aes Hie se \eaatear lta 
| 400} —}—|] 0] +) +4 He) eae Ojen|) a0 Be 0 O;—f=—}— sl = 
VSO) = Ola) teed erential ictal ete De SO OR ee Mcrae ol eer 
500} —| 0) +]/+}/+)/+]0}—|/—|}—|-|—] 0] 0}0)]0)+4 
| 550 | 0 +/+] 4+} 4+] 0) 0) =—j;=—/—}—~P—] 0] oO} 0) 0 | + 
pene +}/+}+]/+]0 ©. | lS es ape ae +] + [eras 
| {es | | 


| é 


An inspection of this table shows, in the first place, that the changes 
of sign take place at longer intervals than 2.8 meters; and in the sec- 
ond place that the change of phase is more rapid in the neighborhood 
of the origin than at a distance from it. As a variation in the velocity 
of propagation is very unlikely, this is probably due to the fact indi- 
cated by theory that the electro-static E. M. F., which is more powerful 
than the electro-dynamic E. M.F.in the neighborhood of the primary oscil- 
lation, has a greater velocity of propagation than the latter. 

In order to obtain a definite proof of the existence of similar phenom- 
ena at greater distances, Dr. Hertz continued the observations in the 
case of three of the lengths m up to a distance of 12 meters, and the 
result is given in the table below: 


TABLE II. 








Al 

0 1 Dial Sa ae Bs fi Gu italy lu cdi |e Oenl PaO | 1 | 12 | 

| | 
F ila Pee Lath Pr een aan 
100 + 0 — —_— 0 0 0 {+ t [eo ae a em 0 | 
250 0 — = 0 + + 0 OF Oe ORe. ie | —}—] 
| 400 — 0 “f t 0 0 = po — 0 | Een) 

} | 


If we make the assumption that at the greater distance it is only the 
E.M.¥. of induction which produces any effect, the experiments would 
show that the interference of the waves excited by the E. M. F. of induc- 
tion with the original waves in the wire changes its sign only at inter- 
vals of about 7 meters. 

In order to investigate the H.M. F. of induction close to the primary 
oscillation, where the results are of special importance, Dr. Hertz made 
use of the interferences which were obtained when the secondary circuit 
Was in the third principal position, and the air space was rotated through 





a ee ee ee ee eee ee See 


Stl diy i eee 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 18 


90 degrees from the base-line. The direction of the interference at the 
null point, which has already been considered, was taken as negative, 
the interference being considered positive when it was produced by the 
passage of waves on the side of C remote from P, which makes the signs 
correspond with those of the previous experiments. It must be borne 
in mind that the direction of the resultant E.M.F. at the null point is 
opposed to that of the E. M. F. of induction, and therefore the first table 
would have begun with a negative sign if the electro-static E. M. F. could 
have been eliminated. The present experiments showed that up to a 
distance of 3 meters interference continued to occur, and always of the 
same sign as at the null point. It was untortunately impossible to ex- 
tend these observations to a greater distance than 4 meters, on account 
of the feebleness of the sparks, but the results obtained were sufficient 
to give distinct evidence of a finite velocity of propagation of the E, M.F. 
of induction. These observations, like the former ones, were repeated 
with various lengths of the wire m n in order to exhibit the variation in 
phase, and the results obtained are given in the table below: 


TABLE III. 


0 ] 2 i 4 
100 —- _ - — 0 
| 150 — — 0 0 0 
| 200 | 0 0 0 if: cael 
| 250 | 0 + fo | + 1. 
300 ae la + =f jae 
| 350 | + ot t aa 0 
400 | + a oa sta v 
| 450 | +4 1 aa 0 0 
| 500 | + + 0 0 0 
550 | + 0 0 0 3 
600 0 - - - = 





which shows that as the distance increases the phase of the interference 
changes in such a manner that areversal of sign takes place at intervals 
of from 7 to 8 meters. This result is further confirmed by comparing 
the results of Table III with the results for greater distances given in 
Table IT, for in the former series, the effect of the electro-static EK. M. F. is 
eliminated, owing to the special position of the secondary circuit, while 
in the former it becomes insensible at the greater distances, owing to 
its rapid decrease with increasing distance. We should therefore ex- 
pect the results given in the first table for distances beyond 4 meters 
to follow without a break the results given in Table III for distances 
up to 4 meters. This was found to be the case, as is evident from in- 
spection of Tables II and III. 

To show this more clearly the signs of the interference of the waves, 
due to the electro-dynamic E.M.F., with the waves in the wire, are col- 
lected together in Table LV, the first four columns of which are taken 
from Table III, and the remaining columns from Table II. 


182 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


TABLE IV. 


| exon aheed 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 Bint Goes AOse elie eere | 
| | 
ren See |e aa ea = ae Slee ee ae TLE ans | res ret rae 
(00 po—s gl) [40 0 0 | aaa 45s | pote ea 
|} 250; 0 | + | +] +] + + | 0 0 0 Oe ee een ee 
Wiaoonie se fe ke) ge dy 0. he 10 I ea area ee See es 
| 


From the results given in this table, the author draws the following 
conclusions : 

(1) The interference does not change its sign at intervals of 2.8 meters. 
The electro-dynamic actions are therefore not propagated with an infi- 
nite velocity. 

(2) The interference is not in the same phase at all points, therefore 
the electro-dynamic actions are not propagated through air with the 
same velocity as electric waves in wires. 

(3) A gradual retardation of the waves in the wire has the effect of 
displacing a given phase of the interference towards the origin of the 
waves. The velocity of propagation through the air is therefore greater 
than through a wire. 

(4) The sign of the interference is reversed at intervals of 7.5 meters, 
and therefore in traversing this distance an electro-dynamic wave gains 
one length of the waves in the wire. 

Thus, while the former travels 7.5 meters, the latter travels 7.5—2.8= 
4,7 meters, and therefore the ratio of the velocities is 75: 47, which gives 
for the half-wave length of the electro-dynamie action 2.8475 /47=4.5 
meters. Since this distance is traversed in 1.4/ hundred millionths of a 
second, the absolute velocity of propagation through the air must be 
320,000 kilometers per second. This result can only be considered re- 
liable as far as its order is concerned; but its true value can hardly 
exceed half as much again, or be less than two-thirds of this amount. 
In order to obtain a more accurate determination of the true value it 
will be necessary to determine the velocity of electric waves in wires 
with greater exactness. 

It does not necessarily follow from the fact that in the immediate 
neighborhood of the primary oscillation the interference changes its 
sign after an interval of 2.8 meters that the velocity of propagation of 
the electro-static action is infinite, for such a conclusion would rest upon 
a Single change of sign, which might moreover be explained independ- 
ently of any change of phase, by a change in the sign of the amplitude 
of the resultant force at a certain distance from the primary oscillation. 
Quite independently however of any knowledge of the velocity of pro- 
pagation of electrostatic actions, there exist definite proofs that the 
rates of propagation of electro-static and electro-dynamic E. M. F.’s are 
unequal. 

In the first place the total force does not vanish at any point on the 
base-line. Now, near the primary, the electro-static E. M. F. is the greater, 





Wnts 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 183 


while the electro-dynamic E.M.F. is the greater at greater distances. 
There must therefore be some point at which they are equal, and since 
they do not balance, they must take different times to reach this point. 

In the seeond place, the existence of points at which the direction of 
the. resultant E. M. F. becomes indetermivate does not seem capable of 
explanation, except on the supposition that the electrostatic and electro- 
dynamic components perpendicular to each other are in appreciably 
different phases, and therefore do not compound into a rectilinear os- 
cillation in a fixed direction. The fact that the two components of the 
resultant are propagated with different velocities is of considerable im- 
portance, in that it gives an independent proof that one of theni at any 
rate must have a finite velocity of propagation. 


The latest researches of Dr. Hertz on electrical oscillations of which 
accounts have been published at present, are described in a paper “On 
Electro-Dynamic Waves in Air, and their Reflections,” in Wiedemann’s 
Annalen, 1888, vol. Xxxtv, p. 609. The author had been endeavoring 
to find a more striking and direct proof of the finite velocity of propaga- 
tion of electro-dynamic waves than those which he had hitherto given, 
for though these are quite sufficient to establish the facet, they can only 
be properly appreciated by one who has obtained a grasp of the results 
of the entire series of researches. 

In many of the experiments which have been described, Dr. Hertz 
had noticed the appearance of sparks at points in the secondary con- 
ductor, where it was clear from geometrical considerations that they 
could not be due to direct action, and it was observed that this occurred 
chiefly in the neighborhood of solid obstacles. It was found moreover, 
that in most positions of the secondary conductor the feeble sparks pro- 
duced at a great distance from the primary became considerably 
stronger in the vicinity of a solid wall, but disappeared with consider- 
able suddenness quite close to the wall. The most obvious explanation 
of these experiments was that the waves of inductive action were re- 
flected from the wall and interfered with the direct waves, especially 
as it was found that the phenomena became more distinct when the 
circumstances were such as to favor reflection to the greatest possible 
extent. Dr. Hertz therefore determined upon a thorough investigation 
of the phenomena. 

The experiments were made in the Physical Lecture Theatre, which 
is 15 meters in length, 14 meters in width, and 6 meters in height. 
Two rows of iron columns, running parallel to the sides of the room, 
would collectively act almost like a solid wall towards electro-dynamie 
action, so that the available width of the room was only 8.5 meters. All 
pendent gas-fittings were removed, and the room left empty, with the 
exception of wooden tables and forms, which would not exert any ap- 


184 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


preciable disturbing effect. The end wall, from which the waves were 
to be reflected, was of solid sandstone, with two doors in it, and the 
numerous gas pipes attached to it gave it, to a certain extent, the 
character of a conducting surface, and this was increased by fastening 
to it a sheet of zine 4 meters high and 2 meters broad, connected by 
wires to the gas-pipes and a neighboring water-pipe. Special care was 
taken to provide an escape for the electricity at the upper and lower 
extremities of the zine plate, where a certain accumulation of electricity 
was to be expected. 

The primary conductor was the same that was employed in the ex- 
periments last described, and was placed at a distance of 13 meters from 
the zine plate, and therefore two meters from the wall at the other end 
of the room. The conducting wire was placed vertically, so that the E. 
M. F.’s to be considered increased and diminished in a vertical direction. 
The center of the primary conductor was 2.5 meters above the floor of 
the room, which left a clear space for the observations above the tables 
and benches. The point of intersection of the reflecting surface with 
the perpendicular from the center of the primary conductor will be called 
the point of incidence, and the experiments were limited to the neigh- 
borhood of this point, as the investigation of waves striking the wall 
at a considerable angle would be complicated by the differences in their 
polarization. Theplaneof vibration was therefore parallel to the reflect- 
ing surface, and the plane of the waves was perpendicular to it, and 
passed through the point of incidence. 

The secondary conductor consisted of the circle of 35 centimeters 
radius, which has been already described. It was movable about an axis 
through its center perpendicular to its plane, and the axis itself was 
movable in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis. In most of the 
experiments the secondary conductor was held in the hand by its 
insulating wooden support, as this was the most convenient way of 
bringing it into the various positions required. The results of these 

experiments however had to be checked by observations made with 
the observer at a greater distance from the secondary, as the neighbor- 
hood of his body exerted a slight influence upon the phenomena. The 
sparks were distinct enough to be observed at a distance of several 
meters when the room was darkened, but when the room remained light 
they were practically invisible even when the observer was quite close 
to the secondary. 

When the center of the secondary was placed in the line of incidence 
and with its plane in the plane of vibration, and the air space was 
turned first towards the reflecting wall and then away from it, a con- 
siderable difference was generally observed in the strength of the sparks 
in the two positions. Ata distance of about 0.8 meter from the wall 
the sparks were much stronger when the air space was directed towards 
the wall, and its length could be adjusted so that while there was a 
Steady stream of sparks when in this position, they disappeared entirely 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 185 


when the air space was directly away from the wall. These phenomena 
were reversed at a distance of 3 meters, and recurred, as in the first 
case, at a distance of 5.5 meters. At a distance of 8 meters the sparks 
were stronger when the air space was turned away from the wall, as at 
the distance of 5 meters, but the difference was not so well marked. 
When the distance was increased beyond 8 meters no further reversal 
took place, owing to the increase in the direct effect of the primary 
oscillation and the complicated distribution of the E. M. F. in its neigh- 
borhood. 























Fia. 12 


The positions I, II, and IV, (Fig. 12) of the secondary circie are 
those in which the sparks were strongest, the distance from the wall 
being shown by the horizontal scale at the foot. When the secondary 
circle was in positions V, VI, and VII, the sparks were equally 
strong in both positions of the air space, and quite close to the wall the 
difference between the sparking in the two positions again diminished. 
Therefore the points A, B, C, D in the diagram may in a ¢ertain sense 
be regarded as nodes. The distance between two of these points must 
not however be taken as the wave half-length, for if all the electrical 
motions changed their directions on passing through one of these points 
the phenomena observed in the secondary circuit would be repeated 
without variation, since the direction of oscillation in the air space is 
indifferent. 

The conclusion to be drawn from the experiments is that in passing 
any one of these points part of the action is reversed, while another 
partis not. The experimental results however warrant the assumption 
that twice the distance between two of these points is equal to the half 
wave-length, and when this assumption is made the phenomena can be 
fully explained. 

For suppose a wave of E. M. F., with oscillations in a vertical direc- 
tion, to impinge upon the wall, and to be reflected with only slightly 
diminished intensity, thus giving rise to stationary waves. If the wall 
were a perfect conductor, a node would necessarily be formed in its sur- 
face, for at the boundary and in the interior of a perfect conductor the 
E. M. F. must be infinitely smail. The wall cannot however be con- 
sidered as a perfect conductor, for it was not metallic throughout, and the 


186 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


portion which was metallic was not of any great extent. The E. M. F. 
would therefore have a finite value at its surface, and would be in the 
direction of the impinging waves. The node, which in the case of perfect 
conductivity would occur at the surface of the wall, would therefore 
actually be situated a little behind it, as shown at A in the diagram. 
If then twice the distance A B—that is to say, the distance A C—is 
half the wave-length the steady waves will be as represented by the 
continuous lines in Fig. 12. The £. M. F.’s acting on each side of the 
circles, in the. positions I, II, II, and IV, will therefore at a given 
moment be represented in magnitude and direction by the arrows on 
each side of them in the diagram. If therefore in the neighborhood 
of a node the air space is turned towards the node, the strongest E. M. F. 
in the circle will act under more favorable conditions against a weaker 
one under less favorable conditions. If however the air space is turned 
away from the node, the stronger E. M. F. acts under less favorable con- 
ditions against a weaker one under more favorable conditions. In the 
latter case the resultant action must be less than in the former, which- 
ever of the two E.M. F.’s has the greater effect, which explains the 
change of sign of the phenomenon at each quarter wave-length. 

This explanation is further confirmed by the consideration that if itis 
the true one, the change of sign at the points B and D must take place 
in quite a different manner from that of the point C. The E. M. F.’s, 
acting on the secondary circle, in the positions V, VI, and VII, are 
shown by the corresponding arrows, and itis clear that in the positions 
B and D, if the air space is turned from one side to the other, the vibra- 
tion will change its direction round the circle, and,therefore the spark- 
ing must during the rotation vanish either once or an uneven number 
of times. In the position C, however, the direction of vibration remains 
unaltered, and therefore the sparks must disappear an even number of 
times, or uot at all. 

The experiments showed that at B and D the sparking diminished as 
the air space receded from a, vanished at the highest point, and again 
attained its original value at the point 6. At ©, on the other hand, 
the sparking continued throughout the rotation, being a little stronger 
at the highest and lowest points. If then there is any change of sign 
in the position C, it must occur with very much smaller displacements 
than in other positions, so that in any case there is a distinction such 
as required between this and the other two cases. 

Another very direct proof of the truth of Dr. Hertz’s presentation of 
the nature of the waves was obtained. If the secondary circle lies in 
the plane of the waves instead of in the plane of vibration, the E. M. F. 
must be equal at all points of the circle, and for a given position of the 
air space, the sparking must be directly proportional to its intensity. 
When the experiment was made it was found, as expected, that at all 
distances the sparking vanished at the highest and lowest points of the 
circle, and attained a maximum value at the points in the horizontal 
plane through the point of incidence. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 187 


The air space was then placed at such a point and close to the wall 
and was then moved slowly away from the wall, when it was found that 
while there was no sparking quite close to the metal plate, it began at 
a very small distance from it, rapidly increased, reached a maximum at 
the point B, and then diminished again. At C the sparking again be- 
came excessively feeble, and increased as the circle was moved still 
further away. The sparking continued steadily to increase after this, 
as the motion of the circle was continued in the same direction, owing, 
as before, to the direct action of the primary oscillation. 

The curves shown by the continuous lines in Fig. 12 were obtained 
from the results of these experiments, the ordinates representing the 
intensity of the sparks at the distances represented by the correspond- 
ing abscissie. 

The existence in the electrical waves of nodes at A and ©, and of 
loops at B and D, is fully established by the experiments which have 
been described; but in another sense the points B and D may be re- 
garded as nodes, for they are the nodal points of a stationary wave of 
magnetic induction which, according to theory, accompanies the elec- 
trical wave and lags a quarter wave-length behind it. 

This can easily be shown to follow from the experiments, for when the 
secondary circle is placed in the plane of vibration with the air space 
at its highest point, there will be no sparking if the FE. M. F. is uniform 
throughout the space occupied by the secondary. This can only take 
place if the E. M. F. varies from point to point of the circle, and if its 
integal round the circle differs from zero, This integral is proportional 
to the number of magnetic lines of force passing backwards and for- 
wards across the circle, and the intensity of the sparks may be consid- 
ered as giving a measure of the magnetic induction, which is perpen- 
dicular to the plane of the cirele. Now in this position vigorous 
sparking was observed close to the wall, diminishing rapidly to zero 
as the point B was approached, then increasing to @ maximum at C, 
falling to a well-marked minimum at PD, and finally inereasing continu- 
ously as the secondary approached still nearer to the primary. If the 
intensities of these sparks are taken as ordinates, positive and negative, 
and the distances from the wall as abscissa, the curve shown by the 
dotted lines in Fig. 12 is obtained, which therefore represents the mag- 
netic waves. 

The phenomena observed in the first series of experiments described 
in this paper may therefore be regarded as due to the resultant electric 
and magnetic actions. The former changes sign at A and CG, the latter 
at B and D, so that at each of these points one part of the action changes 
sign, while the other does not, and therefore the resultant action, which 
is their product must change sign at each of these points, as was found 
to be the case. 

When the secondary circle was in the plane of vibration the sparking 


188 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


in the vicinity of the wall was observed to be a maximum on the side 
towards the wall, and a minimum at the opposite side, and as the circle 
was turned from one position to the other there was found to be no 
pointat which thesparks disappeared. Asthedistance from the wall was 
increased, the sparks on the remote side gradually became weaker, and 
vanished ata distance of 1.08 meters from the wall. When the circie was 
carried further in the same direction, the sparks appeared again on the 
side remote from the wall, but were always weaker than on the side next 
to it; the sparking however no longer passed from a maximum to a min- 
imum merely, but vanished during the rotation once in the upper and 
once in the lower half of the circle. The two null points gradually re- 
ceded from their original coincident positions, until at the point B 
they occurred at the highest aad lowest points of the circle. As the 
circle was-moved further in the same direction, the null points passed 
over to the side next to the wall, and approached each other again, 
until when the center was at a distance of 2.55 meters from the walk the 
two null points were again coincident. B must be exactly half-way be- 
tween this point and the similar point previously observed, which gives 
1.72 meters as the distance of B from the wall, a result which agrees, 
within a few centimeters with that obtained by direct observation. 
Moving further in the direction of C, the sparking at different points of 
the circle became more nearly equal, until at C it was exactly so. In 
this position there was no null point, and as the distance was further 
increased the phenomena recurred in the same order as before. 

Dr. Hertz found that the position of C could be determined within a 
few centimeters, the determinations of its distance from the wall vary- 
ing from 4.10 to 4.15 meters; he gives its most probable value as 4.12 
meters. The point B could not be observed with any exactness, the 
direct determinations varying from 6 te 7.5 meters as its distance from 
the wall. It could however be determined indirectly, for the distance 
between B and C being found to be 2.4 meters, taking this as the true 
value, A must have been 0.68 meter behind the surface of the wall, and 
6.52 meters in front of it. The half-wave length would be 4.8 meters, 
and by an indirect method it was found to be 4.5 meters, so that the 
two results agree fairly well. Taking the mean of these as the true 
value, and the velocity of light as the velocity of propagation, gives as 
the vibration period of the apparatus 1.55/ hundred-millionths of a see- 
ond, instead of 1.4/ hundred-millionths, which was the theoretically cal- 
culated value. 

A second series of experiments were made with a smaller apparatus, 
and though the measurements could not be made with as much exact- 
ness as those already described, the results showed clearly that the 
position of the nodes depends only on the dimensions of the conductors 
and not on the material of the wall. 

Dr. Hertz states that after some practice he succeeded in obtaining 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 189 


indications of reflection from each of the walls. He was also able to 
obtain distinet evidence of reflection from one of the iron columns in the 
room, and of the existence of electro-dynamic shadows on the side of 
the column remote from the primary. 

In the preceding experiments the secondary conductor was always 
placed between the wall and the primary conductor ;—that is to say, in 
a space in which the direct and retlected rays were travelling in oppo- 
site directions, and gave rise to stationary waves by their interference. 

He next placed the primary conductor between the wall and the see- 
ondary, so that the latter was in a space in which the direct and re- 
flected waves were traveling in the same direction. This would neces- 
sarily give rise to a resultant wave, the intensity of which would depend 
on the difference in phase of the two interfering waves. In order to 
obtain distinct results it was necessary that the two waves should be 
of approximately equal intensities, and therefore the distance of the 
primary from the wall had to be small in comparison with the extent of 
the latter, and also in comparison with its distance from the secondary. 

To fulfill these conditions the secondary was placed at a disadvantage 
of 14 meters from the reflecting wall, and therefore about 1 meter 
from the opposite one, with its plane in the plane of vibration, and its 
air space directed towards the nearest wall, in order to make the con- 
ditions as favorable as possible for the production of sparks. The 
primary was placed parallel to its former position, and at a perpendie- 
ular distance of about 30 centimeters from the center of the reflecting 
metallic plate. The sparks observed in the secondary were then very 
feeble, and the air space was increased until they disappeared. The 
primary conductor was then gradually moved away from the wall, when 
isolated sparks were soon observed in the secondary, passing into a 
continuous stream when the primary was between 1.5 and 2 meters from 
the wall;—that is, at the point B. This might have been supposed to 
be due to the decrease in the distance between the two conductors, ex- 
cept that as the primary conductor was moved still further from the 
wall the sparking again diminished, and disappeared when the primary 
was at the point C. After passing this point the sparking continually 
increased as the primary approached nearer to the secondary. These 
experiments were found to be easy to repeat with smaller apparatus, and 
the results obtained confirmed the former conclusion, that the position 
- of the nodes depends only on the dimensions of the conductor, and not 
on the material of the reflecting wall. 

Dr. Hertz points out that these phenomena, which are exactly anal- 
ogous to the acoustical experiment of approaching a vibrating tuning- 
fork to a wall, when the sound is weakened in certain positions and 
strengthened in others, and also to the optical phenomena illustrated in 
Lloyds form of Fresnel’s mirror experiments; and as these are accepted as 
arguments tending to prove that sound and lightare due to vibration, his 


190 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


investigations give a strong support to the theory that the propagation 
of electro-magnetic induction also takes place by means of waves. They 
therefore afford a confirmation of the Faraday-Maxwell theory of elec- 
trical action. He points out however that Maxwell’s, in common with 
other electrical theories, leads to the conclusion that electricity travels 
through wires with the velocity of light, a conclusion which his experi- 
ments show to be untrue. He states that he intends to make this con- 
tradiction between theory and experiment the subject of further inves- 
tigation. 


REPETITION OF HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS, 
AND DETERMINATION OF THE DIRECTION OF THE VIBRATION OF LIGHT.* 
By FREDERICK T. TROUTON. 


Since last October (1888), Professor Fitzgerald and I have been re- 
peating some of Professor Hertz’s experiments, as occasion allowed, 
and it may not be without interest at the present time to give a short 
account of our work. 

The first experiment tried was the interference of direct electro-mag- 
netic radiation with that retlected from a metallic sheet. This experi- 
ment is analogous to that known in optics as “ Lloyd’s experiment.” 

The radiation was produced by disturbances caused in the surround. 
ing space by electrical oscillations in a conductor. It was arranged in 
this wise. Two thin brass plates, about 40 centimeters square, were 
suspended by silk threads at about 60 centimeters apart, so as to be in 
the same plane. Each plate carried a stiff wire furnished at the end 
with a brass knob. The knobs were about 5 millimeters apart, so that 


Fre. 1. 


on electrifying one plate a spark could easily pass to the other. This 
spark, as is well known, consists not simply of a transference of half 
the electricity of the first plate to the second—though this, whici is 
the final state, is all that is observable by ordinary experimental meth- 
ods—but the whole charge passes across to the second plate, then re- 
turns, and so on, pendulum-fashion, the moving part of the charge 
becoming less each time, till finally brought to rest, the energy set free 
at sparking being converted partly into heat in the wire and air break, 
partly into radiation into space, or in terms of action at a distance in 
inducing currents in other bodies. 

The time taken by the charge to pass over to the second plate and to 
return, is a definite thing for a given sized arrangement, and depends 
on the connection between them. If C be the capacity of the plates, 
and I the self-induction of the connection, the time of each complete 
oscillation equals 27 ¥Y (CI). The time in the case of the particular ar- 


—— _ 


*From Nature, Feb. 21, 1889, vol. Xxx1x, pp. 391-393. 
191 


192 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL. WAVES. 


rangement used is (speaking roughly) about the s5-go505 (one/thirty- 
millionth) of a second. 

If there be conductors in the neighborhood of this ‘ vibrator,” cur- 
rents will as usual be induced in each on every passage of the charge 
between the plates, each passage serving simply as a primary current. 

Now, speaking briefly, the whole object of the experiment is to find 
out if these induced currents take place simultaneously in conductors 
situated at various distances from the primary current, and if not, to 
determine the delay. In order to do this we must, in the first place, be 
possessed of some means of even ascertaining that these currents occur, 
all ordinary methods being inadequate for detecting currents lasting 
only for such exceedingly short periods as these do. By devising how 
to determine the existence of these currents, Hertz made the experi- 
ment possible. 

His method depends on the principle of resonance, previously sug- 
gested by Fitzgerald, and his current-observing apparatus is simply a 
conductor, generally a wire bent into an unclosed circle, which is of such 
a length that if a current be induced in it by a passage of a charge 
across the ‘‘ vibrator” the return current or rush back of the electricity 
thus produced in the ends of the wire occurs simultaneously with the 
next impulse, due to the passage back across the “ vibrator.” 

In this way the current in the ‘‘ resonator” increases every time, so 
that at last the end charges, which are always of opposite sign, grow 
to be so great that sparks will actually occur if the ends of the wire are 
broughtnear together. Thus Hertz surmounted the difficulty previously 
experienced by Fitzgerald when proposing electro-magnetic interference 
experiments. 

The time of vibration in this circle is, as before, 27 V (C1), but on account 
of difficulties in calculating these quantities themselves, the length of the 
wire is most readily found by trial. To suit the “ vibrator” we used, it 
was about 210 centimeters of wire No. 17. The ends of the wire were 
furnished with small brass knobs, which could be adjusted as to dis- 
tance between them, by a screw arrangement, the whole being mounted 
on a cross of wood for convenience in varrying about. 

At first sight the simplest “‘ resonator” to adopt would seem to be 
two more plates arranged similarly to the “ vibrator,” but it will be seen 
on consideration that it would not do, because no break for seeing the 
sparking could be put between the plates, for if it were, the first in- 
duced current would be too feeble to jump the break, so that the re- 
enforcement stage could never begin.* 

The charging of the “vibrator” was effected by connecting the ter- 
minals of an induction-coil with the plates. In this way a continuous 
shower of sparks could be ee in the IESE circle. 





* Homes two pairs een ena in the ‘hes pairs aonneciedh by a a wire, could prob- 
ably be got to spark between the center plates, 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 193 


The circle in the interference experiment was held in the horizontal 
plane containing the axis of the “ vibrator,” the ends of the circle of 
wire being in such a position that a line joining the knobs was at right 
angles to the “vibrator.” In this position only the magnetic part of 


ee 

Fig. 2. 
the disturbance could affect the circle, the ‘‘ magnetic lines of force,” 
which are concentric circles about the axis of the ‘“‘ vibrator,” passing 
through the “resonator” circles. 

When the knobs of the circle are brought round through 90°, so as 
to be parallel to the “vibrator,” the electric part of the disturbance 
comes into play, the electric lines of force being, on the whole, parallel 
to the axis of the “vibrator.” The electric action alone can cause a 
forced vibration in the knobs, even when the connecting wire is re- 
moved, if placed fairly close to the ‘* vibrator.” 

Again, if the knobs be kept in this position, but the cirele be turned 
through 90°, so that its plane is vertical, only the electric part can act, 
the magnetic lines of force just grazing the circle. In this way the dis- 
turbance can be analyzed into its magnetic and electric constituents. 

Lastly, if the knobs be in the first position, while the circle is vertical, 
there will be no action. 

To exhibit these alone forms an interesting set of experiments. It 
also makes a very simple and beautiful experiment to take a wire 
twice as long and fix it instead of the first, but with two turns instead 
of one; no sparking is then found to occur. This is of course quite 
opposed to all ordinary notions, double the number of turns being 
always expected to give double the electro-motive force. In this way 
the reality of the resonance is easily shown. 


Interference experiment.—The sparking of course becomes less in- 
tense as the resonator is carried away from the “ vibrator,” but by 
screwing the knobs nearer together it was possible to get sparks at 6 
and 7metersaway. On bringing alarge sheet of metal (3 meters square, 
consisting of sheet zinc) immediately behind the “ resonator,” when in 
sparking position, the sparking increased in brightness, and allowed 
the knobs to be taken further apart without the sparking ceasing ; but 
when the sheet was placed at about 2.5 meters further back, the spark- 

H. Mis, 224——138 


194 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


ing ceased, and could not be obtained again by screwing up the knebs. 
On the other hand, when the sheet was placed at double this distance 
(about 5 meters), the sparking was slightly greater than without the 
sheet. 

Now these three observations can only be explained by the interference 
and re-enforcement of a direct action of the “ vibrator” with one re- 
flected from the metallic sheet, and in addition by the supposition that 
the action spreads out from the vibrator at a finite velocity. Accord- 
ing to this explanation, in the first position the reflected part combines 
with the direct and reinforces its effects. In the second position (that 
of no sparking), the reflected effect in going to the sheet and returning 
has taken half the time of a complete vibration of the “ vibrator,” and 
so is in the phase opposite to the incident wave, and consequently inter- 
feres with it. 

If it were possible to tell the direction of the current in a “ resona- 
tor” at any moment, then, by employing two of them, apd placing one 
just so much beyond the other that the currents induced in them were 
always in opposite directions, we would obtain directly the half-way 
length. Now by reflection, we virtually are put in possession of two 
‘‘resonators,” which we are enabled to place at this distance apart, al- 
though unable to tell more than whether there be a current or not. 

The distance from the position of interference to the sheet is a quar- 
ter of the wave-length, being half the distance between these simulta- 
neous positions of opposite effects. 

In the third position, the reflected wave meets the effect of the next 
current but one, in the “ vibrator,” after the current it itself emanated 
from, and since these two currents are in the same direction, their effects 
re-enforce each other in the “resonator.” This occurs at half the wave- 
length from the sheet. 

The first two observations alone could be explained by action at a 
distance, by supposing the currents induced in the metallic sheet to 
oppose the direct action in the “resonator” everywhere, and by also 
supposing that in the immediate neighborhood of the sheet, the direct 
action is overmastered by that from the sheet, while at 2.5 meters away 
the two just neutralize each other. 

On this explanation, at all distances further the direct action should 
be opposed by that from the sheet, so that the fact of being increased 
at 5 meters upsets this explanation. Again, behind the sheet, evidently 
on this supposition, the two actions should combine so as to increase 
the sparking, but instead of this the sparking was found to cease on 
placing the sheet in front of the “ resonator.” 

In performing these experiments, the “resonator” circle was always 
placed in the position in which only the magnetic part of the disturb- 
ance had effect. Hertz has also used the other positions of the resonat- 
ing circle, whereby he has observed the existence of an electric dis- 
turbance coincident with the magnetic one, the two together forming 
the complete electro-magnetic wave. . 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 195 


Ordinary masonry walls were found to be transparent to radiation of 
this wave-length (that is, of about 10 meters), and some visitors to the 
opening meeting of the Dublin University Experimental Society, last 
November, were much astonished by seeing the sparking of the resonating 
circle out in the College Park, while the vibrator was in the laboratory. 

Attempts were first made !ast December to obtain reflection from the 
surface of a non-conductor, with the hope of deciding by direct experi- 
ment whether the magnetic or electric disturbance was in the plane of 
polarization; that is, to find out whether the ‘“ axis of the vibrator” 
should be at right angles to the plane of reflection or in it, when at the 
polarizing angle, for obtaining a reflected radiation. It is to be ob- 
served that in these radiations the electric vibration is parallel to the 
‘axis of the vibrator” while the magnetic is perpendicular to it, and 
that they are consequently polarized in the same sense as light is said 
to be polarized. 

Two large glass doors were taken down and used for this purpose, 
but without success; and until lately, when reflection from a wall was 
tried, the experiment seemed unlikely to be successful. 

In working with the glass plate, the resonator circle was first placed 
so that the “ vibrator” had no effect on it. Then the glass plate was 
carried into position for reflection, but without result, though even the 
reflection from the attendants moving it was amply sufficient to be 
easily detected. 

To obviate a difficulty arising from the fact that the wave was diverg- 
ent, we decided to try Hertz’s cylindrical parabolic mirrors, for concen- 
trating the radiation. Two of these were made with sheets of zine 
nailed to wooden frames, cut to the parabo)ic shape required. 

In the “ focal line” (which was made 12.5 centimeters from the vertex) 
of one of these, a ‘“‘ vibrator” was placed, consisting of 
two brass cylinders in line, each about 12 centimeters 
long and 3 centimeters in diameter, rounded at the spark- 
ing ends. 

In order that the *‘ resonator” wire may lie in the ‘ focal 
line” of the receiving mirror, it has to be straight; this 
necessitates having two of them. They each consist of 
a thick wire 50 centimeters long, lying in the * focal line,” 
and of a thin wire, 15 centimeters long, attached to one 
end at right angles, and which passes out to the back of 
the mirror through a hole in the zine, where the sparking 
can be viewed, without obstructing the radiation in front. 
The total length of each ‘‘ resonator ” is about two wave- O 
lengths, the wave-length being about 33 centimeters, so 
that it may be that there are two vibrating segments in 
each of these ‘“ resonators.” 

With this apparatus it is possible to deal with definite 
angles of incidence. No effect was obtained with glass plates using 


‘ MWe. > 





Side elevation:. 


Fic. 3.—Plan. 


196 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


these mirrors, whether the “‘ vibrator” was perpendicular to the plane 
of reflection or in it. But with a wall 3 feet thick reflection was ob- 
tained, when the “ vibrator” was perpendicular to the plane of reflec- 
tion; but none, at least at the polarizing angle,* when turned through 
90° so as to be in it. 

This decides the point in question, the magnetic disturbance being 
found to be in the plane of polarization, the electric at right angles. 
Why the glass did not reflect was probably due to its thinness, the re- 
flection from the front interfering with that from the back, this latter 
losing half a wave-length in reflection at a surface between a dense and 
a rare medium; and, as Mr. Joly pointed out, is in that case like the 
black spot in Newton’s rings, or more exactly so, the black seen in very 
thin soap-bubbles. 





Fig. 4. 


Hertz has pointed ont several important things to be guarded 
against in making these experiments. Ultra-violet light, for exam- 
ple, falling on the ‘‘vibrator,” prevents it working properly, the spark- 
ing in the resonator ceasing or becoming poor. Also the knobs of the 
‘‘ vibrator” must be cleaned of burnt metal, and polished every quarter 
of an hour at least, to prevent a like result. 

Both these effects probably arise, as suggested by Mr. Fitzgerald, 
from a sort of initial brush discharging (either ultra-violet light or 
points being capable of doing this), which prevents the discharging im- 
pulse being sufficiently sudden to start the oscillation in the ‘ vibra- 
tor.” For to start a vibration, the time of impulse must be short com- 
pared with the time of oscillation. These precautions therefore become 
especially needful when working with small-sized “ vibrators.” Possibly 
charging the “vibrator” very suddenly, after the manner of one of 
Dr. Lodge’s anti-lightning-rod experiments, would save the irksome 
necessity of repeatedly cleaning the knobs of the “ vibrator.” 

Several important problems seem to be quite within reach of solution 
by means of these Hertziau waves, such for instance as dispérsion. 
Thus it could be tried whether placing between the reflector and the 
“resonator” conducting bodies of nearly the same period of vibration 
as the waves used would necessitate the position of the ‘ resonator” 


*Slight reflection was obtained at an incidence of 70°. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 197 


being changed so as to retain complete interference. Or again, 
whether interspersing throughout the mass of a large Hertzian piteh- 
prism, conductors with nearly the same period would alter the angle 
of refraction. In some such way as this, anomalous dispersion, with 
its particular case of ordinary dispersion, may yet be successfully 
imitated. 

The determining the rate of propagation through a large tile, or sheet 
of sandstone, could be easily made by means of the interference experi- 
ment, by placing it between the screen and the “resonator.” 


EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTRO-MAGNETIC RADIATION, 
INCLUDING SOME OF THE PHASE OF SECONDARY WAVES.* 


In continuation of some experiments which were described in Nature, 
vol. XXXIX, p. 391 (‘¢ Repetition of Hertz’s Experiments and Determina- 
tion of the Direction of the Vibration of Light”), attempts were made to 
obtain periodic reflection of electric radiation from plates of different 
thicknesses, analogous to Newton’s rings, with the view of further 
identifying these radiations with “light.” 

It was there described how a sheet of window-glass refused to reflect 
the Hertzian waves, but how a masonry wall reflected them readily. 
The non-reflection from the thin sheet is due to the interference of the 
reflected waves from each side which takes place owing to a change of 
phase of half a period on reflection at the second surface, as in the black 
spot of Newton’s rings. 

By making the reflection plate such a thickness that the reflection 
from the back has to travel half a wave-length farther than that from 
the front, the two reflections ought to be in accordance, for they differ 
by a whole period, half arising from difference in path, and half from 
change of phase on reflection; but if the difference in paths were made 
a whole wave-length by doubling the thickness of the plate, there ought 
again to be interference, and so on. 

The first plan tried with this end in view, was to fill a large wooden 
tank to different depths with water or other liquids. On gradually fill- 
ing the tank reflection should be obtained, and at a certain depth equal 
to4 (A seer) + p, reach a maximum; further addition of the liquid 
then should diminish the reflection, and at double the above depth the 
reflection should reach a minimum, the two waves interfering. 

The mirrors for concentrating the radiation had for this purpose to 





* From Nature, August 22, 1889, vol. xL, pp. 398-400, 


198 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


’ be suspended over the tank as shown in the figure. The tank was first 
tried empty, but unfortunately the wooden bottom was found to reflect, 





° 49 a 


Mais = 


Fia. 5. 


thus it was useless for the purpose intended. I then tried what ought 
to have been tried before constructing the tank, namely—whether or- 
dinary boards, such as flooring, reflected. The floor was found to 
reflect readily. This was attributed to moisture in the wood causing it 
to conduct, specially as wood was found not to polarize by reflection. 
Experiments were then undertaken to determine if water reflected, even 
though in thin sheets. <A large glass window was placed beneath the 
mirrors and flooded with water; this was found to reflect well, both 
when the mirrors were in the position shown and when rotated to the 
position “at right angles.” Thus water also acts like a metal, reflect- 
ing the radiation however polarized. The glass had to be hardly more 
than damp to get some reflection. 

The wooden tank being unsuitable, a glass tank was thought of, but 
was given up for solid. paraffine, which, being in slabs, could be easily 
built up into a vertical wall of any desired thickness. Through the 
kindness of Mr. Rathborne a large quantity of this was lent for the pur- 
pose. 

A thin sheet of paraffine about 2 centimeters thick was found not to 
reflect, as was expected. Next a wall 13 centimeters thick (180 centi- 
meters long, 120 centimeters high) was tried, and found to reflect, this 
being the thickness required in order to add another half period to the 
retardation of the wave reflected from the back at an incident angle of 
55°, the wave-length being taken as 66 centimeters, and the index of 
refraction being taken as 1.51, the square root of 2.29, the value taken 
as the specific inductive capacity of paraffine. 

Then a wall twice the thickness was tried, but it also reflected, con- | 
trary to expectation. While in doubt as to the cause of this, it was de- | 
cided to make a determination by direct experiment of the index of re- 
fraction of paraffine for these waves, by a method suggested in Nature 
(vol. XXXIX, p. 393), which consists in interposing a sheet or wall of par- 
affine between the resonator and the metallic reflection in the Hertzian 
experiment of loops and nodes which are formed by the interference of 
the reflected wave with the direct radiation; the ratio of the velocity 
in the wall to that in the air being easily found from the observed shift- 
ing of the loops and nodes towards the screen. 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 199 


In this way the index of refraction for the radiation of the period em- 
ployed was found to be about 1.8, so that the paraffine walls which had 
been used were too thick, the proper thickness being about 10 and 20 
centimeters—exactly so for an incident angle of 51°. On making this 
alteration I fancied I could detect a slight difference between the re- 
flections from the thick and thinner walls; still the difference was 
not sufficient to be at all satisfactory. The nature of the observing 
apparatus makes it almost impossible to say if the reflection on one oc- 
casion is more intense or less so than on another so long as sparks can 
be obtained. This is due to the sparking-point in the receiving appa- 
ratus continually requiring re-adjustment when working with small 
sparks, as the distance between them changes either from shaking or 
from the points getting burnt up.* Dust, and moisture from the ob- 
server’s breath, are also troublesome. Thus it might be quite possible 
that the points had always to be much closer with the 20-centimeter 
wall than with the 10-centimeter wall in order to get sparks, and yet 
the difference escape detection; the thing observed being whether 
sparks can be obtained or not, theeye being incapable of comparing with 
any degree of accuracy the intensity of light on one occasion with that 
on another. 

However, if it had been possible to suddenly change the wall, while 
viewing the sparking, from being 10 to 20 centimeters, it would have 
been easy to detect any difference which might have existed, but un- 
fortunately it took some little time to alter the wall. 

In order to obviate this difficulty the following device was resorted 
to with the object of showing that there was a difference in the be- 
havior of the wall when 10 centimeters thick to its behavior when 20 
centimeters thick. (For at the time I did not see that the experiment 
was inconclusive, the effects observed being the same whether the back 
reflected at all or not.) A small sheet of zine was placed at the back 
of the wall, and the effect on the sparking observed while an attend- 
ant suddenly removed or again replaced the zine. It was supposed 
that when the wall was 20 centimeters thick, and there was sparking, 
that on suddenly placing the zine on the back the sparking would in- 
crease, owing to the phase of the reflection from the back being half 
a period different from that of the reflection from the zine; but when 
the wall was 10 centimeters thick that the presence of the zine would 
diminish the sparking. 

It was with no little surprise that the reverse was observed. That 
is to say, placing a sheet of zinc about 30 centimeters square on the 
back of the wall actually aided the reflection from the back so as to 
diminish the sparking with the 20-centimeter wall, but increasing it 
with the 10-centimeter wall. This observation made it look as if it 
must be on the first reflection from the paraffine (that is to say, on 





* With very small sparks the thermal expansion must be counteracted by unscrew- 
ing. 


200 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


passing from a rare to adense medium) that the ‘ change of phase” 
occurs, and not at the back (at a reflection from a dense to a rare med- 
ium), as is ordinarily supposed. For Hertz’s experiment of loops and 
nodes showed that there was no change of phase on metallic reflection, 
that is, of the magnetic displacement; there is a change of phase of the 
electric displacement. It is important to bear in mind that the electric 
loop and the magnetic node occurred at the same place, and of course 
so too the electric node and the magnetic loop. 

In order to investigate this, attempts were made to obtain Hertz’s 
loops and nodes off a paraffine wall as reflector, but no reflection could 
be discovered, the intensity of the vertically reflected rays being !n- 
sufficient. However, by inclining the incident radiation to an angle of 
57°, the intensity of the reflection was found to be amply sufficient. 





Fia. 6. 


With a eireular resonator, which is for these waves about 10 centime- 
tres in diameter, sparks were obtained close to the retleetor, the circle 
being held at right angles to the wall so as to be equally inclined to 
both direct and reflected radiation, and this was confirmed by a straight 
resonator giving none there. At 30 centimeters from the wall* there 
was interference with the circle, and vigorous sparking with the 
straight resonator. This being about the right distance for the loop to 
be from the reflector at an incident angle of 57°, : 


SA =14 I = psec ui + cos 22) = 2p cos 2. 


Thus there is no doubt that it is on the second reflection that the 
change of phase occurs. 

Here then was a difficulty; the small sheet of zine at the back of 
the paraffin undoubtedly reflected with a change of phase, while, ac- 
cording to the Hertzian experiment, metallic reflection is unaccompa- 
nied by change of phase. On mentioning this to Professor Fitzgerald, he 
pointed out to me its complete agreement with wave theory. For by 
considering the secondary waves produced by dividing up a primary 
wave with reference to any point into half-period zones, it can be 
seen that the effect of the primary is equivalent to half of that arising 


*It would occur at about 17 centimeters on vertical reflection. This experiment 
was also tried with a metallic reflector. 


evecare 


Tew ops. 


7S 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 201 


from the central circle, and in consequence is half a period behind the 
phase which would be at the point if an infinitesimal portion of the 
center alone acted. For the effect of each ring can be considered as 
destroyed by half the effect of its two neighbors, and thus half the 





FIG. 7. 


effect of the central circle is left uncompensated. But the distance of 
the edge of this circle is half a wave-length farther from the point 
than its center is, so that the resultant phase at the point will be be- 
hind that due to the center, but in front of that due to the edge, which 
effect would be half a period behind that arising from the center. 
Taking the mean between them, the resultant phase then at the point 
is a quarter of a period* behind what it would be if the center alone 
acted. Thus it was that the reflection from the small sheet of zine 
differed from what I had expected it to be. 


Experiment showing phase of secondary waves.—To experimentally 
test this, the small sheet of zine was used as reflector in the Hertzian 
experiment of loops and nodes. Employing the circular resonator, the 
position of interference was found to have shifted out from 17 to over 
24 centimeters, which nearly corresponds to an acceleration of phase 
of a quarter of a period, the wave going in all nearly a quarter of a 
wave-length farther, and nevertheless being still only half a period 
behind the phase on starting. The farthest out the loop could be is 
25.5 centimeters: to obtain this would require an indefinitely small re- 
flector. Of course, when the resonator was close in to the sheet, no 
change of phase was found to occur, the sheet being then practically 
infinite. 

Another interesting observation was made. A long sheet of zinc, 
30 centimeters wide, was found to act similarly to the sheet 30° 
centimeters square, provided it was placed with its breadth parallel to 
the electric displacement. When thus placed at 24 centimeters from 
the circular “ resonator,” there was interference, but on rotating the 
reflector so as its length was parallel to the electric displacement, 
sparking occurred, and now the “resonator” had to be brought back 
to 17 centimeters in order to again obtain interference. This experi- 


* That it aided the back rather than the front was probably due to their phase not 
being an exact period or half period different from each other. 


202 HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 


ment is interesting in connection with the electro-magnetic way of 
looking at the acceleration of phase as being due to the accumulations 
of electricity on the edges of the reflector, which is the same as the 
reason why it is necessary to use long cylindrical mirrors, as was pointed 
out by Professor Hertz in a letter last February to Professor Fitz- 
gerald. This experiment is really the same as Stokes’s experimentum 
crucis, aS Professor Fitzgerald points out. 

If instead of using the whole primary wave in the former experiment, 
it be passed through a screen with a hole in it (either square or a 
long slit at right angles to the electric displacement), the position of 
interference, as might be anticipated, was not shifted out as much as 
before.- In the rough experiment made, it was found to occur at about 
19 centimeters from the screen. 

It was now thought well to repeat the determination of the index of 
refraction with a larger wall and metallic reflector than had been used 
before, as this change of phase might have affected the former re- 
sults. But it was found that it had not done so to a sensible extent. 
However, the result of these new experiments was finally to give tor 
paraffin, « = 1.75, and at the same time it was found that the wave- 
length given by the “ vibrator” was 68 and not 66 centimeters, as had 
been assumed. 

Two new knobs for the “ vibrator” had been made, and the fact had 
been overlooked that they were slightly larger than the old ones, which 
gave a wave-length of 66 centimeters. These new knobs were electro- 
plated with gold, and were a great saving of trouble, as they could be 
cleaned by merely rubbing with paper; apparently, the gold carried 
across by the sparking (in the form of a black powder) coming off,—* 
but some may have re-burnished on. It was a curious thing that if the 
knobs were left uncleaned over night, the next morning it was very 
hard to get the black off,—some molecular change probably occur 
ring. 

If the value of . thus found be not in some way due to the paraffin 
being in separate blocks, it would show a remarkable anomalous dis- 
persion for paraffin near these curiously slow vibrations, and as sug- 
gested by Professor Fitzgerald, may be connected with the vibration 
periods of atoms in the molecule, as it can hardly be connected with the 
vibrations in the atoms themselves. It might be interesting to inves- 
tigate whether these slow vibrations could cause dissociation, and thus 
lead to a photographic method of observing them. It may also be 
allied with ordinary electrolysis by very long period currents, as is 
also suggested by Professor Fitzgerald. 

Assuming yo =1.75,* and A4=68 centimeters, the thicknesses of the 
walls in the ‘‘ Newton’s ring” experiment, as above described, were wrong. 
However, it was found more convenient to alter the angle of incidence to 





“This value agrees with polarization experiments. No reflection was obtained at 
its corresponding angle, while at tan-! 1.51 some sparks were occasionally seen. 


a“ 


HERTZ’S RESEARCHES ON ELECTRICAL WAVES. 203 


suit the walls than to change the thickness of the walls. Thus, the 
mirrors were put at 25°, which is the proper angle with the above data 
for 10 centimeter and 20 centimeter walls. On now repeating the ex- 
periment, better results were obtained than I should have anticipated. 
When the wall was 10 centimeters thick, continuous sparking was 
easily obtained, but when 20 centimeters thick, it was only after much 
adjustment and patience that perhaps one slight spark could be ob- 
tained. This was quite sufficient, considering the nature of the wall, for 
it was only built up of plates, which afforded internal reflections, weak- 
ening the transmitted rays, and also since it requires the sum of the 
effect arising from the multiple reflections back and forward inside the 
wall to completely interfere with the front, and some of these are lost 
at the edge of the beam. 


> 4 fd 
. i Siti “ 
roe 






+ 


25, 


vis ; > a guct 









PAE! Bek ST 





PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


By GEORGE E. CURTIS. 


I.—INSTITUTIONS; INTERNATIONAL POLAR WORK; NECROLOGY. 


U. S. Signal Office—The work of the year has been prosecuted with 
no important change in the personnel of the office. 

Professor Abbe has completed a report entitled ‘‘ Preparatory Studies 
for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions” which ap- 
pears as appendix 15, annual report for 1889. 

A limited number of lithographic copies of that portion ot the bibli- 
ography of meteorology covering temperature and moisture have been 
issued under the editorship of Mr. O. L. Fassig, librarian and biblio- 
grapher. 

New life has been infused into the river and flood service by Pro- 
fessor Russell, to whom the work has been intrusted, and it is now for 
the first time being conducted from the stand-point of scientific hydrol- 
ogy. The inter-relation of rainfall, evaporation, and discharge has 
been investigated, and the results, which are of as great value as the 
data now at hand admit, are published in appendix No. 14 of the an- 
nual report. 

The instrument division, under the direction of Professor Marvin, has 
not only raised the standard of the instrumental work of the service 
by greater perfection in the details of operation, but has accomplished 
much valuable work, both theoretical and practical, in the perfecting 
of new instruments, and in the development of improved methods for 
the reduction and treatment of instrumental records. 

Capt. H. H. C. Dunwoody has been in the charge of the weekly weather 
crop bulletin, and of the work co-operative with the State weather ser- 
vices, of which latter the field of operation and usefulness have been 
largely extended during the past few years. 

A valuable compilation of the rainfall statistics of the Pacifie slope 
has been made, largely by Lieut. W. A. Glassford, and is published as 
a Congressional document. (1888). 

The weather forecasts during the year have apparently not increased 
in accuracy. 

Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory.—The observations for 1887 and 
1888 have been published in extenso in quarto form as parts I and II, 
vol. xx, of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard 

é 205 


206 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


College. The director, Mr. A. L. Rotch, by his own private munificence 
in the establishment and equipment of this observatory, has made it a 
model of its kind, comparable with the best observatories of foreign 
meteorological institutions. The personal inspection of European ob- 
servatories made by Mr. Rotch has enabled him to incorporate their 
best features in his own methods and equipment, and in the form of 
publication of results. The staff of the observatory has remained un- 
changed, with Mr. H. Helm Clayton as observer, and Mr. Fergusson as 
assistant. , 

The present volumes contain, besides the more usual observations 
and their summaries, hourly precipitation; hourly wind azimuths and 
movements; number of hours of prevalence of each wind direction ; 
days of visibility of western mountains; hourly sunshine; hourly cloud 
observations from 8 A. M. to 11 P.M.; appendices in the volume for 1887, 
containing comparisons of thermometer shelters; investigations of nor- 
mal and abnormal temperature differences between the base and sum- 
mit; and meteorograms illustrating special phenomena. Of the ob- 
servations above enumerated, the hourly cloud observations deserve 
special mention because of the indefatigable industry and enthusiasm 
necessary to their prosecution, and because of the interesting and im- 
portant results that promise to be developed from their discussion. 

Indian meteorological service.—The Report on the Administration of 
the Meteorological Department of the Government of India in 1887~88 
describes the actual working of the department and the condition of 
the observatories, and contains extracts from the reports of the inspec- 
tion of the stations. Mr. Eliot has discontinued solar and terrestrial 
radiation observations except at a few selected stations. The calcula- 
tion of daily averages, and the extension and improvement of the meth- 
ods of collecting rainfall data have been undertaken. An observatory 
has been opened at Bagdad, and the question of establishing one at 
Perim, at the entrance of the Red Sea, has been suggested by the Eng- 
lish Meteorological Council. 

The International Meteorological Committee held a meeting at Zurich, 
September 3-5, 1888, at which the following resolution was adopted : 

‘The committee, in view of the circumstance that the assembling of 
an international meeting of the same character as the congress at Vienna 
and Rome presents great difficulties, considers that the commission it 
received at Rome is exhausted and that it ought to dissolve itself. 

‘“ At the same time, in order to continue the relations between the 
different meteorological organizations that have been productive of 
such good results during a series of years, the committee appoints a 
small bureau with the duty of using its best endeavors to bring about, 
at some convenient time, an international meeting of representatives of 
the different meteorological services.” 

By a subsequent resolution the burean was made to consist of the 
president and secretary of the committee, Professor Wild and Mr. 
Scott. (Nature, Xxxviil, p. 491.) ° 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 206 


The third general assembly of the Italian Meteorological Society, which 
is held every three years, met in Venice from 14th to 21st September, 
1888. 

The subjects of the programme were divided into four classes : 

(1) General meteorology ; (2) agricultural meteorology and phenol- 
ogy; (3) medical meteorology and hydrology ; (4) geodynamics. 

Among others, papers were presented upon the following topics: 

General meteorology and climatology.—New studies and experiments 
of Prof. L. Palmieri on the origin of atmospheric electricity reported 
by Prof. Del Gaizo, of Naples. Results of the magnetic observations 
conducted at one hundred and sixty-three stations by P. Denza. Re- 
sults of the meteorological observations made at the suggestion of the 
Society upon two Italian steamers, the Generale and the Veloce, extend- 
ing through forty-three voyages in 1887. The helio-photometric observa- 
tions of Prof. Friedrich Craveri, at the observatory of Bra, conducted 
since 1874 with a helio-photometer of his own construction. Two papers 
by Professor Busin, of Rome, upon the distribution of temperature in 
Italy, and upon the high and low pressures of the northern hemisphere. 
Notes by Professor Galli and by Professor Golfarelli upon the hourly 
velocity of the wind and upon lightning conductors. Professor Roberto 
described a new hygrometer. 

Agricultural meteorology.—P. Ferrari, of Rome, gave an exposition of 
the present applications of meteorology to the interests of agriculture. 

Medical meteorology and hydrology.—Discussion arose upon the dis- 
position and classification of climatie stations. P. Siciliani, of Bologna, 
presented a paper on the relation between the height of water in wells 
and the air pressure. P. Bertelli took up the theories that assume 
electricity as the principal cause of earth tremors, and demonstrated 
their improbkability. P. Denza had a paper on the more important 
earthquakes of 1887. 

An Intercolonial Meteorological Congress was held at the Melbourne 
Observatory September 11-15, 1888, at which all the Australian colo- 
nies, New Zealand, and Tasmania were represented. The question of 
thermometer exposure was discussed at length. Mr. Todd considered 
it impossible for any one to say positively what is the best form of ex- 
posure, but had himself fully tested the Stevenson stand and shoald 
adopt it for his out-stations. Various other questions were discussed, 
including the relation of climatologic observations to hygiene, and the 
reduction of the barometer to sea-level. 

International Meteorological Tables.—The International Meteorological 
Committee has published the collection of tables that have been in 
course of preparation for several years. They fill 400 quarto pages and 
the volume is sold for 35 tranes. The tables include the reduction of 
both temperature and pressure to sea-level, conversion tables, units of 
measure, geodetic measures, hygrometric tables, and tables for the re- 
duction of wind, rain, evaporation, magnetism, and electricity. 


208 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


The sixth volume of the Reports of the International Bureau of 
Weights and Measures contains three papers of importance to instru- 
mental meteorology in continuation of the valuable memoirs published 
in the preceding volumes, which include researches on the tensions of 
aqueous vapor, on the fixed points of thermometers, on the true 
weight of a litre of air, on the dilatation of mercury, on methods of 
verifying subdivided linear measures, on calibrating thermometers, 
and other thermometrie studies. Of the papersin the new volume that 
are of meteorological interest, one (tome VI, pp. 620) is by Dr. René 
Benoit, on the measurement of dilatations by the method of M. Fizeau ; 
one, on the comparison of mercurial thermometers with the air or hydro- 
gen thermometer, by Dr. P. Chappuis; and a third paper, on practical 
formule for the transformation of thermometric co-efficients, by Dr. A. 
KE. Guillaume. | 

Daily synoptic weather charts for the North Atlantic Ocean, Parts 1 
to 5, September, 1883, to November, 1884, have been published con- 
jointly by the Danish Meteorological Institute, and the Seewarte at 
Hamburg. Each volume contains a carefully prepared summary of the 
principal meteorological features. A novel point in the work is the 
introduction by Dr. Képpen of a new system of discussing the paths 
of storms in which their rate and direction of motion are shown to be 
dependent on surrounding conditions; so that the movement of cy- 
clones is almost entirely dependent on their relation to existing anti- 
eyclones. Dr. Ké6ppen finds one type of conditions to consist of an 
almost stationary anti-cyclone with a cyclone traveling along its bor- 
ders. He then proceeds to represent all periods of this type on one 
chart, the number of such periods in the year ending with August, 
1884, being fifty-seven, each ranging from three to eleven days each. 

The movements of the cyclones during the type are represented by 
lines joining the ascertained positions each day, and by a simple ar- 
rangement the lowest pressure and the wind force are represented 
daily. The anti-cyclones are considered as stationary and the isobar 
of 30.12 inches has been adopted and plotted as the inclosing periphery 
of such areas; itS position is the mean position of that isobar during 
the period; the maximum barometric readings are shown near the 
center, and the direction in which the highest pressures moved. By 
this method the representation of storm tracks has been greatly sim- 
plified. In some special cases one chart has been devoted to a single 
period showing conditions of marked interest. In the study of trop- 
ical cyclones the positions of neighboring anti-cyclonic areas is shown 
to govern the various paths pursued. 

The publication of synoptic weather maps twice a day was begun by 
the Central Physical Observatory May 12, 1889. Tie map covers the 
whole of Europe, and a summary of the weather is given in Russian 
and French. 

Lady Franklin Bay Expedition.—The official report of the Lady Frank- 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 209 


lin Bay Expedition, made by General A. W. Greely, has been published 
in two quarto volumes. The first volume contains the report of the 
commanding officer, and appendices containing detailed reports of spe- 
cial expeditions and the diaries of Lieutenant Lockwood and Sergeant 
Brainard; it is the history of the expedition. The second volume con- 
tains the main scientific results. The meteorological report and tables 
of observation occupy 360 pages. The annual mean temperature for 
three years was —3°.9 F., the lowest mean temperature known for any 
place on the globe. The precipitation was a little less than 4 inches a 
year, and evaporation in winter was found to be inappreciable. Auroras 
were neither frequent nor brilliant. Storms were not especially fre- 
quent or severe. In the winter, calms averaged seventeen hours daily, 
but during the continuous sunlight, only one hour daily. The diurnal 
oscillation of the barometer was less than 0.01 inch. These are a few 
striking results abstracted from this great store-house of arctic meteo- 
rology. Separate chapters are given to the astronomical observations 
for determining geodetic positions, and to the magnetic, tidal, and pen- 
dulum observations which are specially reported upon by the officers 
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A valuable bibliography of arctic 
literature is also given as an appendix. 


M. HERVE MANGON died in Paris May 15,1888. In his death agricult- 
ure and meteorology have lost a most active worker. In 1850 he pub- 
lished his “ Etudes sur les Irrigations dela Campine Belge” and the 
“Travaux Analogues de la Sologne,” which brought about important 
improvements in the French laws in relation to agriculture. Drainage 
was at that time scarcely known in France; in 1851 M. Mangon pub. 
lished a work on the subject which received from the Academy of 
Sciences the decennial prize for the most useful work on agriculture 
issued during the previous ten years. Irrigation and the fertilization 
of land were subjects to which he gave prolonged and careful study. 
These researches were followed by meteorological studies in which he 
took an active interest; he invented or improved many meteorological 
instruments and organized on his estate in Normandy a model meteo- 
rological station provided with the latest scientific improvements; he 
aided in the re-organization of the French Meteorological Service, and 
became the president of the meteorological council. He contributed 
also to the organization of the scientific mission to Cape Horn which 
obtained a large amount of valuable meteorological data. (Nature, 
MOM VILL, ps. 111,) 

Dr. O. J. BrocH, director of the International Bureau of Weights 
and Measures, died at Sevres, February 5, 1889, at the age of seventy- 
one. The memoirs on thermometry published by the bureau during 
his administration have greatly advanced the accurate measurement of 
temperature. 

Prof. EL1As Loomis, the American meteorologist, died at New Haven, 

H. Mis. 224 14 





~ 


210 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


August 15, 1889, at the age of seventy-eight years. For fifty-six years 
Professor Loomis had been engaged in collegiate work and in original re- 
search, having devoted the whole of his strength during the last ten 
years to the completion of his meteorological studies. 

Ina memoir by Prof. H. A. Newton (Am. Journ. Sci., June, 1890) a 
bibliography of Professor Loomis’s writings is given containing 164 titles. 
These include contributions to astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and 
meteorology, and a series of mathematical text-books which attained an 
extensive circulation. 

His first work in terrestrial magnetism consisted in a series of hourly 
observations (seventeen hours each day) of the magnetic needle for a 
period of thirteen months in 1834 and 1835. With exception of a short 
series by Professor Bache this was the earliest series of hourly magnetic 
observations in America, and only one or two ante-dated it in Europe. 

Professor Loomis’s early work in astronomy was likewise at the time 
when that science was having its beginning in this country. Comets, 
shooting stars, and the determination of geodetic positions formed the 
subject of his observations and study. He was among the first to en- 
gage with Professor Bache in the telegraphic determination of longi- 
tudes, several years before the use of the method by European astrono- 
mers. In later years, additional important papers upon the aurora, 
terrestrial magnetism and astronomy followed these early labors. But 
meteorology has been the science to which Professor Loomis devoted 
his best work, and in which he made the most important advances in 
human knowledge. At the beginning of his work not a single law of 
storms was satisfactorily demonstrated. Franklin, in the last century, 
had discovered their progressive motion, and Brandes and Dove (1810- 
1830) had announced their essential character to be that of extended 
whirlwinds (ewirbelstiirme.) Therival theories of Redfield and Espy, the 
former claiming a circular movement of the winds around a storm center, 
and the latter, following Brandes, claiming a radial direction, each had 
its warm supporters, but no decisive victory had been gained by either. 
Professor Loomis’s first meteorological investigations, beginning in 
1837, were directed towards the further study of these unsettled prob- 
lems of storm movement, and his last work a half century later, centered 
in the statistical development of all the phenomena of cyclonic systems. 
This example of patiently sustained scientific labor, directed in certain 
well-marked lines for half a century, is a rich legacy of unselfish devo- 
tion and becomes itself a part of the history of science. 

In his second meteorological paper published in 1840, Professor Loomis 
made a study of astorm occurring near the 20th of December, 183%, adopt- 
ing graphical methods very similar to those principally used by Espy, but 
the results were not entirely satisfactory, and he waited for another oppor- 
tunity for continuing the investigation. This was found in two storms of 
February, 1842. Instead of using the line of minimum depression of the 
barometer, as before, Professor Loomis now drew maps containing lines 


¥ 


. 
fi 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Ziel 


of equal barometric pressure (or more correctly of equal departures from 
the normal) together with wind directions, temperatures, and weather. 

The suggestion of this method of representing barometric observa- 
tions was made by Brandes in 1810 in recommending that observers 
should give in their record books the departure from the normal of 
every barometric observation, and that these departures should form 
the principal data in the study of the compiled data. Whether Pro- 
fessor Loomis was acquainted with this suggestion, does not appear. 
This graphical method is now the essence of the modern weather map, 
and the memoir of 1843 in which the method was presented created a 
profound impression. In his appreciative biographical sketch, Pro- 
fessor Newton expresses his opinion that the introduction of this single 
method of representing and discussing the phenomena of a storm was 
the greatest of the services which Professor Loomis rendered to science. 
Professor Loomis’s own estimate of the method at the time of publica- 
tion was expressed as follows: “It appears to me that if the course of 
investigation adopted with respect to the two storms of February, 1842, 
was systematically pursued we should soon have some settled prinei- 
ples in meteorology. If we could be furnished with two meteorological 
charts of the United States daily tor one year it would settle forever the 
laws of storms. No false theory could stand against such an array of 
testimony. Such aset of maps would be worth more than all which has 
hitherto been done in meteorology. <A well arranged system of observa- 
tions spread over the country would accomplish more in one year than 
observations at a few insulated posts, however accurate and complete, 
continued to the end of time. Is not such an enterprise worthy of the 
American Philosophical Society? If private zeal could be more gener- 
ally enlisted the war might soon be ended, and men would cease to 
ridicule the idea of our being able to predict an approaching storm.” 

Thirty years passed before the system of observations was inaugurated 
and the maps constructed for which Professor Loomis here appealed. 
In 1871 the signal service was established, and as soon as two years’ maps 
had been issued, Professor Loomis turned again, with unabated inter- 
est and enthusiasm, to the work that he began with such scanty mate- 
rial in 1840. For the remaining fifteen years of his life he devoted 
nearly his whole strength to this work. Twenty-three papers, entitled 
Contributions to Meteorology, were published in the American Journal 
of Science, and in 1884 he began a revision of the whole series. This 
revision was arranged in three chapters, covering areas of low pressure, 
areas of high pressure, and rain-fall. Chapters I and I were presented 
to the National Academy in 1885 and 1887, respectively, and chapter rT 
was completed and issued a few weeks before the author’s death. In 
these three monographs is compiled a wealth of statistical data which 
will long afford the observational basis for the explanation of climate 
and for the theoretical study of the atmospheric circulation and the 
phenomena of storms. 


212 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


I].—GENERAL TREATISES; CLIMATE; WEATHER PREDICTIONS AND 
VERIFICATIONS. 


Contributions to Meteorology, by Elias Loomis. Chapters 0 and III 
of Professor Loomis’s revision of his Contributions to Meteorology have 
been issued during 1859.—Chapter I, previously published in Vol. 1 
of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, treats of areas 
of low pressure—their form, magnitude, direction, and velocity of move- 
ment. Chapter I1 treats, similarly, of areas of high pressure, and of 
the relation of areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Chap- 
ter 111, which completes the revision, treats of rain-fall ; the conditions 
favorable and the conditions unfavorable to rain-fall are enumerated, 
and their application is shown in a survey of the more striking feat- 
ures of the mean annual rain-fall of different countries. Special study 
is made of individual rain-falls in the United States, in Europe, and 
over the Atlantic Ocean, and fruitful suggestions are offered towards 
a physical explanation of the characteristic features of individual cases. 

In this revision the earlier series of papers are reduced to a more 
systematic form, new researches and results are introduced based on 
later and more extended data, and the text is accompanied by a large 
number of elegantly printed illustrative plates. Chapter III is accom- 
panied by a rain-fall map of the world and by rain-fall maps of India 
and California, which present features of special interest. The whole 
forms a great compendium of meteorological results derived by statis- 
tical methods and inductive processes from the modern weather map. 

Meteorologia Generale, Luigi de Marchi, Milano, 1888, 160 pages.— 
The author has brought together in this brief compendium, in a thor- 
oughly scientific and quite original way, the most important principles 
of meteorology. The book is divided into four parts. The first, enti- 
tled “Air and the Atmosphere,” treats of the physical properties of 
the air. The second part treats of the conditions of equilibrium and 
of motion in the air, and is composed of three chapters: Air pressure 
and wind; causes of motion, laws of motion. The third part takes 
up the meteorological factors which depend upon the normal distribu- 
tion of temperature and the periodic oscillations of temperature and 
their consequences. The fourth part embraces irregular meteorological 
phenomena and the art of weather prediction. In this section the 
paths of eyclones over Europe are shown on a chart, and their easterly 
movement is ascribed to the difference in density of the warm easterly 
and cold westerly winds. 

Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods, by Cleveland 
Abbe, Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, 1887, Part 2.—This 
exhaustive work treats in five sections the subject of the measurement 
of temperature, pressure, the motion of the air, aqueous vapor, and 
precipitation. The section on thermometry opens with a chapter on 
the history of the thermometer, and then proceeds to discuss the theory 

” 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Dies 


of the air thermometer and its relation to the absolute thermo dynamic 
scale, the normal mercurial and its reductions to the air thermometer, 
and ordinary thermometers with their reductions to the normal mer- 
curial. After the theory of the instrument, the subject of thermometer 
exposure is treated with corresponding fullness, and the conditions 
necessary for obtaining the true air temperature are clearly set forth. 
Chapters on miscelianeous forms of thermometers and on thermograpls 
complete the section. The third section-—that treating of the motion 
of the air—also commands special attention on account of the origi- 
nality and depth of its treatment. The results of a large amount of 
research in theoretical and experimental hydrodynamics are discussed 
in their relation to the theory of the action of the different classes of 
anemometers. The last chapter of the section takes up the various 
methods of measuring upper currents by means of observations of 
clouds, and describes the different methods of using the nephoscope. 
The section on hygrometry gives a similarly complete exposition of 
the theory of the psychrometer. 

A Popular Treatise on the Winds, by William Ferrel.—“ It is with no 
ordinary degree of satisfaction that we hail the publication of Professor 
Ferrel’s treatise. The work is a‘ popular” treatise, but popular only 
in the higher sense of the word. A system of movements so complex 
as those of the earth’s atmosphere can not be made clear ¢o any one who 
is not capable of following a chain of close reasoning, or who is not pre- 
pared to bring to the study that concentrated attention that 1s requisite 
to master any problem in deductive science. 

‘¢ The most important and original portion of the book is that which 
deals with the general circulation of the atmosphere, in relation to 
which the cyclones and anticyclones that cause the vicissitudes ¢f 
local weather are but matters of subordinate detail. The magnitude of 
the work achieved by Professor Ferrel in this field has hitherto been 
recognized only by the few. It is not too much to say that he has done 
for the theory of atmospheric circulation that which Young and Fresnel 
did for the theory of light; and that the influence of his work is not more 
generally reflected in the literature of the day must be attributed to 
the want of some popular exposition of the theory. 

‘“‘ Starting with the fundamental conditions of a great temperature dif- 
ference between equatorial and polar regions and a rotating globe, and 
postulating in the first instance a uniform land or water surface, it is 
shown how the convective interchange of air set up by the former must 
result in producing two zones of maximum pressure in about latitude 30° 
in both hemispheres, two principal minima at the poles, and a minor 
depression on the equator, together with strong west winds in middle 
and high latitudes, and an excess of easterly winds in equatorial re- 
gions. The two tropical zones of high pressure determine the polar 
limits of the trade winds, and the whole system oscillates in latitude 
with the changing declination of the sun. Further, as a consequence of 


PAA PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


the fact that the great mass of the land is restricted to the northern 
hemisphere, whereas the southern hemisphere presents a comparatively 
uninterrupted sea surface on which the retarding friction is less than 
in the northern hemisphere, the west winds of middle and high latitudes 
are much stronger in the latter than in the former, and by their lateral 
pressure cause a slight displacement of the tropical zones of high press- 
ure and the equatorial zone of low pressure to the north of their nor 
mal positions on a hypothetical uniform terrestrial surface. 

“The great modification and extension of Hadley’s theory thus intro- 
duced by Professor Ferrel depends mainly on two points of the first 
importance. By all previous writers it was assumed that a mass of air 
at rest relatively to the earth’s surface on the equator, if suddenly trans- 
ferred to some higher latitude—say, e. g., 60°—would have a relative 
easterly movement in that latitude equal to the difference of rotary ve- 
locities on the equator and on the sixtieth parallel, or about 500 
miles an hour, the difference being proportional to that of the cosines 
of the latitudes. This, however, would be true only in the case of ree- 
tilinear motion. In reality, as Professor Ferrel was the first to demon- 
strate, the mass of air wouid obey the law of the preservation of areas, 
like all bodies revolving under the influence of a central force, and its 
relative eastward velocity in latitude 60° would be 1,500 miles an hour, 
being as the difference of the squares of the cosines. If, on the other 
hand, any mass of air at rest in latitude 60° were suddenly transferred 
to the equator, it would have a relative westerly movement of 750 miles 
an hour, and any mass of matter whatever moving along a meridian is 
either deflected, or, if like a railway train or a river between high 
banks it is not free to yield to the deflecting force, presses, to the right 
of its path in the northern and to the left in the southern hemisphere. 

“« The second point first established by Professor Ferrel is that, in vir- 
tue of centrifugal force, this deflection or pressure to the right in the 
northern and to the left in the southern hemisphere is suffered in ex- 
actly the same degree by bodies moving due east and due west, or along 
a parallel of latitude, and theretore also in all intermediate azimuths. 

‘‘ rom the first of these principles it will be readily seen why the west 
winds of middle latitudes are so much stronger than the easterly winds 
of the equatorial zone; and from the second, how these opposite winds, 
by their mutual pressure, produce the tropical zones of high barometer 
and the polar and equatorial regions of low barometer. 

“In subsequent chapters are discussed the modes in which the general 
circulation of the globe affects the climates of different latitudes by de- 
termining the distribution of rain-fall in wet and dry zones and inequali- 
ties of temperature through the agency of marine currents. Also the 
causes that modify and disturb the regularity of the ideal system, the 
chief of which is the mutuai interaction of expanses of land and sea. 

‘“‘ Professor Ferrel’s book covers very much of the ground of which 
modern meteorology usually takes cognizance, and in the thoroughness 





PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 215 


of its treatment we know of no modern work in our language that can be 
brought into comparison with it.” (H. F. Blanford, Nature, xut, p. 124.) 

Bibliography of Meteorology.—The bibliography of temperature and 
the bibliography of moisture, parts of the general bibliography of me- 
teorology, which has been in preparation by the Signal Office since 1884, 
have been made available to a limited number of meteorologists by the 
lithographic reproduction of a type-written copy. This great work has 
been compiled by Mr. C. J. Sawyer with the assistance of the present 
editor, Mr. O. L. Fassig, and Mr. EK. H. Hilton. The card catalogues 
of Mr. G. J. Symons (18,000) and of Prof. Cleveland Abbe (11,000) have 
been employed, and many meteorologists throughout the world have 
co operated by furnishing lists of meteorological books and memoirs. 
The classification adopted employs four general divisions, viz, general, 
theoretical, and applied meteorology, and observations. The first division 
includes (a) history and bibliography, (b) general and collected works, (c) 
organization and method, (d) instruments. The second division embraces 
(4) the physics of the atmosphere, including (1) temperature, (2) moist- 
ure, (3) pressure, (4nd 5) optical and electrical phenomena; ()) mechan 
ics of the atmosphere, including (1) general atmospheric circulation, (2) 
winds, (3) storms, (c) cosmic relations of meteorology. The third di. 
vision embraces weather predictions, agricultural and medical meteor- 
ology, and climatology. | 

The portions now issued are therefore, I1, theoretical meteorology, (a 
physics of the atmosphere, (1) temperature, and (2) moisture. These 
two parts are subdivided into fourteen and twenty-seven subdivisions 
respectively. The temperature volume contains 2,000 authors and 4,000 
titles; the moisture volume contains 2,500 authors and 4,500 titles. 
The Chief Signal Officer states that no other portions are to be issued in 
this manner. 

Climates and Weather of India, by H. F. Blanford, London, 1889, pp. 
369.—The first ninety pages, constituting Part I of this book, discusses 
systematically the various meteorological elements—temperature, pres- 
sure, winds, humidity, cloudiness, rain, and storms—presenting in each 
chapter a wealth of meteorological and climatic data. The second part, 
entitled “Climates and weather of India in relation to health and in- 
dustry,” takes up the climates of the different climatic districts, the 
weather and weather reports, the storms of Indian seas, and the hydrog- 
raphy. Every chapter and almost every page is replete with interest- 
ing and suggestive information. 

Instructions for observing clouds on land and seas, By Hon. R. Aber- 
cromby.—This pamphlet by Mr. Abercromby presents in a concise way 
the fundamental conceptions and the methods to be employed in cloud 
observation and is a convenient and valuable syllabus upon an import- 
ant class of meteorologic observations. 

Seas and skies in many latitudes, by Hon. Ralph Abercromby, Lon- 
don, 1888.—This is a popular, but not the less valuable, book of travels 


216 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


in which descriptive meteorology is the principal purpose of the author. 
Many important climatic facts have beer garnered and the Monte of the 
work is increased by good maps and illustrations. 

Das Klima des ausser-tropischen Stidafrica, by Dr. Karl Dove, Gott- 
ingen, 1888.—This book describes the climate of a large region, much 
of which is but little known. The area is divided into four great districts 
classified according to the period of occurrence of the rainy season, viz 
(1) the region of winter rains ; (2) the intermediate region of spring and 
autumn rains; (3) the region of heavy summer rains; (4) the west coast. 
Under (1) are found the southwest province, the western Karroo, and the 
Little Namaqua land. Under (2) come the south coast, north and south 
Karroo, and the southeast mountain land; and under (3) we have the 
table-land of the upper Orange River, the north Transvaal, the Kala- 
hari, and the Great Namaqua and Damara land. After treating of the 
geography, the author discusses the possible developments of agricul- 
ture in the different districts. Im a chapter on the treatment of the 
rain-fall and its distribution, Dr. Dove concludes with some remarks on 
the alleged deterioration of the climate by the drying up of the country. 
This effect he considers to be the outcome of reckless forest destruction. 
He points out the brilliant results obtained at small cost by the con- 
struction of reservoirs, as at Beaufort and at Van Wyk’s Vley. 

Die Meteorologie, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung geographischer Fra- 
gen dargestellt, by Dr. 8. Giinther, Miinich. This work is an attempt 
to produce a text book of the whole of meteorology in 300 pages, and, 
so far as the effort is at all possible, the work is successful. Each sub- 
ject is treated in an excessively condensed manner, and references to 
the literature are given for what is left unsaid. It is, therefore, rather 
a good index or reference book than a successor of Kaimtz or Schmidt. 

Der Einfluss einer Schneedecke auf Boden, Klima und Wetter, by A 
Woeikof, pp. 1-115.—In this book Dr. Woeikof sums up all that is at 
present known of the influence of a snow covering, upon the soil, the 
climate, and the weather. Data are given which show that the effect of 
a snow sheet in lowering the temperature of the air is very considerable 
and certain anomalies in mean winter temperature are explained in 
view of this relation. 

In discussing the effect of a thick winter snow-sheet on springs and 
rivers, a variation is pointed out which is of importance in its bearings 
on hydrography. In latitudes where the winter cold is sufficient to 
freeze the ground to a considerable depth, if heavy snow falls early in 
the winter before cold has penetrated deeply below the surface, the 
protection thereby afforded allows the ground to thaw by conduction 
from the lower strata, and the water from the slow melting of the basal 
snow layer, and much of that which is produced in the spring thaw, soaks 
into the soil and affords a supply which maintains the rivers more or 
less full through the succeeding summer. But if, before snow falls, the 


yh ean ceeeer ee. 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Prt 


soil has been frozen to a great depth, a rapid thaw, setting in in the 
spring, floods the rivers and the surrounding tracts, while little or 
none enters the ground, and but little supply is stored up for main- 
taining the summer flow. (Nature, XL, p. 315.) 

Greenland Hxploration.—At a meeting of the Royal Geographical 
Society, Dr. F. Nansen told the story of his journey across Greenland in 
the summer and fall of 1888. He found the country so thickly covered 
with the ice accumulations of ages that no part of the interior is ever 
laid bare. This will put to rest the idea that somewhere in Greenland 
there may be a fertile oasis. He estimates that the ice in places is 6,000 
feet deep. The temperature during the expedition reached 90° F below 
freezing, which was as low as their thermometer registered. 

Secular Oscillations in Climate.—R. Sieger has added some new and 
important contributions to the statistics showing long period oscilla- 
tions in the level of inland seas. That such variations in level have 
occurred was pointed out by Hann as early as 1867, and during the past 
two years has also been elaborately discussed by Dr. Briickner. 

The work of Sieger relates to the level of the Armenian lakes. The 
material available for such an investigation consists, not of exact obser- 
vations of water level, but of opportune notes of individual travellers, 
upon the location of places on the sea-shore, the course of the shore- 
line, the appearance of islands, and finally upon the oscillation of the 
water surface, derived from the statements of the neighboring inhab- 
itants. 

From this heterogeneous material the author endeavors to show sec- 
ular oscillations in the levelof Armenian lakes, especially the Wan, the 
Urmia Goktscha, and also a series of smaller lakes, and attributes the 
cause of these oscillations to oscillations in temperature and rain-fall. 
Similar secular variations of Jevel are adduced for lakes in Iran, in the 
Alps, and in Italy, and for Lake Valencia, honey Lake, Pyramid Lake, 
Winnemucca Lake, and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. 

The times of maximum and minimum of level are grouped about the 
following well-defined periods: (1) Maximum between 1770 and 1780; 
(2) minimum about 1800 (not pronounced) ; (3) maximura about 1815; 
(4) minimum about'1830; (5) between 1835 and 1865 a series of lakes 
has two maxima, a minor about 1845 and a major about 1860; these are 
the Armenian lakes, Lake Constance, Lake George in Australia, Great 
Salt-Lake, and some of their neighbors. The remaining, on the other 
hand, show only a maximum about 1845; (6) a minimum in the sixties, 
1860-1870; (7) arise from 1865 to 1870, followed by an interruption 
beginning with 1870; (8) a diminution after 1880. 

In a memoir entitled ‘“‘ In how far is our present climate permanent ?” 
Prof. Dr. Briickner brings together a store of data from various sources 
which gives evidence of well-defined oscillations in rain-fall and temper- 
ature, oscillations having a period of no definite length, but averaging 
during the present century from thirty to thirty-six years. The author 


218 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


finds similar and synchronous oscillations in the level of the Caspian, 
the Black, and the Baltic seas ; in the rain-fall throughout Europe, and 
in Asia, Australia, and in the interior of North America; in the tem- 
perature of Europe and New England ; in the advance and recession 
of the lower limit of the Alpine glaciers; in the times of vintage in 
France, Germany, and Switzerland; and in the opening of Russian 
rivers. 

The rhythm of temperature oscillations corresponds with therain-fall 
variations in such a way that warm periods are dry, and cool periods are 
wet. In the present century the maximaof rain-fall group themselves 
around the years 1815, 1850 and 1880, the minima around the years 1830 
and 1860. The curves also show an increase in the amplitude of oscil- 
lation on advancing from the coast into the interior of the continents. 

These climatic oscillations in their effect upon agriculture, are believed 
to be of sufficient magnitude to determine the productivity or non-pro- 
ductivity of vast areas in arid and semi-arid regions. 

Storm Warnings.—-The possibility of giving successful storm warnings 
for western Europe by constructing the hypothetical distribution of 
pressure over the Atlantic is urged by M. deBort. He points out that 
from the known monthly normal distribution of pressure, together with 
the observed isobars of Europe and America, obtained from telegraphic 
reports, the general pressure over the Atlantic, and especially the ex- 
istence there of pronounced storm-centers, can be inferred. (Nature, 
XXXVIII, 419.) 

In the report of the Meteorological Council (of Great Britain) for the 
year ending March 31, 1888, Mr. R. B. Scott concludes that it is extremely 
improbable that telegraphic reports from America can assist in fore- 
casting the weather in Great Britain, and this conclusion is supported 
by the actual results obtained in dealing with American reports during 
the year. 


Mr. H. N. Dickson has presented a paper to the Scottish Meteoro- 
logical society on ‘‘ The weather lore of Scottish fishermen.” Prognosti- 
cations from halos; corone, and mock suns are of common acceptation. 
It is a current belief that when a sun-dog precedes the sun it is a sign 
of good weather, and when it follows the sun it is a sign of bad weather. 
Another very general belief relates te the existence of spider’s webs in 
sails and cordage. On the north and west coast it is believed that cir- 
rus running from northeast to southwest is a sign of good weather, and 
running from southeast to northwest is a sign of bad weather. Many 
other peculiar beliefs are related. 


III.—_INSTRUMENTS; METHODS OF REDUCTION; AERONAUTICS. 


Gas thermometer.—In the International Bureau of Weights and Meas- 
ures Dr. Chappuis has conducted a new series of observations on the 
difference between gas and mercurial thermometers. The latter were 


‘ 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 219 


made by Tonnelot of hard glass whose chemical composition is specified. 
Four thermometers were compared having scales from —5° C. to 104°, 
and a length of 70°™, the length of a scale-division being 5.7™"; and 
four other mercurial thermometers 54°" long for low temperatures, with 
seales from —32° to +3599, to which an extension is added which ineludes 
scale readings from 95° to 103°. Between these eight mercurial ther- 
mometers there were no systematic differences, and they agreed with one 
another very well, the greatest difference in an observation being 0°.006. 

The gas thermometer is constructed so that the portion that is not 
brought to the temperature of the bath is extremely small. To attain 
this a large cylinder of iridio-platinum (1.10 ™ high and 36™™ diameter) 
is used as a thermometer box. It is a gas thermometer of constant vol- 
ume. The pressure at 0° is about 1™ of mercury: The description of 
the manometer and the detail of the comparisons will be found in the 
Archives des Sciences phys et nat. Bd. Xx, 1888. The following is an 
abstract of the differences found between a mercurial thermometer 
and the three gas thermometers containing hydrogen, nitrogen, and car- 
bonic acid, whose fixed points agreed with the mercurial. 


Temperature in centigrade degrees. 





| 
Hg H—Hg | N—Hg | CO.—Hg 
: |—_—— 
—20° 0.172 0159) |) wsosoee2 
0° 0. 000 | 0. 000 0. 000 
20 —0, O85 ==(EO75 (2 0A2 
40 0. 107 | 0. 007 0.048 
60 0.090 | 0.085 | 0. 037 
80 —0.050 | —.052 | —0.019 
100 0.000 | 0.000 | 0. 000 


Differential barometer.—Director Crnls, of the Rio Janeiro observa- 
tory, has invented a new form of differential barometer for use in hyp- 
sometry. Each arm of a U-shaped tube terminates in an air-tight box 
of known capacity provided with a stop-cock. If the U be partially 
filled with a suitable liquid and both cocks are opened, the height of 
the liquid in the twe arms will be the same. If now the cocks be 
closed and the instrument be taken to a station of different elevation 
_and only one of the cocks be opened, the closed box will retain the air- 
pressure of the first and the open end will assume that of the second 
station. The level of the liquid will now be different in the two arms 
by a height which will depend on the difference of pressure at the two 
stations. 

A light liquid like water can be employed, and yet the instrument 
may be keptof convenient size. If the stop-cocks are small, they may 
be opened alternately, each just long enough to partially equalize the 
difference of pressure in the boxes; with each opening the level of the 
ends of the liquid columns is to be read off, and the sum of the differences 
measures the difference of pressure. (Am. Meteor. Journal, VI, p. 181.) 


220 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Aspiration thermometer.—Professor Assmann has replied to the objec- 
tions which have been raised against his aspiration thermometer, after 
giving it a thorough test. The instrument, even when exposed to the 
most intense solar radiation, should record the true temperature of the 
surrounding air. In order to determine whether the instrument satis- 
fies this requirement, Dr. Assmann spent four weeks on the Sentis and 
found as a result of several thousand observations that this condition 
is fulfilled by the instrument in its present form. By means of an ar- 
rangement of clock-work, a constant current of air is drawn through the 
metallic tube which surrounds the thermometer. This clock-work 
is attached to the upper end of the tube and drives a fan with consid- 
erable velocity, thus forcing the air out of the tube at the top and draw- 
ing it up from the lower portion of the tube; by this means a rapid 
current of air is kept streaming over the thermometer. By direct ex- 
periment with hot water he found that the temperature is not affected 
even when the temperature of the metal tube is 20° C. above that of 
the surrounding air. (Nature, XL, p. 660.) 

New hygrometer.—H. Dufour has constructed a dew-point hygrometer, 
the peculiarity of which is that the condensing surface, instead of 
being a thin silver plate, is a thick silvered copper plate with the ther- 
mometer embedded init. The thermometer thus set is supposed to 
register the temperature of the condensing surface more accurately than 
when immersed in the evaporating liquid, and that one of the largest 
errors incident to the dew-point hygrometer is thereby overcome; but 
it seems questionable whether this result is secured. (Bull. Soc. Vau- 
dovse, 1888, p. 88.) 


The Tenth Annual Behibition of Instruments by the Royal Meteoro- 
logical Society was held March 19-22, 1889. Special attention was given 
to the display of all forms of solar radiation apparatus. There were 
Shown specimens of the aetinometer of Sir John Herschel, that of Hodg- 
kinson, Pouillet’s direct pyr-heliometer, Secchi’s apparatus, Balfour 
Stewart’s actinometer, black and bright bulb thermometers in vacuo, 
Luvini’s di-etheroscope, Bellani’s lucimeter, Crooke’s radiometer, sun- 
shine recorders, and photometers. 

Among new instruments exhibited were Fineman’s and Galton’s nepho- 
scopes, Davis’s improved air meter, Negretti and Zambra’s recording 
hygrometer, and de Normanville’s self-compensating sympiesometer. 

Mr. Clayden showed a working model illustrating the generation of 
ocean currents. This shows how the prevalent winds over the Atlantic 
are the chief cause of the circulations of the waters. A number of tubes 
are so arranged that when an attached blower is worked the circulation 
of air produced resembles that of the atmosphere; the imitation winds 
thus set up, re-act upon the surface of the water, creating a system of 
currents which reproduces the main features observed in the Atlantic. 





a tet hes Ol 


a Ad de: 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 221 


Mr. Clayden also showed some lantern slides illustrating the spiral 
circulation of the wind both in a cyclone and an anti-cyclone. 

Mr. A. L. Rotch describes the meteorological instruments exhibited at 
the Paris Exposition, the special features of which are the many novel- 
ties presented in self-recording apparatus. (Am. Meteor. Journal, VI, 
pp. 293, 362.) 

Professor Tait has devised an instrument, named the stephanome, for 
measuring the angular size of halos, parhelia, coronie, etc. It is now 
used at the Ben Nevis Observatory. 

Cloud Photography.—Dr. Riggenbach, of Basle, has adopted special 
methods for overcoming the difficulties met in photographing cirrus 
clouds. The blue light of the sky acts with nearly the same active 
energy as the white light of the clouds. Dr. Riggenbach dulls the blue 
light of the sky by means of the analyzer of a polarizing apparatus. 
The blue sky-light is partly polarized, and to the largest extent at the 
points which are situated 90° from the sun; the plane of polarization 
passing through the points looked at, the sun, and the eye of the ob- 
server. On the other hand, the light from a cloud is polarized only to 
a slight extent. Instead of a Nicol’s prism, a dark mirror, or better, a 
plate of obsidian may be used; and, when conveniently situated, the 
surface of a lake may be used asa polarizing mirror. (Natwre, XXXIX, p. 
112.) 

Thermometer Shelters.—In vol. x of Aus dem Archiv der Deutschen See- 
warte, Dr. Képpen contributes a useful paper on the determination of 
air temperature. The author investigates the influence of radiation on 
different thermometers and screens, and gives a résumé of the experi- 
ments with regard to the latter in various countries, and of the obser- 
vations on local differences of temperature (including the influence of 
radiation). These experiments seem to show that screens through 
which the air can pass freely, are better than large shelters, and that the 
effect of radiation is lessened by the free circulation of the air, and by 
the smallness of the thermometer bulbs. 

Psychrometry.—Dr. Grossmann has published in the Meteorologische 
Zeitschrift an elaborate paper on the theory of the psychrometer, with 
an introductory sketch of the development of the subject up to the 
present time. The following is an outline of his treatment: 

(1) If a wet bulb exposed in air (pressure Lb, vapor pressure p, and 
temperature ¢) reads ¢, in consequence of the evaporation of water (the 
latent heat being A), and if p,; be the pressure of saturated vapor at ¢,, 
we may assume that, when the conditions have become steady, the 
process which has gone on and is going on continuously round the wet 
bulb is as follows: A quantity of heat is absorbed by evaporation, the 
vapor pressure of a layer of air containing m, grams of dry air being 
raised from p to p,;; this heat is supplied by the reduction of the tem- 
perature of a layer of air, containing m’ grams of dry air, from ¢ to t. 

Equating these quantities of heat, we get, if S be the specific heat 


ao PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


of dry air, S, the specific heat of moist air referred to unit mass of dry 
air, o the specific gravity of vapor referred to air at the same tempera- 
ture and pressure, 
pee ee 
oA 4 BURST 
a general and strict formula for the psychrometer under the conditions. 
This reduces to August’s formula on introducing the assumption that 
the whole of the air which is reduced in temperature becomes at the 
same time saturated by the evaporation, in other words, that m,=m. 
2) The heat derived from the cooling of m/ is assumed to represent 
all the heat derived from conduction, radiation, local convection, and 
the independent general motion of the air. By reckoning separately 
that part of the heat supptied to the bulb by radiation in time Z as 
equal to ZOR (t—t,) (O being the area of the surface of the bulb, and R 
the coefficient of radiation), we ety 


Lbs S B fie O saat Si re 
DP ae (¢ —t,) a hg, 5) (= B = a terra retreed(() 
where q ‘=>, u=7 


In order to express the effect of the velocity of motion of the air, 
assume that q and q/ are linear functions of the velocity v with a coeffi- 
cient ¢, that they are equal when v is infinite, and that their values, 
when v is zero, are q°; and q/ respectively. 

Substituting, we get the following general formula for the psychrom- 
eter, in moving air, with spherical bulb, radius r: 





SB B—p S, A+ ho 
PTE AG pe eee ee 
4k S 7 iksv eee] 
: eas ‘ 
where — ee 1S 
4-4", B=5 


The values of S, A, o, and & are known, and ean be substituted (A= 
606.5—0.695 t, for water-covered bulbs, and 685.5—0.695 t, for ice-cov- 
ered bulbs). 

The values of q°; and q’) are not known @ priori, but they may be 
regarded as constant for a given velocity, so X and H can be deter- 
mined from observations with the psychrometer upon air of known 
humidity moving with known velocity, and thus a numerical formula 
of reduction obtained. It is assumed that the radiation effect is the 
same in moving air as in still air. 

(3) From this general equation the formulas hitherto employed can be 
deduced by the introduction of the special assumptions upon which they 
are respectively based. To obtain August’s formula (corrected for ra- 
diation) K’ must be put equal to D, and / equal to 4, In Maxwell’s 
formula 6 and /, are both infinite. Ferrel’s formula for moving air is 





PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889, 220 


obtained by altering the expression for radiation, so as to make it follow 
Dulong and Petit’s law, and assuming / to be equal to /,, and each to 
be inversely proportional to the velocity of the air. Though the theo- 
retical expressions for A and 4% are different, the resulting formula is 
identical in form with (5), except that the factor 2 is omitted. 
A numerical table shows the effect and importance of the missing fac- 
tor, which is moreover shown to be required by some observations of 
Ferrel’s, from which it appears that the factor A of the temperature 
difference in the typical psychrometer formala, p=p,—A B (t-t,), where 
A is supposed to have a known value in making reductions, increases 
more rapidly with the temperature of the wet bulb than can ‘be ac- 
counted for by the mere variation of the latent heat. 

(4.) The values of A for ¢;=9) are also tabulated for a series of veloci- 
ties; they show considerable variation for small velocities, and also 
greater variation with a large bulb than witha small one. On this ac- 
count it is evidently necessary to provide for a constant ventilation of 
the psychrometer, and to determine the factor A for the specific arrang- 
ment of the psychrometer by comparison with a dew-point instrument. 
For small velocities the constants for each psychrometer must be deter- 
mined as far as possible under the conditions that will obtain when the 
instrument is subsequently used for observations. 

(5) The use of psychrometer tables, founded upon Regnault’s formula, 
certainly gives on the average, for psychrometers with small bulbs, too 
small values for the humidity. 

(6) The question as to whether different values for the latent heat of 
vaporization should be substituted in formule for water-covered bulbs 
and ice-covered bulbs respectively was raised by Sworykin upon his 
finding, in comparisons before mentioned, that the formula for water- 
covered bulbs gave satisfactory reductions when applied to ice-covered 
bulbs. It is pointed out (following Ekholm) that practical importance 
is to be attached to the fact that below the freezing-point the pressure 
of water vapor has one value over ice, and another over water at the 
same temperature. The latter is the greater, and should be taken in 
dew-point experiments, whereas Regnault’s table (ased by Sworykin in 
the comparison) gives the ice-vapor pressure. When account is taken 
of this, it is shown that Sworykin’s observations do not entitle us to 
abandon the change in the value of A for ice-covered bulbs, which is 
required on theoreticalfgrounds. (Quar. Journal Roy. Meteor. Soc.) 

Mr. 8. A. Hill has made a series of comparative observations with the 
psychrometer and condensing hygrometer under a wide range of con- 
ditions. He discusses the difficulties and the limits of error in the use 
of the dew-point apparatus, which he adopts as a standard for compar- 
ing with the results given by the psychrometric formula of Regnault. 
His principal results are: The factor A of the psychrometer formula is 
approximately, if not entirely, independent of the air pressure, and also 
independent of the relative humidity. On an occasion of extreme dry- 


224 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


ness the direct dew-point determination gave the vapor pressure 5.2™™, 
while Regnault’s formula gave 3.9™™, a value considerably too small.* 
Anemometry.— Prof. C. F. Marvin, in presenting the results of the 
recent experiments of the U. 8. Signal Office for determining anemom- 
eter factors, points out that an important consideration has hitherto 
been overlooked in applying the factors obtained in whirling-machine 
experiments to anemometers in actual use. In the experiments the 
velocity is uniform, in practice the wind is extremely variable. The 
revolving parts of an anemometer exposed to a variable wind will, in 
consequence of their inertia, fall short of their proper rate of revolu- 
tion when the velocity of the wind is increasing, and then catch up and 
run too fast when the wind velocity diminishes, and it has been gener- 
ally assumed that the amount lost in the one case is balanced by that 
gained in the other, so that the mean rate is not affected. But such is 
not the case, from the fact that the resultant force acting on the cups 
when the wind is increasing and tending to increase the velocity of the 
cups is much greater than the corresponding force in action when the 
wind is diminishing in intensity and tending to retard the velocity of 
the cups. In one case it is a question of the resistance of the air to the 
concave side of the cups, and in the other that to the convex surface; 
the latter being smaller, the cups will always continue to move more 
rapidly and longer after the wind has diminished in velocity, than they 
lagged behind when the wind was increasing, so that the mean velocity 
of the cups exposed to a variable wind is eanicnenle higher than it 
would be in a uniform wind having the same mean velocity. Conse- 
quently, if the equation of an anemometer whose constants have been 
determined upon a whirling machine be used to reduce ordinary obser- 
rations, the computed wind velocities will be too high by an amount 
depending upon the moment of inertia of the cups and the extent of 
the wind variations. Since these latter are too complicated to be de- 
termined, it is impossivle with anemometers of the Robinson type to 
obtain accurate measures of the mean velocity of a variable wind unless 
the moment of inertia of the cups is very small in relation to the wind 
pressures, and even then the result is still affected by another error. 
For accurate results a formula involving the square as well as the 
first power of the velocity of the cups must be used, as in the form 
=a+bv+cv? where V=velocity of wind and v=mean velocity of the 
cup centers. Now, when the wind is variable the third term should not 
be cv? but = (voP+024+vey+ou~g+ . . . « ,”)3; even in ordinary cir- 
cumstances this difference between the square of the mean velocity 
and the mean of the squares is appreciable. 
The constants for a small anemometer of extreme lightness were de- 
termined with great precision on a whirling machine and comparisons 
in ee air made between it and a Signal Ber ice anemometer of the 


i K ere panies ald oe foe the vapor pressure 6.0™™, Pe is a fair approx- 
imation to the value given by the direct hygrometer.—G. E. C. 





PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 225 


ordinary pattern whose constants had also been determined. These 
comparisons have shown that the wind velocities computed from the 
ordinary anemometer average 10 per cent. higher than the wind ve- 
locities given by the little anemometer having very small inertia, and 
that the percentage of excess increased with decrease of wind velocity. 
An anemometer was then tried whose cups were weighted, and still 
greater percentages of excess were discovered. (Am. Meteor. Journal, 
WE, ps LED:) 

The wind force committee of the Royal Meteorological Society, 
consisting of Mr. G. M. Whipple and Mr. W. H. Dines, has made a 
report on experiments with anemometers at Hersham. <A whirling ap- 
paratus of 29 feetradius was rotated by means of asmall steam-engine. 
On the arms of the whirler four different anemometers were placed ; 
each experiment lasted fifteen minutes, the steam-pressure remaining 
constant during therup., for the new standard anemometer with arms 
2 feet long the experiments gave a mean value for Robinson’s factor 
of 2.15, and for two smaller instruments the factor is 2.51 and 2.96. Mr. 
Dines’ helicoid anemometer gave very satisfactory results, the mean 
factor being 0.996. (Nature, XxxvI, p. 191.) 

Air pressure against moving plates.—The results of Recknagel’s ex- 
periments on the resistance of the air to the motion of plates ona 
whirling-machine agree in general with those of other experimenters. 
He finds that the total resistance is greater the smailer the distance ot 
the plate from the axis of rotation. The total resistance R which a 
circular plate of diameter D experiences when rotated at a distance 
ZI from the axis of rotation is from his experiments— 

ara 9 D 72 
R=H- sas (1.12 + ae ae ) 


. . A ) pv , 
in which H represents the pressure due to the velocity, or Tq" A for- 


mula is given for the distribution of pressure over the front of the 
plate, and the diminution of pressure behind the plate is shown to de- 
pend largely on its diameter. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1., p. 3.) 

Mr. W. H. Dines has conducted a series of whirling-machine experi- 
ments to determine the pressure on various shaped objects placed at 
the end of the arm and whirling with different velocities. The machine 
was operated by steam-power. ‘Che pressure upon a plane plate three- 
eighths inch thick, and either round or square, was found to be 1.51 
pounds per square foot for a velocity of 20.86 miles per hour. The 
pressure upon the same area is increased by increasing the perimeter. 
The pressure upon a one-quarter-foot plate the author states to be pro- 
portionately less than upon a plate either one-half or double its size, 
and the pressure upon any surface was found to be but slightly altered 
by a cone projecting at the back. (Quar. Jour. Roy. Met. Soc., Xv, 
p. 187.) . 

H. Mis, 224——15 


226 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Measurement of rain-fail_—Prof. Cleveland Abbe has discussed at 
length the seurces of error in the collection and measurement of rain- 
fall. From a study of published observations of rain-fall measures at 
different heights above ground he finds that the deficit in collection 
equals 6 per cent. multiplied by the square root of the altitude in meters. 
It is further shown that the error of collection may be eliminated by 
observing two gauges at different altitudes and applying a formula of 
reduction. (Am. Meteor. Journal, Vi, p. 241.) 

Errors in thermometer readings.— Messrs. W. A. Rogers and R. 8. 
Woodward, in a paper on errors in reading mercurial thermometers, dis- 
cussed an instrumental error hitherto generally overlooked. The theo- 
retical study of Professor Woodward led to a dynamical equation ex- 
pressing the motion of the end of the column in terms of its mass, the 
volume and elasticity of the bulb, and the frictional and other forces, 
including surface tension. When the latter forces are constant, and 
when the rate of temperature rise is constant, the formula shows: 
(1) That the motion of the end of the column is by pulsations ef regular 
recurrence, the reading of the thermometer being alternately too great 
and too small; (2) that the period of recurrence in the same thermom- 
eter varies directly as the square root of the rate of temperature rise; 
(3) that the amplitude is sensibly constant; (4) that, since the ampli- 
tude is nearly constant and the period thus dependent on the rate of 
the temperature rise, the danger of error in thermometer readings is 
greater for slow than for rapid temperature changes. (heport Am. 
Assoc. A. S., 1889.) 

Method of obtaining daily mean temperatures.—Dr. W. Koéppen has 
sought for the most accurate method of deriving the true daily mean 
temperature from observations made at 8 A. M., 2 and 8 P. M., and the 
minimum temperature. The author assumes, as recommended by the 
Vienna Congress, that the true mean temperature m is given by the 
formula m=n—k (n—min) where n is the arithmetical mean of the three 
observed values, and k a constant to be determined. The author has 
determined the value of k for different seasons at different places where 
hourly temperatures have been recorded, and finds that in spring and 
summer the value is almost the same at all stations. In a similar way 
the author investigates the accuracy of the combination of the 8 A. M., 
2Pp.M.,and 8 p. M. without the minimum temperature. (J/eteorolo- 
gische Zeitschrift, 1889, v1, p. [1].) 

Reduction of air pressure to high levels.—As a supplement to his paper 
on the construction of isobars for the level of 2,500 meters (Meteo- 
rologische Zeitschrift, December, 1888), Dr. Képpen gives the following 
table of constants for obtaining the mean temperature of the air column, 
or the temperature at 1,250 meters, by subtracting them from the sea- 
level temperatures ; 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 227 











‘a a , 1 5 > oc 
Weak, easterly winds, north- pol ee os Cas cae i ae 
th emp. 0° to 15° C ...-.-. of 3 ( 
BestaprsQ Uke Temp. above 15° C..-.-.. 6° 5° 2° 
Nena COME LMOMeser ye ery eee aetna aoe eine sie aioe ei 6° 4° 
Birone westerly Winds, SOUbh= | 2-4 cc.. 5ocice eens erates le Be yee 
west to north. 














(Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, v1, p. 348.) 


Balloon observations.—Lieutenant Médebeck has made a contribution 
to the meteorology of the upper currents by observations made in a 
balloon voyage March 31, 1888, from Berlin. The marked phenomenon 
experienced was the influence of rivers. After the balloon had risen to 
a height of 300 to 500 meters, it sank so rapidly while passing over the 
Spree that when it was about 50 meters above the earth a large quan- 
tity of ballast had to be thrown out. At an elevation of 1,200 meters 
he met with a long narrow rain-cloud, in passing through which the 
dry-bulb thermometer registered 1°.5 C., the wet bulb 1° C.; at an 
elevation of 1,300 to 1,400 meters both thermometers registered the 
same temperature, 2°.5 ©. At this height, andin circumscribed areas, 
afew very small semi-soft hailstones were observed. 

Soaring of birds.—Mr. G. K. Gilbert, in a paper read before the Phil- 
osophical Society of Washington, shows that the soaring of birds is ren- 
dered possible by the differential motions of the air. The following 
paragraphs are extracted from his paper : 

“The soaring bird, with wings expanded, is formed so as to move 
forward with little friction and downward with great friction. We 
may conceive him as having two coincident motions—a forward motion, 
juitiated by muscular action; and a downward motion, under the pull 
of gravity. In order that the resultant may be horizontal, it is neces- 
sary (1) that the forward component bedirected obliquely upward, and 
(2) that it exceed a certain minimum amount. 

‘“ However small may be the friction created by the forward motion 
it is not nil, and, unless the energy it consumes is in some way re- 
placed, the forward motion is eventually so reduced that the horizon- 
tal motion cannot be maintained. It is proposed to show that the 
needed compensatory energy may be derived from the differential 
motions of the air. 

‘‘ Let us assume that the air currents above and below a certain hor- 
izontal plane have the same direction but different velocities, the upper 
moving the faster by a certain amount, 7. A soaring bird is moving 
through the lower air in the opposite direction, and the bird’s velocity 
with reference to the air is V, then the velocity of the bird with refer- 
ence to the upper current is V+i. 


+ 


228 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


“Now let the bird change his course, turning obliquely upward and pass- 
inginto theuppercurrent. His velocity with reference to the airin which 
he isimmersed is at onceincreased from Vto V4+7. Next letthe bird wheel, 
to the right or to the left, until the direction of his motion is coincident 
with that ofthe wind. His velocity with reference tothe upper current is 
still V + i, but the reversal of his direction has changed his relation to 
the currents. He is passing the lower and slower current more rapidly 
than he passes the upper, and his velocity with reference to the lower 
current is greater by their difference; itis V + 2%. Now let him de- 


scend obliquely and enter the lower current. His velocity is not af- - 


fected by the transfer. Finally let him wheel in the lower current until 
his direction is once more directly opposed to that of the wind. The 
“eycle of evolutions leaves him with the velocity V + 2i, referred to the 
lower current, in the place of his initial velocity V, referred to the same 
datum. He has gained a velocity of 27, or double the velocity of one 
air current referred to the other, and he has resumed his original rela- 
tion to the currents. Manifestly he can repeat the process indefinitely. 

“Add now that velocity thus gained is the required compensation 
for the velocity lost by friction, and the essence of the theory is stated.” 

When the orbit of the bird is circular and lies in an inclined plane 
rising toward the wind, and when the horizontal velocity of the air di- 
minishes uniformly from the highest point to the lowest point of the 
orbit, the velocity gained by the bird in making the circuit is equal 
to the differential velocity of the highest and lowest layers of air 
traversed, multiplied by 5 into the cosine of the angle of inclination of 
the plane of the orbit. 


IV.—PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE OCEAN. 


Height of the atmosphere.—M. Soret criticises the assumption made 
by Liais in his method for determining the height of the atmosphere. 
Liais found that the light of the sky is still polarized in a plane passing 
through the sup when the sun is 18° below the horizon, and concluded 
from this that the sun must have directly illuminated the air particles 
in the zenith of the observer. Soret shows that by diffusion of the 
second order a mass of air in the shade may be illuminated by the par- 
ticles in the sunlight. Mathematical analysis shows that in this case 
also, the light diffused by the mass in shade is polarized in the plane de- 
termined by the point considered and the eye of the observer. Hence 
the results of Liaisare subject to the error of his assumption. (Comptes 
Rendus, Ci, p. 103.) 

Specific volume of aqueous vapor.—Dr. Dieterici has presented to the 
Physical Society of Berlin the results of his researches on the determina- 
tion of the specific volume of saturated vapor at0°C. His new method is 
to measure the amount of water that must be converted into vapor at 
0° ©. in order to fill completely a known space with saturated vapor by 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 229 


means of the heat which becomes latent during its evaporation. The 
vessel containing the water was immersed in an ice calorimeter and was 
connected with a large space, which could be rendered both vacuous 
and dry. The water was then allowed to evaporate until the space was 
filled with saturated vapor; the amount of heat requisite to produce 
the observed evaporation was determined from the amount of mercury 
which was expelled from the calorimeter, and this then gave the amount 
of water evaporated. One outcome of the experiments is that Gay- 
Lussae’s law holds good almost up to the temperature of saturation. 
The mass of water that must be evaporated in order to saturate a 
space of 1 liter capacity at 0° C. was found to be 4,886 milligrammes ; 
heuce the specific volume of aqueous vapor saturated at 0° C. is 204.7 
liters, and its pressure is 4.62 millimeters. 

Spectrum of ozone.-—Mr. W. N. Hartley has examined the absorption 
spectrum of ozone by photographing the ultra-violet rays transmitted 
through measured quantities of the gas, and finds that it possesses 
most extraordinary absorptive powers. Cornu’s experimental proof 
that the ultra-violet rays of the sun are absorbed with energy by the 
atmosphere is attributed by Hartley to the ozone which is a constituent 
of the atmosphere, and which he states is in greater proportion in the 
upper regions than near the earth’s surface. 

The explanation that the blue color of the sky is caused by reflection 
from minute particles which on account of their size most readily reflect 
blue rays is rejected as incompetent, and a theory suggested by his 
own experiments 1s presented. He announces that ozonized oxygen is 
highly fluorescent. and that the color of the fluorescence is a beautiful 
steel blue. Oxygen also is believed to be fluorescent, though this has 
not been proved. 

He concludes (1) that the extreme limit of the solar spectrum ob- 
served by Cornu is caused by the gases in the atmosphere, probably 
both by oxygen and ozone; (2) that the blue of the sky is caused in 
part by fluorescence, and probably ozone and oxygen are the chief 
fluorescent substances ; (5) that ozone is generally present in the air in 
sufficient quantity to render its characteristic absorption spectra visi- 
ble, and that therefore it gives a blue color to the atmosphere by ab- 
sorption. (Nature, XXXIx, p. 475.) 

Specific heat of sea water.—Messrs. Thoulet and Chevalier have pre- 
sented to the Paris Academy of Sciences the results of a series of 
measurements on the specific heat of sea water at different degrees of 
dilution and concentration. The results are applied to explaining the 
enormous influence exercised by the sea in modifying climates. 

The law of thermal radiation... F. Weber derives for the total 


radiation of a body the formula S= CFT? where C is a constant de- 


pending on the natrre of the substance and the properties of its sur- 
face, and a is a constant for all solids. J is the radiating surface and 


230 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


T the absolute temperature. He believes that this formula will hold 
good for all temperatures between the melting point of ice up to the 
melting point of platinum, while Stefan’s law gives results too high 
for low temperature and much too low for high temperatures. 

Herr Graetz (Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1889, p. 857) criticises Weber's 
claims, and maintains that Stefan’s formula has a much better basis 
Iv, than this new formula. (Jeteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 38.) 

Laws of thermal radiation.—In an article on the law of the thermal 
radiation, Professor Ferrel has compared with observational data, both 
Dulong and Petit’s law and Stefan’s law of radiation. He finds that 
Dulong and Petit’s law holds through only a comparatively short range 
of temperature, and the same is true of any function of the same general 
form; but by giving different values to the constant in the formula 
(taken by Dulong and Petit as 1.0077), increasing with lower tempera- 
tures, the rate of cooling may be represented through a considerable 
range of temperature. For temperatures from 50° C. to 137° C. 
Stefan’s law agrees with the observed rates of cooling, but for higher 
temperatures an exponent of 4.2 is required instead of 4. 

Professor Ferrel then shows that the law of radiation for the result- 
ant radiation of all wave lengths must differ very much in different 
bodies in which the radiativities differ considerably from that of a sur- 
face of maximum radiativity, according as the predominating wave 
lengths in the radiations are toward the one or the other end of the 
spectrum. The application of the various radiation formule in obtain- 
ing the temperature of the sun is shown to give no reliable results. 
(American Journal of Science, XXXVIII, p. 3.) 


V.—SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION; TEMPERATURE. 


Solar radiation.—During the summer of 1888 a series of observations 
of solar radiation were made on Mont Ventoux (altitude 1,907 meters) 
with a continuously recording photographic Crova actinometer. The 
following is a brief statement of results: 

Continual oscillations are apparent in the solar curve, but with a 
smaller amplitude than at Montpellier. 

A regular midday depression of the curve takes place to the same 
degree as at Montpeilier. This is due to the vertical ascent of vapor, 
and not to the influence of the sea. 

The solar constant, computed from the observations at Montpellier, 
is nearly 3 calories, and it is believed that the registering apparatus 
and the method when used at greater heights will give a value greater 
than 3 ealories. 

The polarization of the sky-light appears as a rule to be greater the 
greater the solar constant and the smaller the diathermancy. Conse- 
quently the degree of polarization may furnish useful indications for 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN i889. 231 


judging the relative diathermancy. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, 
VI, p. 62.) 

R. Ssawelief has made a series of solar radiation observations at 
Kiew, extending through 1888. The instrument used was a Crova 
actinometer. The yearly range of the intensity of solar radiation at 
Kiew agrees with that at Montpeilier. The principal maximum, 1.59 
calories, occurred on May 8; the principal minimum, 1.15 calories, at 
the winter solstice (on account of the small altitude of the sun). Since 
the values of the radiation are very nearly the same at Montpellier and 
at Kiew, though the latter is 7 degrees farther north, it- follows that in 
Russia the air has a materially greater diathermancy. The variations 
of the diathermancy at Kiew are smaller than at Montpellier. 

The value of the solar constant is computed from a series of forty-two 
measures, nade on January 7, and found to be 2.86 calories. In obtain- 
ing this result, the observations at midday were excluded because they 
showed a smaller radiation than both before and after noon, resulting from 
adiminished diathermancy. This large solar constant, which approaches 
very nearly to Langley’s values, shows again the extraordinary purity 
of the air in Russia on fine winter days. (Comptes Rendus, CVIII, p. 287.) 

Actinometric observations made in 1888 at the Montpellier Observa- 
tory are reported by M. A. Crova as confirming the results established 
by previous observations, namely, that a primary maximum of intensity 
always occurs in spring and a secondary maximum in autumn. (Na- 
ture, XXXIX, p. 504.) 

Dr. J. M. Pernter has discussed the solar radiation observations made 
by Lephay at Cape Horn with a Pouillet pyr-heliometer, and despite the 
fact that such a crude instrument was used, some valuable results are 
derived. ; 

A selection of the best observations, tabulated according to the 
zenith distance of the sun, shows that the diathermancy of the atmos- 
phere increases materially with the zenith distance of the sun. The 
cause of this is attributed to the fact that rising air currents are most 
frequent in summer and in the middle of the day, and that aqueous 
vapor carried to great heights by these convective currents is condensed 
in the upper air strata even on clear days when the amount of condensa- 
tion is not sufficient to be visible. The average summer value of the 
midday diathermancy is 0.55; the average winter value is 0.80. (Me- 
teorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, v1, p. 130.) 

Atmospheric absorption.—Dr. Angstrém has communicated to the 
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholin a contribution on the absorp- 
tion of radiant heat through the various components of the atmosphere. 

Distribution of heat over the earth’s surface.—Dr. Zenker has made 
an elaborate research on the distribution of heat over the earth’s surface, 
taking account not only of the radiation from the sun and absorption 
of heat by the atmosphere, but also of the effect of the distribution of 


cf 


Doo PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


land and water over the earth’s surface. In previous researches on the 
distribution of heat, the mean values have been determined and based 
upon empirical observations; but Dr. Zenker has calculated the distribu- 
tion of heat over the surface of the sea with the help of Hann’s isothermal 
charts, starting with the temperature of a point on its surface which 
was quite uninfluenced by the neighboring continents, and was conse- 
quently equally unaffected by any warm or cold current. Using this 
factor, and the formule deduced in the theoretical part of his paper, 
he has calculated the distribution of heat from the pole to the equator 
for each successive parallel, and compared it with the distribution of 
solar radiation. Asa basis for the distribution of heat over the surface 
of the land, it was first necessary to determine the condition under which 
the intluence of the neighboring sea is either nothing or minimal in 
amount. The starting point for this was the fact that the temperatures 
on the continents exhibit very great variations, and from these was 
determined for each area, as a percentage, the relative influences of the - 
sea and continent upon its temperature. The region where the influ- 
ence of the sea was proved to be nil (or where the “ continentality ” 
was 100 per cent.) was in the neighborhood of the east coast of Asia, 
whereas all other points were found to be affected by the neighboring 
sea to a greater extent. The observed temperature on the land was 
therefore only partly dependent upon the position of the place on any 
given parallel, other influences making themselves more or less felt. 
Hence it was possible to calculate for each parallel the real and ‘ acces- 
sory” temperature. The amount of heat radiated from the sun was 
compared with these temperatures, and was found to be about the same 
for each 10° C. of difference in temperature; from 0° to 10° C. however, 
quite considerable differences in radiation were necessary. In conelu- 
sion, Dr. Zenker compared the temperatures which really exist on the 
earth’s surface with those which he had deduced, and found that in re- 
ality the climate on the sea in the southern hemisphere is colder than it 
should be according to caleulations—a result which must be attributed 
to ocean currents of cold water. The continental climate in the north 
ern hemisphere is slightly too warm, in consequence of the effect of the 
Gulf Stream. (Nature, XXXVI, p. 48.) 

Terrestrial temperature.—Mr. Arthur Searle in a paper entitled 
‘‘Atmospheric economy of solar radiation,” discusses the manner in 
which the assumed protective action of the atmosphere maintains ter- 
restial temperatures. Since the supposed effect of selective absorption 
whereby the atmosphere was supposed to be more diathermanous to solar 
than to terrestrial radiation, has been largely disproved by Langley’s 
experiments, the author points out that heat transferred from the earth 
to the air by conduction and convection is not radiated into space with 
the same facility as it would be if radiated directly from the earth’s sur- 
face. The inerease of energy thus accumulated in the atmosphere is 
checked by the development of atmospheric movements. Warm air is 


. PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 233 


transferred to cold regions where it is cooled by conduction of its heat 
to the cold surface. 
In comments on this paper Professor Ferrel accepts the fact of the 
heating of the air by conduction and by convection as outlined by Mr. 
Searle, but thinks that this circumstance can not have much effect in 
modifying terrestrial temperature. “The whole amount of heat con- 
veyed away from the earth’s surface in the form of latent heat, is per- 
haps one-tenth of that received from the sun and absorbed, and so 
radiated again into space. If this one-tenth part only has a little less 
facility for escaping into space than it would have if radiated directly 
from the earth’s surface, the protective effect can not be very much.” 
In fact the primary assumption that the earth’s mean temperature 
would be much lower than itis, if it were not protected in some way by 
the atmosphere, is by no meanscertain. (Am. Meteor. Journal, V1, p. 173.) 
Decrease of temperature with height.—Dr. Hann, in a discussion of the 
results of observations on the Sonnblick, derives some important form- 
ule expressing the decrease of temperature with height. For yearly 
means he finds that thejtemperature at any elevation is represented by 
the formula 7=8°.0—0°.482h/— 0°.0018h”, in which h/ is the height of the 
station above Salzburg (450 meters) expressed in hectometers. This 
equation shows that the true mean temperature of the air column be- 
tween the summit and base is 09.8 higher than the arithmetical mean of 
the temperature at the summit and base—a result of great importance 
in practical hypsometry. Tor the different seasons the formule for 
decrease of temperature are as follows: 
Winter : T= —2°.1 —0.186h’ —0.0111h” 
Spring : T= 7.1 —0.537h’ —0.0011h”2 
Summer: 77— 18.0 —0.637h’ 
Autumn: T= 9.7 —0.438h’ —0.0031h” 
(Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 33.) 
Mr. 8S. A. Hill has conducted an extended series of observations of 
temperature and humidity at different heights above ground at Allaha- 
bad, and the results are published in Vol. Iv, Part v1, Indian Meteoro- 
logical Memoirs (see Bibliography). From observations at heights of 
4, 46, 104, and 166 feet, the daily range of temperature was found to 
diminish with altitude at a rate represented by the formula 
log. vr =1.324 —0.118h +0.025h? 
in which h is given in hundreds of feet. The formula can be extended 
scarcely 100 feet beyond the observed values. Normal hourly temper- 
atures for each month of the year are given for each of the four eleva 
tions, and from these the temperatures for altitudes of every 20 feet up 
to 200 feet are given for 6 A. M., 2 P. M., and 10 p. M. for each month and 
the year. The results of the observations are also graphically repre- 
sented by contours giving for every 5° the variations of temperature in 
the diurnal period at different heights. Thirteen such sets of isother- 
mal contours give the means for each month and the year. The obser- 
vations of vapor pressure show a minimum from 3 to 4 P. M., followed by 


234 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN i889. . 


a rapid increase; in the months from November to February a maximum 
is reached at 7 Pp. M., while from March to May the maximum occurs at 
about 7 A. M.; but the curve from 8 P. M. to7 A. M. is high and has but 
iittle rise. From June to October there are two maxima, one at 8 A. 
M., the other at 8 P. M. 

Periodicity of temperature.—In the treatment of the mean daily tem- 
perature curves at polar stations, Prof. H. Fritz has perceived aregular 
sequence in the maxima that seems to him to be not purely accidental. 
By placing together the maxima at Jan-Mayen, Godthaab, Fort Rae, 
Uglamie, Vivi on the Congo, and Zurich, he has derived a 13.84-day 
period, or better, the half of a 27.687-day period. This agrees almost 
exactly with the period of sunspots and auroras (see Fritz; Das Polar- 
licht, p. 206), as well as with the period found by Buys Ballot from the 
temperatures at Zwanenburg, Harlem, and Danzig. 

For further proof of the reality of this period, the observations of 
Kane in Smith’s Sound, of the second German North Polar expedition 
to Sabine Island, and of other arctic observers are reduced to the same 
period and compared with the maximum of sunspots. These data also 
show an agreement. 

Temperature anomaly —Dr. Hellmann calls attention to the long-con- 
tinued temperature anomaly which has prevailed over Germany and 
other neighboring countries of western Kurope from the beginning of 
1885 to the present time (April, 1889). By means of graphic charts of 
monthly temperature he shows that the temperature in western 
Germany has for the most part lagged behind the normal. In Loningen, 
of the fifty-one months from January, 1885, to March, 1889, 71 per 
cent. have been too cold. Previous cold periods have occurred in the 
years 183538 and 178487. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, VI, p. 275.) 

Secular variation of temperature.—Mr. William Ellis has tabulated 
and discussed the temperature observations made in England from 
1849 to 1888 with the following results : 























Departure of the mean temperature of five-year 
periods from the forty-year average at stations 
between latitudes— 

Five-year periods. 
51° and 52°./52° and 53°./53° and 54°. At Greene 
wich. 

1BS9RNS53 oe.c tose ciel -nimiepeeeere — 0. 29 — 0.15 — 0.19 + 0.08 
SOA NESS eee ociclc eae sists eee + 0. 01 + 0.11 +0. 40 — 0.04 
SH OR1SGS ace actelo~ coe eels cee + 0.55 +0. 43 + 0. 05 + 0.32 
HERTS 2 a oe oe + 0. 60 1,03 + 0.55 +0. 69 
UGS Babee satectecee cel ece es + .27 + 0.39 + 0. 22 + 0.22 
1S(ASNS (Ohm Sensis esses ce sees + 0.50 + 0. 53 + 0.29 + 0. 38 
TB QEIB BS eases seis ols sloke cin. ='e la — 0.88 — 1.08 — 0.68 — 0. 83 
SS4— BBO r emer cyscvcicic suowiesisiensi==.- —0.74 — 1.23 — 0. 63 — 0.79 
Mean temperature ..-....-...--- 49, 02 48. 24 47,50 49, 49 














(Quar. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc.) 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 235 


VI.—ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE; CONDENSATION, FOGS, HAZE, AND 
CLOUDS; RAIN, SNOW, HAIL, AND FLOOD. 


Amount of water in cloud.—Dr. J. Hann has put together the obser- 
vations on the amount of moisture contained in a given volume of cloud 
at different temperatures. In the experiments made by A. and H. 
Schlaginweit in 1851, the amount of moisture in the water particles in a 
cloud was in every case less than the uncondensed vapor in the same 
volume. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, V1, p. 304.) 

London fog.—In an address on the relation of smoke to fogs in Lon- 
don, Mr. F. A. R. Russell shows that the characteristic London fogs 
are produced by the mechanical combination of particles of water with 
particles of coal or soot. The conditions of their development are a still 
ar, lower temperature near the ground than ata height of some hun- 
dreds of feet, high relative humidity, a cloudless sky, and free radiation 
into space. 

The darkness and peculiar coloring occur with greatest effect when a 
very large quantity of coal is being burnt in domestic fires, hence 8 to 
10 A. M. of the winter season is the time of thickest and darkest fogs. 
The fogs are formed by the mixture of soot and smoke with an 
already existing white fog. <A thick layer of these carbonaceous par- 
ticles prevents the sunshine from reaching and evaporating the particles 
of naturalfog. Thus the fog is blackened and its dissipation is retarded. 
The author estimates that the loss from all sources due to this wasteful 
method of burning coal is for London alone about £5,000,000 a year. 
(Nature, XXX1X, p. 34.) . 

Haze.—Mr. Russell has made an elaborate analysis of the causes and 
character of haze, of which the following is a partial summary : 

Unlike fog, haze commonly occurs when the lower air is in a state of 
unusual dryness. Haze does not prevail on the Continent of Europe or 
in the interior of North America to anything like the same extent as in 
England. On the east coast of Scotland, and over all north Britain, 
if is exceedingly common, especially in the spring, and during the prev- 
alence of east wind. The conditions favorable for the production of 
haze are: (1) A gentle wind from east-southeast to northeast, inclusive, 
and east wind in general, especially with dry weather in spring and 
summer. If the east wind be established up to a great height, the 
lower air is usually clear, but if the upper current is from a westerly 
direction, haze prevails. (2) Fine settled weather, with variable cur- 
rents, a dry air, and little dew. (3) Opposition of currents—such as 
occurs when several shallow barometric depressions exist over the coun- 
try—and the atmospheric state preceding thunder-storms. (4) Damp 
weather, with light winds and varying temperature. 

The very condition to which haze in England is commonly, and in a 
certain sense correctly, attributed—namely, atmospheric humidity—is, 


236 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN i889. 


if sufficiently uniform and extended, least favorable to its manifestation. 
A constant moisture-laden westerly breeze would give a climate nearly 
as clear as that of the southwest corner of France. 

Two principal factors go to the production of ordinary haze; the first, 
a rather large amount of vapor between the earth and a great altitude, 
say 60,000 feet; and the second, a mixture of two heterogeneous masses 
of air. Evidence of the correctness of this proposition is to be found 
in the geographical distribution of haze and the state of the winds 
when it occurs. 

In the majority of cases of east wind, and especially when this wind 
is of brief duration, local or gentle, a westerly wind flows above it at 
no great distance from the surface of the earth. Considering the per- 
petual rapid interchanges (hardly to be called diffusion) going on in the 
atmosphere, the lower wind must be largely mixed with air of a differ- 
ent condition derived: from the westerly current. If @ cold, dry east 
wind be permeated by patches and filaments, however minute, of moister 
and warmer air, they must be cooled by contact with the polar wind, 
and a slight deposition of vapor may take place. Or the countless in- 
visible dust particles may, by increased radiation towards space through 
a drier air, either cause a deposition of moisture upon themselves or 
collect still smaller particles together, as dust is known to collect on 
cold surfaces in a warm air. If deposition of moisture take place, the 
dryness of the air prevents the water particles from growing to any- 
thing like the size of the particles of a fog; a relatively small diffused 
quantity of vaporous air in minute parcels could not produce by con- 
densation any but extremely small and transitory water particles, in 
the aggregate visible through long distances, but probably individually 
beyond the power of the miscroscope to discern. They may be com- 
pared to the blue mist escaping from the safty-valve of a boiler under 
high pressure, the invisible steam turns for a moment blue and then to 
the ordinary white of visible steam. The haze may possibly be equally 
momentary in duration, disolving long before reaching the white stage, 
but fresh filaments are perpetually keeping up the process and giving 
the appearance of a persistence like that of smoke or dust. 

The evidence concerning the appearance of haze by irregular trans- 
mission of light due to unequally heated currents of transparent air 
seems to be quite insufficient, and however great the heat near the sur- 
face of the ground, say in the desert, with consequent distortion of 
images, it does not, as a rule, bring about the haze so common in tem- 
perate climates. (Nature, Xt, p. 60.) 

In a communication in Nature, Mr. J. H. Poynting suggests that com- 
mon summer haze may be due to local convection currents, which by 
reason of their difference of temperature and density render the air op- 
tically heterogeneous. The light received from any object is more or 
less irregularly refracted, and on account of the motion of the currents 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Zot 


its path is continually varying. The outline of the object has a tremu- 
lous motion, and so becomes ill defined. At the same time reflection 
occurs where there is refraction at the surfaces of separation of hetero- 
geneous portions, and the reflected light is diffused as a general glare. 
The combination of the quivering of outline and the loss of direct light, 
as a diffused glare, may possibly give the appearance called haze which 
is seen in the middle of a hot, cloudless, summer day. The author 
mentions other cases of haze which may possibly be likewise due to op- 
tical heterogeneity. (Nature, XXXIx, p. 323.) 

In a series of letters to Nature by a number of prominent scientists, 
a valuable contribution has been made to our knowledge of the peculiar 
characteristics of different types of haze. Professor Tyndall opened 
the subject by reporting his observations of the prevalence in the val- 
leys of the Alps of a fine haze appearing as long horizontal strice. 
Amid the haze were often patches of cloud which disappeared under the 
sun’s rays, leaving the permanent haze behind. From this fact he is 
certain the haze is not aqueous, and suggests that it may be due to 
autumn pollen in the air. 

Mr. Johnston-Lavis corroborates the observation that haze assumes 
the form of horizontal strata, and supports the theory of its micro- 
organic nature. During the hottest and driest weather of summer, 
haze similar to that observed by Professor Tyndall in the Alps can be 
seen in the Gulf of Naples and other parts of the Mediterranean coasts 
at an average altituce of 1,500 feet and rarely reaching 2,000 feet. 

M. @’Abbadie furnishes a valuable list of special names by which. 
such haze is designated in many warm countries, where it is most fre- 
quently observed. In Ethiopia, where it is called qobar, this haze is of 
extraordinary density and hides all the features of the landscape be- 
yond the distance of a mile, and conceals stars of the third magnitude 
even in the zenith. Observations of its occurrence are quoted from 
Peru, Hayti, Switzerland, Spain, and other localities; its color is a light 
buff, and when dense, a “lurid gray, verging to blackness.” 

W. Clement Ley reports that the horizontal layers of haze may be 
frequently seen throughout the British Isles at times when the atmos- 
phere at the eartl’s surface is nearly calm and moderately dry. He 
has given it the specific name of dust-haze, and distinguishes it from 
the ordinary water haze by its color; dust-haze appears of a reddish 
buff tint, while water haze usually appears gray or blue in reflected 
light, and yellow, orange, or red in transmitted light. 

Classification of clouds.—Prof. H, H. Hildebransson has submitted to 
the Meteorological Congress at Paris (September, 1889) a report on 
the classification of clouds, adopted by Mr. Abercromby and himself, 
and urges its general adoption. This classification distinguishes ten 
forms, as follows: 

1. Cirrus. 2. Cirro-stratus, a thin cloud veil composed of thickly 
compagted cirrus fibres, indicative of rain, 3, Cirro-cumulus, small 


238 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


globular cloudlets, commonly called mackerel sky. 4. Cumulo-cirrus 
or alto-cumulus, a form intermediate between cirro-cumulus and strato- 
cumulus, of a large globular form like white wool packs. 5. Strato- 
cirrus or alto-stratus, a thick gray or bluish layer of cloud at an aver- 
age elevation of 17,000 feet. 6. Strato-cumulus, large rounded masses 
of gray cloud, sometimes called roll-eumulus. 7. Nimbus. 8. Cumu- 
lus. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, the thunder cloud. 10. Stratus, an elevated 
sheet of mist or fog. 

In order that the exact forms of cloud to which the names apply may 
be learned and the names be properly used, the author calls attention 
to the photographs in his Classification des nwages, aud also recom- 
mends the new cloud-atlas, published by Gustav Seitz Nachfolger, of 
Hamburg. 

Results of rain, river, and evaporation observations made in New South 
Wales during 1888, by H. C. Russell.—This volume contains a most val- 
uable collection of meteorological and hydrographic data, tabulated, 
charted, and discussed. The rain-fall from eight hundred and seventy 
stations is given for each month and the year, together with the great- 
est daily rain-fall in each month, the mean annual, and the number of 
years of observation. The mean annual precipitation ranges in differ- 
ent districts from 10 to 68 inches. The year 1888 is the driest upon 
record, and in striking contrast with 1887, the wettest on record. The 
rain-fall for the year is charted on a large scale map by red circles at 
each station of observation. The monthly distribution of rain is shown 
for each square degree by twelve blocks proportional in length to 
the monthly amount. <A third diagram shows the stage of the rivers 
above mean summer level. Tables of average daily evaporation for 
each month are given for nine stations. These show a range of 36 


to 65 inches in the total evaporation for the year. Comparative obser- 


vations on the amount of evaporation from water, grass, and earth sur- 
face show that when the soil is saturated the evaporation proceeds at 
a rate greater than from a water surface. The value of these observa- 
tions would have been increased if surface temperatures had been 
taken. 

For the Murray River the annual discharge ranges from 20 to 40 per 
cent. of the rain-fall over its catchment area, while for the Darling the 
discharge is in general less than 3 per cent. of its rain-fall. 

Rain-fall of India.—Parts rH and 1v, vol. 11, Indian Meteorological 
Memoirs, published in 1888, bring to a close Blanford’s great monograph 
on the rain-fall of India. Part 11 treats of the variability of the rain- 
fall, and is summarized in Part ur. As a rule stations having the 
smallest average rain-fall are those at which the variability of rain-fall 
is greatest; this is specially true of stations situated in dry plains or 
table lands which yield but little local evaporation, and where the winds 
from opposite quarters are strongly contrasted in point of dryness and 
dampness. 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 239 


In a brief discussion of the relations of forests to rain-fall, three cases 
are adduced all of which confirm the view that the forests have increased 
the rain-fall, but the evidence is stated to be in no case absolutely con- 
clusive. 

The remaining portion of the memoir is occupied with the considera- 
tion of the questions as to whether any laws of coincidence or sequence 
can be derived; whether certain regions are, as arule, subject simultane- 
ously to similar or alternative conditions, whether any physical connee- 
tion can be traced between abnormal meteorological conditions in ¢ 
given region and the excess or deficiency of rain-fall there or elsewhere, 
and whether there are valid reasons for believing that the rain-fall of 
India is subject to any periodic law. 

Diurnal period of rain-fall at Caleutta.—Mr. H. F. Blanford has found 
the following times of maximum and minimum in the daily period of 
rain at Calcutta. In the cold season (November to February) the prin- 
cipal minimum occurs at noonday, the maximum from 6 to 9 P. M.; in the 
hot season (March to May) there is only one well defined maximum and 
minimum, the former falling from 6 to 8 P. M., the latter between sunrise 
and 11 A. mM. In the rainy season the principal maximum occurs from 
2to4Pp.M., and the principal minimum a little before 11 A.M. The 
daily period in the amount of rain agrees, in general, with the period 
of rain frequency. (Indian Meteor. Memoirs, Iv, pp. 39-46.) 

Diurnal period of rain-fall.—Dr. Hellmann has reported to the German 
Meteorological Society some of the results of his investigations upon 
the daily period of precipitation. He shows that the different curves 
may be reduced to types which are characteristic of certain localities 
and seasons. ‘The afternoon maximum prominent in many places may 
be shown to rise naturally from the daily period of thunder-storms, 
whilst the equally widely extended nocturnal maximum, which is es- 
pecially prominent in winter, and in all seasons on the west coast of 
Europe, appears to be connected with certain peculiarities in the daily 
period of air pressure, temperature, and wind velocity. (Jleteorolo- 
gische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 271.) 

Diurnal periodicity of rain-fall at Hong IKkong.—In the rainy season, 
from June to August, the diurnal variation is most strongly marked. 
The rain curves then run from a forenoon maximum at 9 A. M. to an 
evening minimum at 11 P.M. From March to May, the principal maxi- 
mum falls at noon and the principal minimum at 7 P.M. In autumn 
and winter the diurnal curve is quite irregular. (Ibid., p. 350.) 

Daily period of rain-fall at Vienna.—The general results of the self- 
recording rain-fall observations for seven years at Vienna have been 
worked out by Hann. When given in groups of two months each no 
regular diurnal period is manifest, but in the total of seven months 
from April to October a periodicity is clearly expressed. The princi- 
pal maximum of both frequency and quantity of rain occurs at the hour 


240 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


between 8 and 9 p.m. Hours of minimum amounts of rain-fall are 4 
to5 A.M. and 11 A.M. to noon. For the results of the spring, summer, 
and autumn months, which by themselves are somewhat irregular, a 
periodic formula of two terms is computed, and from examination of 
the computed results the essential periodicity of the various groups is 
discoverable. For all three seasons the minimum of rain-fall is between 
9 A.M, and noon, the maximum in spring falls from 10 to 11 P. M., that 
in summer from 7 to 8 P. M., and in autumn from 2 to 3 A. M., with a 
secondary maximum from 8 to 9 Pp. M. - The late hour of the maximum 
is in contrast with the general assumption that it occurs in the early 
afternoon. 

Secular variation of rain-fall.—Professor. Frank Waldo gives three 
tables containing the mean residuals of five-year periods from the mean 
rain-fall. The first is taken from Dr. Wild’s ‘“‘ Regen Verhdaltnisse des 
Rus. Reiches;” the second is from Dr. Lang’s article, “Der saculare 
Verlauf der Wetterung als Ursache der Gletcherschwankungen in den 
Alpen,” and the third is compiled from American observations. The 
writer finds evidence in these tables of a long-period inequality having 
the following periods: 





| v 
Min. to max | Max. to min. Total 
a period. 
Years. | 
Mablertss. sane stoses 18.5 | 19.6 38 
Mabie cases teak Dud eel Widls 8 34 
| 12.3 25 


Table Te ses sears 12.9 





The maximum at one station is often found to occur at the time of a 
minimum at another.* (Am. Meteor. Journal, v, p. 412.) 

Causes of rain.—Professor von Bezold, in a paper before the Berlin 
Meteorological Society, discussed the manner of formation of precipita- 
tion. The mixing of warm moist air with cold air by which the tempera- 
ture falls to the mean of the two can but seldom produce an appreciable 
precipitation. Precipitation occurs only when a mass of moist air is 
directly cooled, as in nature, chiefly by radiation and ascension. Clouds 
are most dense in the center of a cyclone where the pressure is a mini- 
mum, and are progressively less dense toward the periphery. 

Mr. H. F. Blanford, in a letter to Nature, discusses the humid climate 
that fosters the rank exuberance of the Aruwhimi forests traversed by 
Stanley’s expedition. He believes the excessive rain-fall is due to the 
equatorial position of the Aruwhimi basin where ascending convection 
currents prevail on a gigantic scale. By dynamic cooling these currents 





«This is different from the result derived by Dr. E. Briickner. (Ante, pp. 217, 218.) 
Gabi: 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 241 


part with nearly the whole of their vapor in the act of ascending and 
so do not carry away to other regions the water evaporated from the 
surface; the same water is evaporated and precipitated again and 
again, and the only loss of water to be supplied by outside winds is 
that carried off by river drainage, probably less than half of the rain-fall. 
“As the result of a long study of the rain-fall of India, I have become 
convinced that dynamic cooling, if not the sole cause of rain, is at all 
events the only cause of any importance, and that all the other causes 
so frequently appealed to, such as the intermingling of warm and cold 
air, contact with cold mountain slopes, ete., are either inoperative or 
relatively insignificant.” (Nature, XXXIX, p. 583.) 

Accuracy in measuring rain-fall—F rom a long series of rain-fall obser- 
vations Dr. A. Riggenbach draws the following important conclusions 
as to the accuracy attainable : 

(1) The irregularity in the areal distribution of rain-fall is so great 
that the amounts collected in neighboring gauges, similarly exposed, 
differ on the average by 0.8™™ and in extreme cases by 5™™. Add to this 
0.2™" for instrumental errors, and it will be seen that an accuracy of 
0.5" is sufficient in the individual daily readings. 

(2) In counting the days of precipitation the minimum amount of 
precipitation considered should not be under 0.5™™, 

(3) In monthly totals, fractions of a millimeter have no meaning. 

(4) Yearly totals which agree to 0,5°™ are to be treated as identical. 
(Meteor. Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 156.) 

Hailstones, structure of.—Mr. E. E. Robinson gives the accompanying 
diagram of the cross-section of a hailstone measuring 2.9 centimeters in 
diameter. The center was circular and consisted of opaque ice, about 
the size of an ordinary hailstone; this was surrounded by a circle of 
almost perfectly clear ice, this again by a circle of opaque ice, and this 
once more was surrounded by almost clear ice, but with fine circular 
lines in it, and bounded by a frilled outline of opaque ice, which imi- 
tated in shape the spheroidal state of a drop of 
water. Outside this again was a thick layer of 
clear ice of crystalline form. The diagramisdrawn 
natural size, the dark spots representing white 
opaque ice. Other large stones showed the same 
construction. Mr. C. D. Holt, in examining hail- 
stones, has detected a metallic taste and also a 
flavor of ozone. All the stones showed an air- 
bubble at the center. (Nature, xu, p. 151.) 


Lloods in the middle Atlantic States from May 31 to June 8, 1889.—The 
following description of unprecedented rains and floods is collated from 
articles by Prof. T. Russell, of the Signal Service, and Prof. Lorin 
Blodgett, of Philadelphia, in the Monthly Weather Review for May and 
June: 

H. Mis. 224——-16 





242 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


a 


A general storm, central in the Ohio valley on the 30th, passed slowly 
eastward over the Alleghanies ip Virginia, where it remained until the 
evening of the 31st. Its slow movement was attended by conditions 
favorable to continued heavy rains,—east and southeast winds along the 
coast, high temperature, and dense saturation. As this saturated con- 
dition reached the higher ridges of the Alleghanies it developed the 
most excessive rain-fall of the century for so large an area, depositing a 
uniform sheet of from 6 to 8 inches of rain-fall during a continuous 
storm of from twenty-four to fifty-six hours’ duration. This rain-fall 
was in sheets or masses rather than in drops, being described as “ cloud- 
bursts” by observers in localities from Pennsylvania to Virginia. The 
intensity of the barometric depression was not large, but on the other 
hand rather small. At Pittsburgh the fall of the barometer was about 
one-fourth of an inch only, and the lowest isobars were 29.7 on the 30th 
and 29.8 on the 31st. 

A table is given containing all the rain-fall observations made in the 
middle Atlantic States during the period of heavy rains, and approxi- 
mate isohyetal lines are presented on charts. The times of beginning of 
rain are not very accordant, but the observations indicate that the prog- 
ress of rain was from the coast inland, and from the south toward the 
north. The greatest rain-fall was in the northeast quadrant of the bar- 
ometric depression, where there was a steep temperature gradient, the 
temperature increasing from 40° in the lake region to 70° on the Atlan- 
tic coast. 

The floods resulting from these rains extended from southern New York 
over Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Virginias, were unprecedented in 
height, and the most destructive ever occurring in the United States. 
A detailed statement of the enormous loss of life and property in the 
flooded region would require more space than is here available. Cities 
were inundated, bridges swept away, canals washed out, harbor im- 
provements damaged, and millions of dollars worth of property de- 
stroyed. As a culmination of these disasters, the dam on the South 
Fork above Johnstown, Pennsylvania, gave way, and the immense body 
of water in the reservoir swept down upon that city and adjoining vil- 
lages, causing the loss of nine thousand lives and thirty million dollars’ 
worth of property. 


ViI.—WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS; GENERAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCU- 
LATION. 


The Helm wind.—Mr. W. Marriott has presented to the Royal Meteor- 
ological Society a report on the Helm-wind—a wind peculiar to the 
Cross Fell Range of mountains in Cumberland. This range is high, 
and runs from north-northwest to south-southeast without being cut 
through by any valley. From the top of the mountains to the plain 
on the west there is an abrupt fall of from 1,000 to 1,500 feet in a mile 
and a half. At times, when the wind is from some easterly point, the 


— 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 243 


Helm forms over the district, the chief features of the phenomenon 
being the following: A heavy bank of cloud rests along the Cross Fell 
range, at times reaching some distance down the western slapes, while 
at a distance of 2 or 3 miles from the foot of the Fella slender roll of dark 
cloud appears in mid-air and parallel with the Helm cloud; this is the 
Helm bar. The space between the Helm cloud and the bar is usually 
quite clear, while to the westward the sky is at times completely covered 
with cloud. A cold wind rushes down the side of the Fell and blows 
violently till it reaches a spot nearly underneath the Helm bar, when 
it snddenly ceases. The Helm wind was observed sixty-three times in 
1886, and nineteen times in 1887. (Nature, XXXIX, p. 431.) 

Wind velocity in the United States.—Mr. F. Waldo, in an extended 
paper on the distribution of wind velocity in the United States, divides 
the signal service stations into typical groups, and plots the annual 
march of wind velocities for each group. The relation of wind velocity 
to areas of low pressure and the variation with altitude are discussed, 
and charts are given showing the January, July, and annual distribu- 
tion. (Am. Meteor. Journal, V1, pp. 219, 300, 368.) 

Sea-breeze.—Prof. W. M. Davis has made a report to the New England 
Meteorological Society, giving the results of special observations of 
the sea-breeze at one hundred stations, chiefly in Massachusetts. 

The general theory that the sea-breeze is caused by the difference of 
temperature between the land and water requires the breeze to begin 
at the shore and to extend its area seaward, while observation shows 
that the breeze begins out at sea and works its way in-shore. It may 
be explained by supposing that the circulation of air is not established, 
but in process of establishment, and that the quick morning expansion 
of the land air causes a reverse gradient at the shore line, turning the 
surface winds toward the sea. This gradient disappears as the expan- 
sion of the air causes an upper outflow, and then the inland progress of 
the sea-breeze is effected. There should in this case be a difference of 
barometrie pressure at land and sea stations, and such observations of 
pressure and temperature have been made by Blanford in India. 

The depth of sea-breeze was determined by balloon observations at 
Coney Island to be between 300 and 400 feet. (Am. Meteor. Journal, 
VI, p 4.) 

Ocean currents.—Prince Albert of Monaco has presented to the Paris 
Academy of Sciences a paper on the surface currents of the North 
Atlantic. Of 1,675 floats cast into the sea from the Hirondelle, 146 have 
already been recovered at various points. These apparently demon- 
strate a circular movement of the surface waters round a point situated 
somewhere to the southwest of the Azores. The outer edge of this 
current sets east-northeast to the neighborhood of the English Channel, 
where it is deflected southward along the coasts of Europe to the Cana- 
ries, thence trending southeast to the equatorial current, thus com. 
pleting the circuit by merging in the Gulf Stream. (Nature, XL, p. 
167.) 


244 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


General circulation of the atmosphere.—M. Moller contributes an arti- 
cle to Aus dem Archiv der Deutschen Seewarte on the circulation of the 
atmosphere between the equator and the poles. The results arrived at 
differ from those of Professor Ferrel, especially with regard to the force 
of westerly winds in latitude 38° in the lower and upper strata. 

M. Weyher has instituted a most interesting series of experiments 
designed to illustrate the cyclonic phenomena of the atmosphere, espe- 
cially tornadoes, water-spouts, and dust whirls, and has found that his 
results agree in every point with those deduced from the mathematical 
theory of their movement. In one of his first experiments M. Weyher 
shows the analogy between water eddies and air whirls. In the water 
eddy the source of action must be at some distance below the surface, 
while in the air whirls the source of action must be located in the wpper 
part of the air column, and the motion is communicated downwards. 
The most interesting of his experiments are those in which he artifi- 
cially produces the phenomena of the water-spout. By meansof arotating 
tourniquet placed over cold water, an aerial eddy is caused which draws 
up the water, in the form of a spout composed of drops, to a considerable 
height; but when the water is heated, a clearly defined condensed vapor- 
spout makesits appearance. With from fifteen hundred to two thousand 
rotations per minute the vapor from the heated water is found to con 
dense itself into a visible sheet enveloping a clearly defined and rarefied- 
central nucleus, conical, and tapering downwards. Besides this vapor- 
spout, water drops are carried up as in natural water-spouts until they 
are thrown out beyond the influence of the upward current; the press- 
ure and temperature conditions in different parts of the area are also 
investigated by means of amanometer. It was found that the rarefac- 
tion at the center of the tourniquet is transmitted almost unaltered in 
intensity to the center of the whirl on the surface, while the thermome- 
ter at the same time at first shows a fall and then a rise of temperature, 
the latter evidently due to the friction of the rapidly moving air against 
the surface. 

The analogous phenomena of a cyclone are very fairly imitated by an 
apparatus consisting of a large tourniquet placed over a table covered 
with a number of pins mounted with movable threads of wool; the 
tourniquet is mounted so as to be capable of translation as well as rota- 
tion, and changes of pressure are registered by a manometer which 
connects with a hole in the surface of the table by means of a rubber 
tube. On rotating the tourniquet and giving it a forward motion, the 
directions and positions of the threads shew both the horizontal and 
vertical Components of the winds thus produced, including the region 
of calm in the center as well as the outward and downward motion at 
the anti-cyclonic border, The variations of pressure, when pointed 
out, show a curve similar to that in a symmetrical cyclone. 

Hail is explained as being caused by vapor drawn up into the center 
of a cyclonic system, and is essentially similar to the explanation given 
by Ferrel and Moller. These experiments do not of course fulfill all 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 245 


the conditions which prevail in nature, since, in that case, the rotation 
is doubtless kept up by the upward movement along the axis and the 
consequent aspiration of the surrounding air into the area of gyration, 
but in general the analogy seems quite complete. (Nature, XXXVIII, 
p. 104.) 

Mr. Ralph Abercromby has made special observations on the upper 
wind currents over the equator in the Atlantic Ocean. In December 
(1888) the northeast and southeast trades both turned into a commen, 
light-surface, easterly current along the line of the doldrums; low clouds 
from southeast drove over the northeast trade up to 15° north, and from 
300 miles south of the equator, a very high current from northwest pre- 
vailed over the southeast trade. From the equator southward 300 niles, 
no high observations were obtained. In May a somewhat different 
system prevailed. The northeast trade turned to north as it approached 
the doldrums, instead of towards the east, as in December. In the calm 
belt, it met a light, easterly current without producing much rain; 
while further south the regular southeast trade was experienced as tar 
south as 8° south, when the northeast monsoon prevailed along the 
Brazilian coast nearly down to Rio Janeiro. No southeast wind could 
be discovered at any level over the northeast trade. 

These observations are held to confirm in a striking manner his pre- 
vious discovery ‘*‘ that the highest air current over the equatorial dol- 
drums is from the eastward, lying between the southwest current which 
flows on one side over the northeast trade, and the northwest current 
which flows on the other side over the southeast trade.” 

With respect to the general circulation of the atmosphere we know 
that the surface trades either die out at the doldrums or unite into one 
moderate east current; that the low and middle currents over the dol- 
drums are very variable, but that the winds at these low and middle 
levels, 2,000 to 20,000 feet, come usually from the southeast over the 
northeast trade, and from the northeast over the southeast trade, and 
that the highest currents—over 20,000 feet—move from east over the 
doldrums, from southwest over the northeast trade, and from northwest 
over the southeast trade. 

What we do not know is the relation of the southeast low and middle 
current over the northeast trade to the southeast trade on the other 
side of the equator, nor do we yet know what becomes of this middle 
current in the northern hemisphere. 

The simple scheme which assumes nothing but an upward current over 
the doldrums, and a return current toward each pole is not confirmed by 
observations. There is always a regular vertical succession of the upper 
currents as we ascend according to the hemisphere. (Nature, XL, p. 297.) 

Thermo-dynamics of the atmosphere.—Dr. W. von Bezold has continued 
his contribution upon the thermo dynamics of the atmosphere in the 
Sitsungsberichte of the Berlin Academy. The whole series of papers ~ 
are being prepared by Professor Abbe for publication in this Report. 


246 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


VIIL—BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AND ITS VARIATIONS; HYPSOMETRY. 


Die Vertheilung des Luftdruckes iiber Mittel- und Siid-Huropa darge- 
stellt auf Grundlage der 30jahrigen Monats- und Jahres- Mittel, 1851-1880; 
nebst allgemeinen Untersuchungen iiber die Verdnderlichkeit der Luftdruck- 
Mittel und Differenzen, sowie deren mehrjihrige Periode, von J. Hann, 
Wien, 1887. This volume is ‘‘Band 11, Heft 2,” of the Geographische 
Abhandlungen, published by Prof. Dr. A. Penck. It is divided into 
the following sections: Introduction. Chapter 1. On the methods for 
obtaining comparable mean air pressures and for drawing correct iso- 
bars. u. Monthly and annual isobars of central and southern Europe. 
m1. Annual period in the air pressure relations of Hurope. Iv. Con- 
nection between the air pressure anomalies of Europe and the tem- 
perature anomalies in central Europe. v. The mean and absolute 
variability of the monthly and annual means of air pressure. VI. The 
probable error of the thirty-year mean air pressure. Vu. The variabil- 
ity of the differences of the mean air pressure of two places. VIII. Re- 
duction to the normal! period of 1851-1880. 1x. Reduction of the mean 
air pressures to the same level. x. Many year period of the air pressure. 

The three plates at the end of the volume contain the isobars for each 
month and the year reduced to sea-level, and for January, May, July, 
October, and the year reduced to 500 meters elevation. The annual 
period of air pressure in various portions of Europe is presented by dia- 
grains. The curves are quite irregular, showing the phases from conti- 
nental to oceanic climates. Therelation between the temperature and 
air pressure deviations for the seasons is investigated by Professor 
Hann. One conclusion reached is that “in all eases of very warm 
winter in central Europe the air pressure in the northwest over the 
Atlantic Ocean was too low; if central Europe alone be considered, 
very cold winters occur just as frequently by high as by low pressure.” 
The following table shows approximately the dependence on the lati- 
tude of the average variability of the monthly and annual air pressures : 


Latitude. | 60° | 56° | 52° 





| 48° | 46° | 43° | 36° | 32° : 20 
ee aes S| foo 10 co a oe | Aree 
ie | | | 
mm, | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. 
Mean monthly.....-...-.| 3.06. | ie 2,92 | 2.58 | 2.34 | 1.95 | 1.80 | 1.48 | 1.00 | 0.40 
ANDAs <c.ciaeisic wists, sesialete ie 1.14 *| 0:96) | (0.°78;,|| 05721) O59) 025640548) fO586R zeae 














. a = omer a os 





(Ff. Waldo, Am. Meteor. Journal, V, p. 511.) 


Effect of lunar attraction on the atmosphere.—Professor Bornstein, of 


Berlin, has taken up the question of the effect of the moon’s attraction 
on the atmosphere. At Singapore, Melbourne, St. Helena, and Batavia 
observers have succeeded in establishing a daily variation in the baro- 
meiric pressure dependent upon the moon, and having two maxima and 


2 
: 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 247 


two minima, with an amplitude varying from 0.079 to 0.2 millimeters. 
But opposed to these are the observations of Laplace on the variations 
of the barometer at Paris, as also of Kreil in Prague, and Bessel’s 
observations on atmosphere refraction. <All these last-named observers 
found that the action of the moon on the earth’s atmosphere is either 
nil, or else the reverse of that described. Professor Bornstein then 
discussed the question whether any ebb or flow of the atmosphere could 
possibly be detected by the means at our disposal, and showed that the 
mercurial barometer can never give indications of such action, since it 
is itself affected by the alterations of gravity that are due to the vary- 
ing position of the moon. He explained the phenomena observed at 
the four stations mentioned above as due to the fact that they are 
situated on the sea-coast at places on the earth’s surface where the ebb 
and flow of the sea is very considerable. The barometric effect is, 
then, a secondary one, due to the changing position of the sea-level. 
(Nature, XXxXtx, p. 600.) 

Charts of barometric pressure.—The Meteorological Council have pub- 
lished charts showing the mean barometric pressure over the Atlantic, 
Indian, and Pacific Oceans. These are issued in the form of an atlas, 
and give in a very complete manner the barometric means and rain 
over all oceans. Separate charts are given for February, May, August, 
and November, which are selected to represent the characteristic dis- 
tribution of pressure for the respective seasons. The number of observa- 
tions used in the preparation of the charts is, for the Atlantic Ocean, 
539,300; Indian Ocean, 163,000; Pacific Ocean, 88,300. The baro- 
metric means are given for areas of 5 degrees of latitude by 5 degrees 
of longitude in large figures, and in smaller figures are given the mean 
for areas of 2 degrees in latitude and longitude, the several means being 
obtained from the daily averages; the isobars are given for each tenth 
of an inch. The general charts which give the isobars of the globe 
show very clearly the prevalence of high pressure areas in each ocean 
in each of the four seasons; it is seen that these areas oscillate in posi- 
tion and alter somewhat in intensity with the seasons, but there are 
many characteristics in common. The Northern Indian Ocean, which 
is much more surrounded by land, is however an exception, the high 
pressure being situated over the northern part of the ocean in Novem- 
ber and February and decreasing southwards, whilst in May and August 
the pressure is lowest in the north and increases southwards, this change 
being closely related to the monsoon winds. These charts are consid- 
erably in advance of any previous work of a similar nature, and will 
materially aid in explaining the general circulation of the wind over 
the globe. (Nature, XXXVIII, p. 196.) 

Diurnal variation of the sroner .—Mr. Henry F. Blanford has made 
an important study of the relations of the diurnal barometric maxima 
to certain critical conditions of temperature, cloud and rain-fall. The 
author has re-examined the suggestion made by Espy (1840) and Kreil 


248 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


(1861), that the morning maximum of pressure is due to a reaction of 
the upper cloud layers against the expanding lower air, and finds that 
the results of observations at Calcutta, Melbourne, and Batavia are, 
on the whole, favorable to this hypothesis, since the morning maximum 
of pressure approximately coincides with the instant when the temper. 
ature is rising most rapidly. At tropical stations the barometric max- 
imum follows the time of most rapid heating by a shorter or longer 
interval, but this may probably be attributed to the action of con- 
vection which must accelerate the time of most rapid heating near the 
ground surface; while the barometric effect, if real, must be determine: 
by the condition of the atmosphere up to a great height. With refer- 
ence to Lamont’s criticism of Espy’s theory, a condition is pointed out 
which alters the data of the problem, viz, the resistance that must be 
offered to the passage of the pressure wave through the extremely cold 
and highly attenuated strata of the upper atmosphere. With respect 
to the evening maximum of pressure it is pointed out that in India, 
and also at Melbourne, there is a strongly marked minimum of cloudi- 
ness between sunset and midnight, which on the average coincides with 
the evening maximum of the barometer. In the author’s opinion these 
and other facts seem to indicate a compression and dynamic heating of 
the cloud-forming strata, and that therefore the diurnal barometric 
oscillations are dynamic phenomena. (Nature, XXXVI, p. 70.) 


Mr. H. H. Clayton has a paper on the annual and diurnal periods of 
the barometer. Ieferring to the result pointed out by General Greely 
that the epochs of maxima and minima of air pressure show a coinci- 
dence, the author traces the probable cause of the occurrences of the 
maxima to the expansion and overflow of air from Asia and America 
to the pole; and of the minima at the pole to the fact that the overflow 
from the pole towards those continents is not replaced by an influx in 
that direction from the oceans. Theretardations of the annual maximum 
from the Arctic region to the equator, and of the minimum from the 
southern parts of the continent to the Arctic region, is also attributed 
to the relative heating and cooling of the continent and oceans. (Am. 
Meteor. Journal, V1, p. 150.) 


Mr. A. Angot, in a paper on the diurnal variation of the barometer 
(Annuaire Soc. Méteor. de France), finds that the diurnal variation results 
from the superposition of two distinct waves. One of these is expres- 
sible as a harmonic function, the constants of which depend on the 
latitude and geographical features; this wave is due to the diurnal 
variation of temperature of the air near the earth’s surface. 

The second wave has a semi diurnal period and its amplitude varies 
with the latitude of the place and with the declination of the sun. 

Dr. J. Hann has made an exhaustive investigation of the diurnal 
range of the barometer over the globe. He las caleulated the harmonic 
co-efficients for each month, and for the year, for a large number of 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 249 


places, and has investigated the variation both of the phases and of 
the amplitudes of the single and double oscillations. The latter show a 
remarkable independence of geographical and seasonal influences and 
appear to be connected with a cosmical origin. The investigation also 
shows that the amplitudes of the semi-diurnal oscillation decrease with 
height in exact proportion to the pressure, and have a marked depend- 
ence upon Jatitude. The yearly range exhibits two maxima at the equi- 
noxes and also a third maximum which falls in January in both nemi- 
spheres, while over the whole globe the amplitude of the double daily 
oscillation is smallest in July. (Nature, XXXrx, p. 517.) 


Mr. F. C. Bayard has reduced the hourly records of the barometer at 
the nine observatories, in Great Britain and Ireland for the years 1876 
to 1880, and has compared the resulting curves of diurnal range. 

The curves of inland places are smoother than those of sea-coast 
stations, and the curves of places to the westward are more irregular 
than those of places to the eastward. In going toward the north the 
diurnal range diminishes. (Natwre, XXXIX, p. 623.) 

Krakatoa air waves.—Part 1 of the report of the Krakatoa com- 
mittee of the Royal Society, has been prepared by General R. Strachey 
and investigates the extraordinary air waves and sounds caused by the 
Krakatoa eruption. Barometer traces from forty-seven stations scat- 
tered over the whole world exhibit the passage of air waves travelling 
around the world not less than seven times. The general velocity at 
which the wave spread outward in concentric circles from Krakatoa as 
a center was 700 miles per hour, which is slightly less than the velocity 
of sound at zero Fahr., viz, 723 miles. A decided variation of velocity 
was discovered in those portions of the wave which moved with or 
against the earth’s rotation, such variation being due to the prevalent 
drift of the winds. 

In the extra-tropics the wave moving from west to east was acceler- 
ated, and that moving from east to west retarded, by about 14 miles 
per hour; within the tropics the wave which passed through Mauritius 
was affected in a reverse manner, the passage eastward being retarded, 
while the westward was comparatively unaffected, the amount corre- 
sponding to an east wind of about 10 miles per hour. These amounts 
are almost precisely those given by Ferrel for the easterly and westerly 
components of the prevailing currents at their respective latitudes. 

The area over which the sound of the eruption was heard is estimated 
at one-thirteenth of the entire earth’s surface. (Natwre, XXx1x, p. 566.) 

A curious sudden barometric oscillation passed over central Europe 
on the evening of January 31, 1889. Dr. E. Herrmann, of the Deutsche 
Seewarte, traces it from Kertum (latitude 54° 54’), where it occurred at 
7" 50™ p. M., Berlin time, to Pola (latitude 49° 42’), which it reached 
at 4" 38" A. M., on February 1, having travelled at the rapid rate of 
about 71 miles an hour. The cause of the phenomenon is unexplained. 


250 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN i889. 


Hypsometry.—Dr. J. M. Pernter gives the following hypsometric— 
formula: 


t! t!/ 
h = 18399.8 (lta - ax 


E 40.378 . a( s ae 3») | x 


(1 + 0.00259 cos 2 pm) x 


5 2eth ee 
(1 + 3 * 6371103) 18 yw): 


in which 2 is the altitude above sea-level of the lower station, and b’/, 
b” are barometer heights corrected, not only for temperature and in- 
strumental error, but for differences in gravity between the two places. 
Accompanying the formula there is given a series of tables which for 
the most part have been newly computed. (Repertorium der Physik, 
1888, p. 161.) 








IX.—CYCLONES; TORNADOES; THUNDER-STORMS; WATER-SPOUTS; GEN- 
ERAL WEATHER RELATIONS. 

Hurricane theories.—Hon. Ralph Abercromby compares the old and 
the modern views of hurricanes. The old conception was of acireular- 
Shaped eddy, round which the wind blew in circles. Modern research 
shows that a hurricane is an oval eddy, and that the wind blows in an 
incurving spiral round the vortex, not round the center of the oval, 
and that the incurvature is less in front than in rear of the vortex. A 
hurricane is always changing its shape, so that the vortex is one day 
on one side of the oval, and towards another side on the next. 

No rule is possible for determining absolutely the bearing of the vor- 
tex by observations on board a single ship, whereas it used to be stated 
that facing the wind the vortex bore eight points to the right in the 
northern and to the left in the southern hemisphere. 

We can say now only, that when fairly within the storm field and 
facing the wind, the vortex will be from eight to twelve points to the 
right of the wind in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the 
southern hemisphere. Greater precision can be obtained in certain 
circumstances. For example, if a ship is nearly in front of the vortex, 
the bearing of the vortex will probably not be much more than eight 
points to the right or left, and in the rear of a hurricane the vortex 
may bear twelve points to the right or left of the wind, because the 
wind is there very much incurved. A ship should then always lie to 
till the barometer begins to rise, otherwise she will be liable to run right 
into the vortex. 

Modern research has proved that a hurricane is usually imbedded in 
some prevailing trade or monsoon, and that there is a belt of intensi- 
fied trade-wind outside the true storm field. This beltis always on the 
side of the hurricane farthest from the equator. A ship in this belt 
experiences an increasing trade without change of direction, and with 


* 


ba tecematieat ea ps e 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY iN 1889. 251 


a falling barometer, though she may be far away from the line of the 
vortex. Now she would experience the same things if she were in the 
line of progression; but as there is no means of knowing which is the 
case, the empirical rule is: le to till the mercury has fallen 0.6 inch 
before beginning torun. (British Association Report, 1888, p. 586.) 

Theory of cyclones.—From a mathematical study of cyclonic motion 
M. Henri Lasne finds that the “eye” of tropical cyclones (the small area 
of calm, and of clear sky, in which the air is relatively warm and dry) 
is accounted for and explained by theory. A regular cyclonic motion 
of great intensity like that in tropical hurricanes makes possible a feebie 
descending motion at the center. In theirregular cyclones of temperate 
latitudes having large horizontal and small vertical extent no such phe- 
nomena can be developed ; in these the center is not the locus of great- 
estenergy. (Annuaire Soc. Métcor. de France, 37° année, p. 126.) 

Tropical cyclones.—W. Doberck discusses the relation of the wind at 
Hong Kong to the typhoons occurring in 1886 and 1887. Only those 
within 300 miles of the observatory are considered. No connection is 
found between the distance from the center and the direction of the 
wind, but the latter depends on the bearing of the center. The wind 
has a tendency to blow along the southern coast of China when a ty- 
phoon is raging in the China Sea, so that the wind in such cases veers 
only about half as much while the typhoon moves westward as in other 
cases, and for the same reason the angle between the wind and the ra- 
dius vector is larger than usual when the center is situated to the south 
of Hong Kong. A cutis given showing the direction of incurvature on 
all sides of the storm center when in the vicinity of Hong Kong. (Na- 
ture, XXXIXx, p. 301.) 

Mr. H. F. Blanford has given the results of his study of the incurva- 
ture of the winds in tropical cyclones as observed in the Bay of Bengal. 
In order to derive practical rules for navigators he has measured the 
angle between the wind direction and the radius vector instead of be- 
tween the wind direction and the isobar,as is done by Professor Loomis, 
and has restricted the measurements to wind observations of ships at sea 
within the influence of the storm, and to good observations on the coast. 
His results confirm the general fact of a great incurvature obtained by 
Professor Loomis, but differ somewhat in the amount: 

(1) The mean of one hundred and thirty-two observations between 
latitudes 15° and 22°, within 500 miles of the storm center, gives the 
angle 122° between the wind direction and its radius vector. 

(2) The mean of twelve observations between the same latitudes, 
within 50 miles of the storm center, gives the angle 123°. 

(3) The mean of sixty-eight observations Letween N. latitudes 8° and 
15°, within 500 miles of the storm center, gives the angle 129°. 

Vor the guidance of navigators Mr. Blanford formulates the following 
rules: 


252 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


(1) In the north of the Bay of Bengal, standing avith the back to the 
wind, the center of the cyclone bears about five points on the left hand 
or three points before the beam. 

(2) Inthe south of the Bay it bears about four points to the left hand 
or four points before the beam. 

(3) These rules hold good for all positions within the influence of the 
storm up to 500 miles from the storm center. 

The author concludes by pointing out that these facts are fatal to the 
cyclone theories of M. Faye. (Nature, XxxvItI, p. 181.) 

Mr. 8S. R. Elson, an experienced East Indian pilot, comments on Mr. 
Blanford’s rules for avoiding cyclones, and shows that a number of modi- 
fications must be introduced in applying these rules in special localities 
and under special circumstances. One of these is the strong currents 
setting in in advance of cyelones that drift the vessel far out of its course 
and towards the “eye of the storm.” In and off the Hooghly River, 
whatever be the direction and motion of the cyclone, the first wind in- 
variably blows from the northeast, and the regular rules are inapplica- 
ble without taking account of this peculiarity. Mr. Elson thinks Mr. 
Blanford’s rules for finding the storm’s center are perplexing and liable 
to misconstruction. (Natwre, XXXIX, p. 69.) 

In vol. Iv, part V, of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs, Mr. F. Cham- 
bers, has presented a study of the cyclone of the 25th of May to the 2d 
of June, 1831, in the Arabian Sea. After a painstaking preparation of 
the data, it is classified with respect to the gradient, with respect to 
the distance from the center, and with respect to the octant of the 
cyclone, And many relations of the pressure, the force and directions 
and incurvature of the wind in different parts are derived. The re- 
sults show no regular increase of the angle between the radius and the 
wind in approaching the center, though no doubt this angle is greater 
near the center than farther away from it, but the observations are too 
few to give averages showing a regular progression. As an observa- 
tional fact it was found that the cyclone moved from that side where 
the wind was strongest to that side where it was weakest, and Mr. 
Chambers explains this by showing that the first effect of the approach 
of a tropical cyclone is to neutralize the normal wind, and so to cause less 
than the normal amount of air motion. As one practical outcome of 
the study, rules are formulated for the guidance of the navigator when 
caught in a cyclone in the Arabian Sea, and some interesting relations 
are suggested between the direction of the swell and the direction of 
the wind as throwing additional light on the position of the cyclone 
center. 

Paths of cyclones.—In vol. 1x of Aus dem Archiv der Deutschen See- 
warte Dr. van Bebber investigates typical weather conditions and 
traces the influen ce of cyclonic areas upon the weather with a view to the: 
discovery of the laws governing the changes in direction of their tracks 
and of their rates of progression. It is shown that the depressions move 
along certain tracks with greater than average velocity. 

> 


| 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 200 


Thunder-storms.—Karl Prohaskahas collected and discussed a mass of 
thunder-storm observations from about three hundred stations in Steter- 
mark, Kiirten, and Oberkrain for four years, 1885 to 1888. About nine 
thousand reports were received annually, making an average of thirty 
reports trom each station. 

The average duration of a thunder-storm was 1.4 hours, being 1.2 in 
spring, 1.4 in summer, and 1.6 in autumn. The average velocity of 
passing was 30 kilometers per hour; hence the extent of the thunder- 
storm cloud was at the highest 43 kilometers; but if it be remembered 
that the above computed duration represents the mean time between 
first and last thunder, the average extent of the usual thunder-storm 
cloud does not exceed about 37 kilometers. ‘The velocity of propaga- 
tion of the thunder-storms is materially less in these districts of the 
southern Alpine mountains thanin southern Germany. ‘Thus the after- 
noon velocity is 10 kilometers per hour greater for the latter than for 
the former. Thisis due to the large number of local storms, *“ wiirmege- 
witter,” with their slow rate of movement. In hot summer days in the 
Alps, in spite of a high barometer, frequent local thunder-storms arise, 
which seem to be almost unprogressive. On certain selected days in July, 
1887, for the hours from noon to 6 Pp. M., there were 1,193 reports, and 218 
for the remaining eighteen hours. Thunder-storms occur most frequently 
when the barometer is about normal; those from the north and south 
have the smallest area of extension, those from the west the greatest. 

In addition to these statistical results, Prohaska undertakes to ex- 
plain the occurrence of thunder-storms and rain with a rising air press- 
ure. The basis of his theory rests on the assumed backward inclination 
of the axes of cyclones. This assumption leads to the conclusion that 
the rise of the barometer immediately following the passage of baro- 
etric minima is occasioned by dense heavy air adjacent to the earth’s 
surface pressing into the region of low pressure. Now, as heavy air 
masses come into a region of lower pressure they experience a continu- 
ally smaller compression, and consequently there is developed an up- 
ward gradient, and a rise of the air strata lying thereon must ensue. 
Dynamic cooling is thus brought into play, so that in higher air strata 
a fall of temperature takes place whilst the barometer is still falling. 
Thus there is a causal connection between rising air pressure and the 
formation of precipitation and thunder-storms, inasmuch as the rising 
air pressure consists in the formation and condensation of a cloud 
swell advancing in front like a true wave movement. (Meteorologische 
Zeitschrift, 1889, vi, p. 226.) 

The report of the director of the Hong Kong Observatory for 1888 
contains a special study of thunder-storms in the colony during the past 
five years. Dr, Doberck states that they are most frequent in May, and 
that they have not occurred in November, December, and January. 
In diurnal period they are most frequent about 1 A. M., and least so at 
about 8 A. M., in the proportion of about two to one. 


254 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889, 


Professors Mohn and Hildebrandsson have published a study of 
thunder-storms in the Scandinavian peninsula. (Upsala, 1888, 55 pp.) 
This monograph supplies for the Scandinavian peninsula statistical 
information about thunder-storms similar to that so richly collected in 
the states of central Europe. The meteorological conditions favorable 
to thunder-storms in eastern Norway are given in detail, and by their 
aid thunder-storms can be predicted from the morning weather map. 


Dr. E. Wagner has investigated the periodicity of thunder-storms in 
Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Baden, and finds that they have a period 
of twenty-nine days, containing three maximum points, the chief of 
these being in the last half quarter, the next at new moon, and the 
least at fall moon. No physical explanation for this is attempted. 
(Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 299.) 

Doctor Wagner has tabulated the observations of thunder-storm 
frequency in Bavaria and Wurtemburg with respect to the phases of 
the moon, and considers that they each show a well-marked maximum 
between the last quarter and the fourth octant. (Ibid, p. 300.) 


Dr. Karl Lang has reported to the German Meteorological Society 
the results of his investigations upon the velocity of propagation of 
thunder-storms in south Germany. He finds aclose counection between 
the velocity of propagation and the proximity of storm tracks. Thus 
in the winter months, when van Bebber’s cyclone track No. Iv has its 
most southerly position, the velocity of thunder-storms is greatest, and 
geographically the velocity diminishes from north to south. Thunder- 
storms coming from the west and west-southwest most frequently arise 
in the southern border of cyclones and travel the fastest, while those 
from northwest to northeast travel the slowest. (Jbid, p. 271.) 


Dr. Franz Horn finds from a study of thunder and hail storms in 
Bavaria during the years 1880 to 1888 that no hail has ever been re- 
ported withoat a simultaneous observation of electrical discharge. 
The hours of greatest thunder-storm frequency are in the afternoons; 
in the winter between 2 P. M. and 3 P. M., and in summer an hour later. 
(Ibid. p. 272.) 

Tornado charts.—Lieut. J. P. Finley has published in successive 
issues of the American Meteorological Journal State tornado charts 
showing paths of tornadoes, each accompanied by a brief table of sta- 
tistics. These ought to be a concise presentation of valuable informa- 
tion collected on this subject; but as shown by Professor Hinrichs, 
they contain rather a large amount of mis-information due to the utter 
absence of scientific criticism in the compilation of the data. 

Tornadoes and derechos.—lu a paper entitled “Tornadoes and Dere- 
chos,” Professor Hinrichs describes the characters of tornadoes and 
of the peculiarly destructive squalls of Iowa, which he has named the 
derecho. 

He defines the derecho as a violently progressing mass of cold air, 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 255 


moving destructively onward in slightly divergingestraight lines, in 
Iowa generally towards the southeast. The barometer rises suddenly 
and the thermometer falls greatly under the blow of this cold air of 
the upper strata suddenly striking the ground. While occurring occa- 
sionally in the spring and early summer, the derecho has its period of 
greatest frequency and intensity in the*’midsummer months, July and 
August. In these two months the tornado does not occur in Lowa. 
The writer shows that the list of Lowa tornadoes published by Lieu- 
tenant Finley is untrustworthy, and then gives a corrected list of all 
the authentic tornadoes that can be verified by reports. These have 
oceurred in April, May, June, and October. (Am. Meteor. Journal, V, 
p. 385.) 

Water-spouts.—Mr. S. R. Elson teports several water-spouts observed 
on the Hooghly. Cne was seen ‘ projected from the level vapor-plane 
of a towering cumulus cloud; through a telescope it showed well the 
downrush on the inside of the tube, and its counterpart the whirling 
uprush on the outside, twisting and coiling round and round against 
the watch hands (face upwards). In another case after a water-spout 
had been observed for some time and it was beginning to shrink and to 
draw itself upwards, “the inside downrush was again seen to advan- 
tage and the simultaneous upward whirl around the dense remains of 
the tube, which I can not do better than liken to the turning inside 
out of a coat-sleeve, only the end of the tube was always ragged ; and 
here, where the reversing process was taking place, there was great 
commotion in the air currents. I had a good telescope, observed these 
phenomena very carefully, and was on the alert for optical illusions.” 
(Nature, XXXIX, p. 334.) 

Rain-fall and cuclones.~-The Report on the Meteorology of India in 
1887 (Caleutta, 1889) calls attention to the relation that has previously 
been shown to obtain between rain-fall and cyclones during the south- 
west monsoon period. There is a very marked tendency for cyclonic 
rain-storms to run along the trough of low pressure, the mean position 
of which during the rains stretches from Sind or Cutch in an east south- 
east direction to the eastern districts of the central provinces, Orissa and 
Chutia Nagpur. An examination of the storm tracks of 1887 and 1888 
has shown that the great majority of these storms marched across the 
coast in the direction of the belt of lowest pressure at the time of their 
formation, and hence it may be inferred that if a depression forms dur- 
ing the rains in the bay it will very probably run along the belt of 
lowest pressure or the trough of minimum pressure in existence imme- 
diately antecedent to its formation. Since the chief characteristic of 
such a barometric depression is light and variable winds, it will be seen 
that this principle virtually coincides with the rule that cyclonic storms 
in the bay march in the direction of least relative air motion immedi- 
ately antecedent to the formation of the cyclone, which is a more gen- 
eral rule than the former. 


256 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Abnormal weather.—The eastern as well as the western hemisphere 
was visited by eXtraordinary spring weather in 1889. The following 
note is from Nature, June 20, 1889: 

‘‘It appears that the somewhat eccentric weather of western Europe 
during the present year finds @ parallel in both China and Japan, where 
people complain bitterly of the sudden changes of temperature, the pre- 
mature heat followed by cold “snatches,” the storms in quick succession 
and of great intensity. In northern China there has not been known 
such an inclement spring since foreigners have resided in the country. 
A warm week in February broke up the ice on the Peiho River prema- 
turely, but afterwards cold set in with great severity, and March was 
characterized by a succession of gales, lasting sometimes a week with- 
out intermission, and as late as the 24th the ground was covered with 
snow.” 

Dr. B. Andries has investigated the so-called cold period in May 
which is popularly supposed to prevail about the 10th of that month; 
he finds that while each year frosts occur in May, after a period of warm 
weather has excited a hope for continuous rise of temperature, yet the 
same thing occurs in April and June, and the weather of May is more 
uniform than all the other months except October. (Das wetter, June, 
1889. 


X.—ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY; LIGHTNING; TERRESTRIAL MAGNET- 
ISM; AURORAS. 


Atmospheric electricity—Dr. Less (Berlin) has studied the occurrence 
of rain, bail, and snow, in connection with thunder-storms. He concludes 
that on days of thunder-storms in winter, the temperature diminishes 
with altitude at a much greater rate than on days of precipitation, and 
thunder-storms seem to cease entirely when there is considerable amount 
of condensed moisturein the atmosphere. He considers that both these 
results afford substantial confirmation of Sohnecke’s theory that the elec- 
tricity of thunder-storms first arises from the friction between ice and 
water particles, but additional consideration must be added in order 
to explain quantitatively the high potential of the lightning discharge. 

Mr. Angus Rankin has a paper in the Journal of the Scottish Meteor- 
ological Society on the conditions of the occurrence of St. Elmo’s fire 
on Ben Nevis. He finds that the fifteen observed cases occurred a few 
hours after the passage of the center of a cyclonic depression, when the 
temperature was rapidly falling, the pressure rising, the wind west- 
northwest, and heavy showers of snow and snow-hail prevailing. (Na- 
ture, XL, p. 439.) 

Globular lightning.—At the British Association meeting in 1888 Sir 
William Thompson expressed the belief that ball lightning is altogether 
physiological. A vivid flash produces an intense action on the center 
of the retina, and when the eyes are moved, a spot of light follows, 
which is the marvellous ball lightning frequently reported, 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Zot 


At the American Association meeting in 1889, Prof. Dr. T. C. Men- 
denhall presented a series of observations of ball ightning, the concur- 
rent testimony of which had convinced him of the reality of the phe- 
nomenon. 

Lightning —Mr. W. G. MeMillan describes a lightning discharge 
which struck a house in Calcutta. The instantaneous discharge of rib- 
_ bon-lightning was apparently converted on entering the house into a 
relatively slowly moving fire-ball. The effect is described as that of an 
intensely brilliant ball of yellow fire about 6 or 7 inches in diameter 
which passed across the room at a pace sufficiently slow to allow it to 
be followed by the eve; about half way across, if appeared to be mo- 
mentarily checked, and then, seeming to burst with a deafening report, 
which shook the whole house, it scattered aud passed onward. <A 
large portion of the oxygen in the air immediately surrounding the 
path of the flash was converted into the oxides of nitrogen. (Nature, 
XL, p. 295.) 

Lightning conductors.—A discussion on lightning and lightning con- 
ductors was held at the British Association meeting in 1888, in which 
Professor Lodge, Mr. W. H. Preece, Lord Rayleigh, Professor Forbes, 
Sir William Thomson, and others participated. The discussion took 
a wide range, though primarily designed to elucidate the question as to 
the relative superiority of iron and copper wire. Mr. Preece stated 
that both iron and copper are efficacious. Sir William Thomson 
knew of no experiment which proved iron less efficient, and it is prefer- 
able because of its higher melting point as well as on account of its 
cheapness. Contrary to the opinion of Mr. Preece, Professor Lodge 
believed that lightning conductors are sometimes inefficient even 
when erected in accordance with all the demands of electrical science, 
and, as acase in point, he instanced M. Melsen’s hotel at Brussels 
which had been struck and burned although elaborately protected. 

Terrestrial magnetism.— Prof. Arthur Schuster has presented to the 
Royal Society an elaborate investigation on the diurnal variation of 
terrestrial magnetism, in which he makes use of the method of har- 
monic analysis to separate internal from external causes of variation. 

If the magnetic effects can be fairly represented by a single term in 
a series of harmonies so far as the horizontal forces are concerned, 
there should be no doubt as to the location of the disturbing cause, 
for the vertical force should be in the opposite direction if the origin 
is outside from what it should be if the origin is inside the earth. 
If it be then a question simply of deciding whether the cause is 
outside or inside, without considering a possible combination of both 
causes, the result should not be doubtful, even if we have only an ap- 
proximate knowledge of the vertical forces. He had previously shown 
that the leading features of the horizontal components for diurnal 

variations could be approximately represented by the surface har- 
monic of the second degree and first type, and that the vertical vari- 
H. Mis. 224——17 


258 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


ation agreed in direction and phase with the calculation, on the as- 
sumption that the seat of the force is outside the earth. In the present 
more complete investigation the matter has been more fully taken up 
and the original conclusions have been confirmed. 

The observations taken at Bombay, Lisbon, Greenwich, and St. Peters- 
burgh are used, and the potential is computed in thirty-eight terms 
of a series of surface harmonics by means of the horizontal compo- 
nents only. Irom the potential thus computed the vertical force is de- 
duced both on the assumption of an inside and an outside origin of the 
variation. By tabulating the amplitude and phase of the forces com- 
puted on each assumption and by comparing the results with the act- 
ually observed values a complete disagreement is found with the results 
obtained on the assumption that the disturbing force is inside the earth 
and nearly complete agreement on the alternative hypothesis. 

The observed amplitudes are found in all cases to be considerably 
smaller than the computed ones. 

In an appendix Prof. H. Lamb shows thatif the earth be heated as a 
conducting sphere, in which induced currents are excited by an exter- 
nal cause, this reduction in amplitude may be accounted for. 

Prof. Balfour Stewart’s suggestion that convective currents in the 
atmosphere moving across the lines of the earth’s magnetic forces are 
the causes of the daily variation, gains much in probability by this in- 
vestigation. If the daily variation of the barometer is accompanied by 
a horizontal current in the atmosphere similar to the tangential motion 
in waves propagated in shallow canals, and if the conductivity of the 
air is sufficiently good, the effects on the magnetic needles would be 
very similar to those actually observed. (Nature, XXXIXx, p. 622.) 

Auroras.—Mr, H. Hildebransson gives a summary of the result of 
the elaborate observations of the aurora made by the Swedish polar 
expedition at Bossekop (situated in the maximum zone of auroras, on 
the coast of northern Norway.) 

(1) A mean of 371 measures gave the azimuth of the summit of the 
auroral arch in 8. 24° 12/ B, 

(2) A mean of 87 measures on the position of the center of the corona 
gave its altitude 79° 55’, azimuth 8.7° 12’ KE. This point is nearly in the 
magnetic zenith, but not in the same vertical as the highest point of the 
arch. 

(3) The breadth of the auroral arches varies with their elevation 
above the horizon. The arches consist of rays running in the direction 
of the breadth of the arch and converging toward the magnetic zenith. 

(4) The auroral light sometimes formed a true spherical zone parallel 
with the earth’s surface, thus floating in space as a horizontal layer of 
light. 

(5) The movements of the arches from north to south and from south 
to north were almost equally frequent. 

(6) Anomalous forms of arches were very frequent. 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 259 


(7) Often, waves of light run along the arches; eastward and west- 
ward motion of the waves were equally frequent. 

(8) The author rejects the classification of auroral forms given by 
Weyprecht, and distinguishes only two different forms of auroral light, 
viz, zones, or horizontal layers of light, and arches, composed of rays 
parallel to the dipping needle. The arches are of four varieties: (1) 
arch, or aregular band; (2) band or drapery; (3) spiral; (4) pseudo- 
arch, 

(9) The auroral light is of two kinds: (1) the yellow light, entirely 
monochromatic ; (2) the crimson or violet light. 

(10) No sound was ever heard from the aurora. 

(11) The aurora was never seen to descend below the mountains or 
lower clouds. Only two or three times it is possible that the hght was 
seen below the upper clouds. Direct measures of the parallax from the 
end of a short base (573 meters) gave an average height of 55.1 kilom- 
eters, and by several other methods about 2 kilometers was found to 
be the probable mean height of the aurora. 

(12) No annual variation could be discovered. 

A daily variation having its maximum at 3 P. M., and minimum at 8 
A. M., Jocal time, was computed. (Nature, XXXVI, p. 34.) 


XI.—SCINTILLATION; LIGHT AND COLOR OF THE SKY; TWILIGHT 
GLOWS, ETC. 


Scintillation of the stars.—Dr.J.M. Pernter has conducted some sein- 
tillometer observations upon the Sonnblick (elevation 3,100 meters), in 
order to determine whether there is greater steadiness at high than at 
low levels. Two of Exner’s scintillometers were used in the work, and 
simultaneous observations were made on two nights at the summit and 
at Rauris (900 meters). The result of these comparisons showed that 
the scintillation was noticeably greater at the summit than at Rauris. 
Dr. Pernter properly draws the conclusion that scintillation does not, in 
all cases and exclusively, take place in the lower air layers, and that 
many cases occur in which the air above 3,100 meters elevation is more 
productive of scintillation than that at lower levels. Pernter further 
concludes that little or nothing is gained in steadiness by building ob- 
servatories at high elevations; but Exner considers the observations too 
few to warrant this generalization and considers that it is simply proved 
that the Sonnblick is not particularly suitable for an astronomical ob- 
servatory. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, v1, p. 30.) 

Spectro-photometry.—M. Crova has presented a paper to the Paris 
Academy of Sciences on the analysis of the light diffused by the sky. 
He made observations on the top of Mont Ventoux with a modified 
form of his spectro-photometer, which could be directed to any part of 
the sky. 

The curves for zenithal light show a predominance of the more re- 





260 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


frangible radiations at sunrise, diminishing towards midday, then in- 
creasing towards sunset, but .not reaching, in homologous hours after 
noon, the same values as in the morning. The figures show to what 
extent the light is bluer than the direct sunlight, and the light of the 
sky at Montpellier. 

Polarization of sky-light.—Myr. J. ©. McConnel has made observations 
with a polarimeter at St. Moritz, Thersis, and Davos, and derives the 
following results: 

(1) The polarization of sky-light is weakest at midday, and is greater 
the nearer the sun to the horizon. 

(2) Snow-covered ground diminishes polarization, and in general the 
brighter the ground is illuminated, the weaker the polarization. 

(3) Polarization is greater at high altitudes than at sea-level. (Phil. 
Mag., 1889, p. 81.) 

Twilight phenomena and the Krakatoa eruption.—Prof. J. Kiessling 
has published the results of his studies on the twilight phenometa 
accompanying the Krakatoa eruption in a quarto volume of 169 pages, 
illustrated with colored plates, charts, and wood cuts. 

The author first inquires in what particular the optical phenomena of 
1883-86 differ from ordinary twilight, and finds that it is essentially the 
intensity and frequent repetition which distinguish the one from the 
other. The extension of this optical phenomena over the world after the 
Krakatoa eruption is represented by four charts on which are entered 
the places and times of observation. Kiessling’s experiments teach 
that the colored suns observed after the eruption are produced by dense 
clouds of smoke and dust, the single particles of which may be of quite 
different sizes. He was able to obtain all colors from reddish brown to 
violet, except the green colors were not pure, but appeared with a yel- 
lowish tint. Colored rings are seen around the sun only when the par- 
ticles are approximately of equal size, and the more nearly equal the 
size, the brighter the coloring. This forces the conclusion that the rings 
are phenomena of diffraction. In the discussion of twilight phenomena, 
Kiesshng separates the colored horizonal bands from the after-glows 
(purpurlicht). The latter are phenomena of the same kind as Bishop’s 
ring; the former are due essentially to absorption. Of special interest 
is the question whether the particles that produced the abnormal phe- 
nomena were smoke, dust, or water. It is possible to exclude dust 
(staub) at once, since dust particles would not possess the necessary 
uniformity of size; and the assumption that such uniformity was 
attained by gradually falling is inadmissable, because the phenomena 
were seen immediately after the eruption. As between smoke and 
water particles it is not easy to descriminate, and probably both were 
engaged in the production of the phenomena. 

Report of Royal Society on the Krakatoa Eruption.—The comenetiee ap- 
pointed by the Royal Society to report upon the eruption of Krakatoa 
have finished their work, and published a quarto volume of 490 pages, 





© 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 261 


together with diagrams, charts, and colored plates. The report upon 
the optical phenomena following the eruption has been made by Mr. E. 
Douglas Archibald and Hon. Rollo Russell, and occupies over 300 
pages. The following résumé of the report is taken from Nature. The 
different sections contain discussions of the following topics : 

(1) The proximate cause of the abnormal twilights, and an explana- 
tion, as far as was possible, of the way in which they differed from ordi- 
nary twilights, both in quality and intensity. 

(2) The colored suns, large corona round the sun amd moon, calle the 
sky-haze or eruption cloud which evidently caused them. 

(3) The geographical distribution, the height and duration of the 
glows, a list of analogous phenomena on former occasions, opinions put 
forward to account for the present series, and finally, a general analysis 
of their connection with the eruptions of Krakatoa in detail, each in a 
separate section. 

To give some idea of the principal facts and conclusions, we will com- 
mence with the abnormal twilights, considered as local phenomena. 

A normal sunset consists of a series of bands of color parallel to the 
horizon in the west in the order from below upwards—red, orange, yel- 
low, green, blue, together with a purplish, glow in the east over the 
earth’s shadow, called the ‘ counter-glow.” As the earth’s shadow 
moves upwards towards the zenith, and passes invisibly across it, a 
reddish or purplish glow suddenly appears above the colored layers in 
the west, in a spot which previously appeared of a peculiarly bright 
whitish color. This purple glow is substantially the ‘ primary glow,” 
or more definitely “erste purpurlicht.” It is peculiar in appearing 
above the horizontal colors, and in not extending far on either side of a 
vertical plane through the sun and the spectator. As this glow sinks 
on the horizon and spreads out laterally, it forms the first red sunset. 
After its disappearance, under favorable conditions, a second edition of 
twilight colors analagous to the first commences with a similar bright 
spot (dimmerungschein), out of which a second purple light appears 
to be suddenly developed, and sinks on the horizon as the secondary or 
‘‘after-glow.” 

These are the normal phases of a complete sunset, according to Dr. 
von Bezold, and the present series appear to be abnormal only in ex- 
hibiting certain peculiar yellow and greenish tints, a less defined bound- 
ary of the earth’s shadow, together with a much greater brilliancy, ex- 
tension, and duration of the first, and particularly of the second, purple 
glows. The horizontal layers were less conspicuous than usual, and 
the abnormal extension of the purple light made it appear as though 
there was an inversion of the usual order of tints from below upwards. 

In order to explain these and other peculiarities, Mr. Russell starts 
with the observed fact of a sky-haze which, in the tropics, tended to 
transmit blue or green rays in preference to red, and assuming that al- 
the usual elements which are included under the term “ optical diffu- 


262 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


sion” were present, viz., diffraction, refraction, and reflection, describes 
what should be the effects, (1) assuming a haze composed of opaque par. 
ticles, and (2) one composed of very thin reflecting plates into which 
condition a large proportion of the pumice ejected from Krakatoa is 
shown to have been transformed. His conclusion is that the distinetive 
features of the Krakatoa glows were due mainly to reflection from these 
fine lamine, of rays already tinted in a certain order by diffraction 
through the dust of the haze layer and the lower atmosphere, as well 
as by the selectiye absorption which ordinarily takes place in the more 
humid horizontal layers near the earth’s surface. The direct as well as 
diffuse reflection by the plates and by the opaque dust, (which lay, as 
Mr. Archibald has shown in Section Iv, at a height of from 50,000 to 
100,000 feet,) of rays tinted in succession, as both the direct and reflected 
twilight boundaries followed the descending sun, and the peculiar trans- 
missive quality of the stratum for the more refrangible rays, appear to 
afford a reasonable explanation of the peculiar silvery glare, the unusual 
coloring, and the unusual extension of the purple glows. 

It is admitted that diffraction played an important part, as it does 
in ordinary sunsets (Lommel, for example, attributes all the red tints 
to this cause); but both in this section and those that follow, many 
considerations are urged against the view held by Professor Kiessling 
that the development of the primary glow is chiefly due to diffraction, 
while the secondary glow is as confidently asserted to be due to reflec- 
tion. One of the principal objections to the reflection hypothesis in 
explanation of both the ordinary, as well as the present extraordinary, 
development of the purple glow is its limitation at first to a narrow 
band, a fact which cannot be explained by absorption, and which is 
equally at variance with Fresnel’s law of reflection from small globular 
dust, which would be equal in all directions. On the lamina, and par- 
ticularly the vitreous lamina assumption however, it is intelligible, 
since the maximum reflection would then be like that from the sea, in 
the vertical plane through the sun and the eye. 

Moreover, the richly-colored and prolonged secondary glows, which 
were the most characteristic feature of the Krakatoa twilights, are 
shown by Mr. Archibald, when dealing with their secular duration, to 
have reached a distinct minimum when the large diffraction corona 
round the sun, from Professor Ricco’s observations, appeared at its 
greatest brilliancy, while the curve of their duration, representing Dr. 
Riggenbach and Mr. Clark’s observations, shows that they never again 
reached the same brillianey or duration as in the two or three months 
immediately succeeding their first appearance in Europe. Both these 
facts aid the conclusion arrived at by Mr. Russell and indorsed by 
Professor Kiessling, that they were reflections by the haze stratum 
of the primary glows. But if these were reflections, the question 
naturally arises, Why not the primary also? And until more effective 
arguments are brought against this view, as well as Professor Ricco’s 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 265 


objections to Professor Kiessling’s theory of diffraction alone, which 
are detailed in Section I (¢), page 250, Mr. Russell’s view of the origin 
of both glows seems to be the more probable, as well as reasonable, 
of the two. The haze stratum appears to have been capable of exert- 
ing two influences: One, diffraction of the sun’s rays by its smallest 
particles, which, with the absorption and diffraction usually affected 
by the dust and vapor present in the lower atmosphere, caused the 
horizontal tinted layers; the other, reflection by itslarger particles or 
lamine of the horizontal layers, particularly of the lowest red one, when 
the earth’s shadow had arrived at about 25° above the western horizon 
and into a position whence the maximum reflective effect could- be seen 
unmasked by a diffusely illuminated background. 

The question of the blue and green coloration of the sun is next dis- 
cussed by Mr. Archibald, particularly with reference to its intrinsic 
characteristics and physical origin. In Section vi, in which the dis- 
tribution of the twilight glows and the blue suns on their first circuit 
of the globe is compared, it is shown that the mean limit of the band 
of colored suns was about 11° north and south of the latitude of Kra- 
katoa right around the equator, while that of the glows lay 5° beyond 
this on either side. Along the latitude of Krakatoa the colors were 
mostly white or silvery, and in one or two cases coppery. The colors 
thus evidently depended on the density of the stream, the glows ap- 
pearing on its borders or fringes where it was less dense. A similar 
relation to density appears from a study of the diurnal changes with 
varying solar altitude, the sun appearing to change from blue near the 
zenith, through green or yellow, or disappearance on the horizon. No 
direct physical explanation of such phenomena appears forthcoming, 
since, according to the physical laws enunciated by Lord Rayleigh and 
Professor Stokes, the diffraction of light by particles of the same order 
of magnitude as a wave length tends to sift out the shorter blue and 
preserve the longer red waves of light. Repeated reflections by small 
particles tend to the same result. 

It can therefore only be explained as an effect of absorption, due to 
some particular absorptive property of the materials which composed 
the haze. The phenomenon of a blue or green sun has been observed 
under natural conditions, many of which are quoted, and in most cases 
where the air was filled with fine dust from a great variety of sources. 
It has also been artifically reproduced by Professor Kiessling with dust- 
filled air and vapor of water, and particularly of sulphur. Several ac- 
counts are given in section V of blue suns seen in connection with 
former eruptions, and Mr. Whymper’s observations during an eruption 
of Cotopaxi are conclusive as to the ability of the finest volcanic ejecta 
to cause such an appearance. The problem which still awaits solution 
is, what was the precise nature of the particles or gases which produced 
the absorption? It seems probable that they were metallic sulphides. 

Mr. Archibald next deals with the sky-haze and its peculiar effects, 


264 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


more particularly on astronomical definition. Here again it seems to 
have possessed a selective absorption of the red rays, for in two separ- 
ate lunar eclipses, 1884 and 1885, the usual coppery tint of the moon 
was conspicuously absent. He then passes on to the peculiar large 
corona round the sun and moon, which was first observed by Mr. Bishop, 
at Honolulu, on September 5, and which, though less striking than the 
twilight glow, was, if anything, more uncommon, more constant, and 
more prolonged in duration. It was a true diffraction corona with a 
reddish border, and of almost exactly the same size as the ordinary ice- 
halo, viz, 45° in diameter. It lasted from September 5, 1883, up to 
October 15, 1886, since which date it has entirely disappeared. Its di- 
ameter has afforded an approximate determination of the mean radius 
of the smaller dust particles composing the haze, which Mr. Archibald 
calculates to be 0.00006 of an inch. 

In section m1, Mr. Russell works out the geographical distribution of 
the optical phenomena, including blue suns and glows, up to the end of 
1883, by which time they had virtually covered the whole earth. The 
general conclusion is that the phenomena all propagated themselves 
(with the exception of a narrow offshoot towards Japan) at first due 
west from Java, at a rate of about 76 miles an hour right round the 
arth parallel to the equator, and in a band symmetrically disposed for 
16° on either side of the latitude through Krakatoa. <A second cireuit 
with wider limits, 30° north and south of Krakatoa, was traced at the 
same rate, after which the motion became indistinguishable. They then 
gradually spread in latitude, and ultimately the haze which caused 
them appears to have invaded our latitudes, like the anti-trade, from 
southwest to northeast. These circumstances may be best realized 
from a survey of Mr. Russell’s maps, especially that showing the sue- 
cessive limits of the appearances for the first 9 days succeeding the 
eruption. The march of the optical phenomena which is shown in Mr. 
Russell’s maps is the only direct evidence we have of the fact that at, 
100,000 feet above the earth, in-the immediate vicinity of the equator, 
the air in August, and probably, as Mr. Archibald shows, at other times, 
moves in a rapid and constant current from east to west. Both in see- 
tion II (b), and section VII, he discusses this question in detail and 
shows its agreement with the theory of the general circulation of the 
atmosphere, as well as the motions of the upper clouds so far as they 
have been observed. 

In section Iv, Mr. Archibald investigates the height of the stratum, 
from observations in all parts of the world where the durations of the 
primary or secondary glow have been recorded with any attempt at 
accuracy. Proceeding on the hypothesis that the primary glow was a 
first reflection of the sun’s rays by the stratum, and the secondary a 
reflection of the primary glow, for which ample evidence is adduced, he 
concludes that the height of the upper or middle part of the stratum 
above the earth diminished from 121,000 feet in August, 1883, to 64,000 


» eae aa Pa a 2 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 265 


in January, 1884, the lower limits being practically indeterminate. Also, 
since from Dr. Riggenbach’s and Mr, Clark’s observations, the glows 
continued less brilliantly and less prolonged after the first few months 
right up to the end of 1885, while a decided minimum in the duration, 
and, therefore, presumably the height, of the reflecting layer, was reached 
in April, 1884, the important conclusion is arrived at that by that date 
the larger and more effectively reflecting particles had descended to a 
lower level, leaving the finest particles suspended at nearly the same 
elevation as at first. This is further corroborated by the remarkable 
fact that the large corona reached its maximum intensity during the 
same month. 

Finally, in section vu, Mr. Archibald gives a general analysis of the 
connection between all the optical phenomena and the eruptions of Kra- 
katoa, both in May and August, in which the various objections on the 
ground of the initially rapid transmission of the appearances, insuffi- 
ciency of fine, solid ejecta, length of time of its suspension, and the 
occurrence of apparently similar phenomena on dates previous to the 
great August eruption are discussed in turn. The time of suspension 
of the finest dust in particular is shown—by an application of Profes- 
sor Stokes’s formula, Va 9 ( aa 

9u'\_p 

ticle descending in air, and in which viscosity is properly considered— 
to be over two years between 50,000 and 100,000 feet, even assuming 
the particles to be spherical, which is the most unfavorable supposition. 
If, as is most probable, they were thin plates, the time would be much 
longer. A final summary is then given of the direct and local connec- 
tion between the optical phenomena and the eruptions, both of May 
and August, which the subsequent discovery of the relative though 
minor importance of the May eruption rendered necessary. 

Sunset glows.—Prof. Cleveland Abbe has published a paper on the 
sunset glows of 1884-’85 (written in November, 1885), in which he 
shows that the phenomena can not be produced by refraction and con- 
sequent dispersion through small drops, but are explicable only as 
diffraction effects in which the nature of the substance, whether minute 
drops of water or non-transparent particles of dust, is immaterial. 

The Bishop’s Ring is attributed to particles so far removed from the 
earth’s surface as to remain sensibly permanent through many seasons, 
while the red twilights are diffraction rings due to similar and slightly 
larger particles in the lower atmospliere. Ina prefatory note written 
February, 1889, Professor Abbe gives the following as his present con- 
clusions : 

(1) Vapor haze is more important than dust haze. 

(4) A shallow layer, sparsely filled with such minute particles of 
vapor haze generally accompanies every area of high pressure and clear 
air, and appears to produce the diffraction necessary for the phenomena 
that are still observable. 


je, for the velocity of a small par- 


266 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


(3) A deeper layer, more densely filled with minute and also with 
still larger particles suffices to explain the phenomena of 1883~84. 

(4) The dust and haze needed to produce red coloration of light by 
selective absorption and reflection is always present in the lowest air 


stratum. 
(5) The Krakatoa eruption sufficed to throw sufficient moisture into 


the atmosphere to explain the diffractive phenomena of 1883-84 and 
its gradual subsidence since then. 

(6) The daily weather reports printed in the Signal Service Bull. Int. 
Simul. Obs. shows that the distribution of Krakatoa vapor must have 
been largely influenced by disturbances in the lower atmosphere, and 
we do not need to assume an exclusive influence of general upper cur- 
rents, either easterly or westerly. (Am. Meteor. Journal, V, p. 529.) 

Mr. 8. E. Bishop, in a letter dated Honolulu, July 25, 1889, reports a 
re appearance, beginning on July 13, of sunset glows like those of 1883- 
84, but of less brilliancy. The glows were brightest on the 14th and 
the 15th and were visible until the 20th, with decreasing intensity. A 
space of 15° radius around the sun was occupied by a whitish glow, 
like thatin “* Bishop’s Ring.” A noticeable peculiarity of the present 
glows is the occurrence of a tertiary glow in addition to the primary and 
secondary. Another difference is the much earlier time at which the 
glows take place, and the rapidity with which they follow each other, 
indicating that the reflecting stratum of haze is very low down as com- 
pared with the Krakatoa haze. The reflected rays of the sun, travers- 
ing asmaller extent of the lower atmosphere, show less red, having less 
of the other colors interrupted. For the same reason they retain force 
enough for a third reflection, in which a very pure, though faint, red ap- 
pears. (Nature, XL, p. 415.) 

Mr. J. W. Backhouse reports a feeble re-appearance over western 
Europe of a great corona around the sun during August and Septem- 
ber, 1889. (Nature, XL, p. 519.) 

Noctilucous clouds:—O. Jesse gives the following discription of the 
luminous night clouds that have been visible in Europe during the 
months of June and July since 1885. They are visible only in that por- 
tion of the evening or morning sky which is illuminated by the twilight 
and bounded by the twilight are. These clouds disappear as soon as 
the twilight are passes over them. In the evening the clouds appear 
when the sun is about 10° below the horizon, and continue visible 
throughout the duration of twilight. In the morning the phenomena 
are inverted. They are very similar to cirri in form and strueture, but 
when an ordinary cirrus cloud is present it looks much darker than the 
twilight sky surrounding it, while luminous clouds are brighter. (Me- 
teorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, v1, p. 184.) 

Prof. John Le Conte discusses in Nature the origin and source of the 
light in noctilucous clouds, and refers to a collection of observations of 
this phenomenon made by Arago, and to his conclusion that the clouds 
are selfiaminous. Professor Le Conte has observed on the coast of 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 267 


Georgia a luminosity sufficient to plainly indicate the road to the 
traveller in instances when low-lying dense masses of clouds involved 
the whole firmament. In some eases the noctilucous condition may be 
caused by the prolonged twilights due to the reflection of sunlight 
from attenuated solid particles suspended in the supra-cirrus strata of 
the atmosphere, and in other cases may be traced to cloud-obscured 
auroral lights. Whether these sources of luminosity are sufficient to 
explain the various observed phenomena without supposing a condition 
of self-luminosity is still a matter of question. 

Mr. D. J. Rowan, Dublin, reports luminous night clouds appearing 
between 10 Pp. M. and midnight, June 7, 1889, for the first time during the 
present year. He has found them for several years to be an annual 
phenomenon. (Nature xu, p. 151.) 


XII.—PERIODICITY AND SUN SPOTS; HYDROLOGY; FORESTS AND CLI- 
MATE; CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC EPOCHS. 


Sun-spot period in Indian weather.—Mr. Eliot in his last Meteorological 
teport for India, referring to sun spots and weather in India, says that 
the period of minimum sun spots is apparently associated with the larg- 
est and most abnormal variations of meteorological conditions. Thus 
exceptionally heavy snow fell in the northwest Himalayas in 1866, and 
again in 1876 and 1877: the most disastrous famines of recent years in 
India have occurred near the period of minimum sun spots; and thelargest 
and most intense cyclones apparently have a tendency to occur shortly 
before the minimum. For example, in the great Calcutta cyclone of 
1864, 60,000 people were drowned, and in the still larger Backerganj 
cyclone of 1876, 100,000 lives were lost by drowning. 

Hydrology in Galicia.—Annual tables of rain-fall and river heights in 
Galicia for 1887 and 1888, have been published (see bibliography) under 
the direction of Professor Karlinski, director of the Cracow observa- 
tory. The volume for 1887 contains daily observations of river heights 
at seventy-two stations and precipitation measures at one hundred and 
thirty-five stations; that for 1888, ninety-tworiver stations and one hun- 
dred and twenty-nine rain-fall stations. The daily rain-tall tables are 
given only for June in 1887, and in 1888, for July, August, and Septem- 
ber. Isohyetals are drawn presenting graphically the distribution of 
rain-fall. The tables furnish a valuable contribution of data for the 
study of the relation of surface and climatic conditions to the flow of 
streams. 


Hydrology of the Saale. —Dr. Ule (Halle) has investigated the relation 
of the discharge of the Saale to the total precipitation over its water- 
shed, as determined by reports from forty-five stations. He finds that 
for the period from 1833 to 1886 only 30 per cent. of the precipitation 
was discharged by the Saale. The total annual precipitation was 606 
millimeters; no evaporation observations were made. (Meteorologische 
Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 272.) 


268 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Under-ground waters.—The supervising engineers of the coal-mines in 
the lower Rhone basin have studied the relation of the flow of water in 
the mines, to the rain-fall. In the copious rains of October and No- 
vember the rain-water sinks into the strata, following fractures and 
lines of erosion, and reaches the mine from twenty-four to thirty-six 
hours after the rain-fall. Areas of different geological structure show 
different periods of infiltration. In the mines of Fuveau and Gréasque 
the water enters in two periods; the first some hours after the end of 
the rain, proceeding from quite local infiltration, whilst the second, 
arriving some days later and continuing much longer, comes from more 
distant regions. (Ibid. p. 80.) 

Commission météorologique du Department des Vosges ; Observations 
faites en 1887-1888. Epinal, 1889.—In addition to a full summary of 
meteorological observations this report contains important phenologi- 
eal and hydrographic data. The rivers attain their flood heights in the 
winter months. The Moselle carries off about 48 per cent. of the pre- 
cipitation that falls within its catchment basin.- The united discharge 
of the Meuse and Mouson at Neufchateau is 47 per cent. of the rain- 
fall; that of the Vair at Soulouse 35 per cent.; that of the Meuse at 
Maxey-sur-Meuse, 40 per cent. The Moselle rises on the average about 
20 centimeters at Epinal, when the rain-fall in the upper part of the 
water-shed amounts to 1 centimeter. Monthly averages of precipita- 
tion at low level and mountain stations show the effect of elevation. 
The mean annual rain-fall at 320 meters elevation is 840 millimeters ; at 
450 meters is 1,347 millimeters, and at 750 meters elevation is 1,672 
millimeters. 

The hydrographic department of Russia has devoted, since 1837, a 
good deal of attention to the secular rising of the coasts of the Baltic 
Sea, and a number of marks have been made on the rocky coasts of the 
Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland in order to obtain trust-worthy data as to 
the rate of the upheaval of the coasts. Since 1869 observations have 
been carried on in a systeinatic way for measuring the changes in the 
level of the Baltic at several of these marks, and the results of the 
observations are now summed up by Colonel Mikhailoff, in the [zvestia 
of the Russ. Geographical Soe. xxiv, 3. 

Taking only those stations at which the secular change could be de- 
termined (from observations from 1839 to 1878), the rise of the coast in 
a century would appear to be as follows: <Aspo, 20.3 inches; Island 
of Kotké, 26.7; Island of Skotland, 12.5; Hangéudd, 33.7; Island of 
Jussair, 31.6; Lehté, 11.5. 

Forest and climate-—Dr. H. E. Hamberg has issued Part m1 of his 
investigations on the relation of forests to climate in Sweden. 

The following are his conclusions: 

The excess of water supplied to the atmosphere by the forest vege- 
tation, above that which would be supplied by the same area of bare 
soil, is certainly considerable, and if that amount of vapor remained 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889, 269 


over the forest or was restored to the soil in the form of rain, it would 
be of great utility, but the wind carries this vapor away and disperses 
it on all sides, so that its useful effect to our own country is scarcely, if 
at all, perceptible. Accordingly, the difference of absolute as well as 
of relative humidity between the cultivated patches in our extensive 
forest districts and the cultivated plains of our country is very slight or 
almost nil. It is true that relative humidity is greater under trees, 
and as the relation mentioned does not apply to open spaces surrounded 
by wood, this difference in humidity can have no practical importance. 

The lakes and large swamps as well as marshes have a much greater 
influence on atmospheric humidity than the forests. The evapora- 
tion from the latter, for equal areas, is far less than from the former. 
The draining of lakes and swamps has not been regarded with serious 
alarm. 

One effect of forests on atmospheric humidity which seems to be useful 
to vegetation and agriculture is the increase of dew in clearances ; but 
this increase of dew is not attributable to a greater abundance of vapor 
in the forests, but to the increase of terrestrial radiation induced by the 
forest. 

The agriculturists of Smaland and of Jemtland have preferred bare, 
dry, elevated lands, exposed to wind, to fields at a lower level, wooded 
and moist, but more subject to frost. 

If all the forests were cleared what would be the result for the atmos- 
pheric humidity in Sweden? Supposing that this clearance did not 
materially modify the quantity of rain that falls, and it is not proved 
that it would, it seems to us that the amount of vapor contained in the 
stratum of air in which we live would not be altered in a way which 
would materially influence vegetation. Probably relative humidity 
would be slightly reduced in summer, because temperature would rise 
slightly. 

In Bulletin No. 2 of the Forestry Division of the Department of Ag- 
riculture, Mr. G. H. Parsons discusses the relation of the climate of 
Colorado to the growth of trees. The author finds that the great range 
of temperature, the warmth of the sun’s rays in cold weather, the low 
humidity, small rain-fall, rapid evaporation, small cloudiness, and the 
northers and chinooks are unfavorable to tree growth. Even :rri- 
gation can only partially supply the tree with the moisture it needs, 
and can never give it the luxuriant foliage characteristic of moist cli- 
mates. 

Effects of forest destruction.—Mr. W. E. Abbott has observed that 
de-forestation in New South Wales has been followed by a more abun- 
dant flow of water in the streams; springs have broken out, dry water- 
courses have begun to flow, and the change is apparently permanent.— 
(Journ. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, xxi1, p. 59.) 

Dr. O. Birkner finds that in Saxony the forests interpose an obstacle 
to the rapid run-off of the rain-fall in heavy rains and thereby prevent 


270 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


floods in the river valleys. This result is effected in three different 
ways: 

(1) The foliage of the trees catches a portion of the rain and holds it 
until evaporated. 

(2) On steep slopes forests furnish a permeable covering of ears 
which acts in a high degree as a protection against a rapid run-off and 
prevents the rapid and complete denudation of the surface covering 
itself. 

Ruthless de-forestation in Lusatia has opened the way for disastrous 
floods. (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1889, V1, p. 261.) 

Forests and rain-fall.—The annual report of the Commissioner of 
Agriculture for 1888 contains an interesting review by Dr. B. E. Fernow 
of the literature on forests and rain-fall. The numerous attempts to 
prove Statistically the effect or the non-effect of forests in modifying the 
precipitation are shown to be inconclusive. 

Forestry in Burmah.—The first annual report of the conservator of 
the forests of Upper Burmah shows that much has been done in a short 
time towards the protection of forests. A staff of eleven assistants has 
been employed, and in some cases escorts have protected these officers 
in their work. Fifty-seven people have been convicted of offenses 
against the forestry regulations, but serious loss has still resulted to the 
forest revenue from the plundering of unmarked timber by local traders. 


Forestry in China.—By a government proclamation, well directed and 
determined efforts are to be put forth toward afforestation in China. 
China is a treeless country, and to this are perhaps due the devastating 
floods that have caused such repeated damage. Slight attempts have 
previously been made to plant extensive tracts with forest trees, but 
the strong northerly winds which prevail soon uprooted those that had 
not been planted to a sufficient depth nor in well-chosen places. 

The methods now to be adopted are those of education in forest 
culture and local encouragement and reward for successful work. 
(Nature, XXXIx, p. 594.) 


Climate of geologic epochs.—Dr. Neumayer, in a paper before the So- 
ciety for the Extension of the Natural Sciences, in Vienna, argues 
against the theory of a uniform climate over the earth in any geological 
epoch. He shows that the occurrence of any given flora or fauna does 
not prove any definite climatic conditions, because plants are able to 
adapt themselves to different environment. Again the theory of a uni- 
form flora over the earth in the carboniferous age can not now be ad- 
mitted. The climate of Greenland and Grinnell Land since tertiary 
time has grown colder by an amount not much less than 30° C. Europe 
also shows an important cooling. But in the opposite hemisphere at 
the same latitudes the cooling since tertiary time has been strikingly 
less. In the miocene flora of Japan there is no sure evidence of a 
climate warmer than that of to-day and in the pliocene flora there are 
indications of a colder climate. These facts point to a change in the 

. 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 2k 


position of the earth’s axis of rotation, and this supposition is confirmed 
by similar phenomena in the southern hemisphere. (JJeteorologische 
Zeitschrift, 1889, p. [85].) 

_ Mr. H.H. Howorth adduces a variety of evidence going to prove that 
Siberia during the mammoth age was possessed of a temperate climate 
and was probably occupied by forests to the borders of the Arctic 
Ocean. Schmidt and others have shown that rooted trunks of trees 
are found in the beds containing mammoth remains far north of the 
present range of trees. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGY FOR 1889. 
By O. L. Fassia. 


ABBE, CLEVELAND. Treatise on meteorological apparatus and methods. Annual 
rep. Chief Signal Officer, U. 8S. Army, 1887, part 2. 8vo. Washington, 1888, 392 
p-, 36 pl. 

Determination of the amount of rain-fall. Amer. Met. Journ., Aun Arbor, v1, 

1889, 241-248. 

The red sunset skies of 1884~’85. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 1888-89, 
529-544, 

ABERCROMBY, RALPH. Seas and skies in many latitudes or wanderings in search of 
weather. 8vo. London, 1888. 447 p. 

——— Upper wind currents over the equator in the Atlantic ocean. Nature, Lon- 
don, XL, 1889, 101-102, 297. 

On Meldrum’s rules for handling ships in the hurricanes of the southern 
Indian ocean; with researches on the nature of hurricanes generally. Journ. 
Scottish Met. Soc., Edinb., vir, 1888-89, 299-332. 

ACKERMAN, ALBERTA. Arctic ice and itsnavigation. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., Xxxv, 
1889, 677-685. 

AGUILAR SANTILLAN, RAFAEL. Apuntes para el studio de las Huvias en México, 
Mem. soc. cien. Antonio Alzate, México, u, 1888~89, 97-122. Abstract in: Met. 
Zeitschr., Wien, V1, 1889, 149-151. 

An. Erliiuternde Besprechungen der neuen ‘‘ Instruktion fiir die Beobachter an den 
meteorologischen Stationen I, 1, und tv. Ordnung des kéniglich preussischen 
meteorologischen Instituts.” 1. Das Welter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 80-85. 

ANpkIEs, P. Die Kilteriickfille im Mai. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 121-129. 

Ueber Luftdruck-Schwankungen. Gaa, Céln, Heft. 1x, 1889, 534-542. 

ANGoT, ALFRED. Sur le calcul de la variation annuelle des éléments météorolo- 
giques. Annal. bur. centr. mét., Paris, 1837 (1889), 1 (mém.), B. 227-B. 236. 

——. Sur les observations de température au sommet de la tour Eiffel. Compt. 
rend., Par., C1x, 1889, 898-900. 

—— Sur la vitesse du vent au sommet de la tour Eiffel. Compt. rend., Par., c1x, 
1889, 697-699. 

—— Etude sur la marche diurne du barométre. Annal. bur. centr. mét., Paris, 
1887 (1889), 1 (mém.), B. 237-B. 344. 

ANGsTROM, K. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Absorption der Wiirmestrahlen durch die 
verschiedenen Bestandtheile der Atmosphire. Bihang K. Svensk, Vet. Ak. Handl., 
Stockh., xv, 1889, 1-29. 

Arata, PEDRO U. El clima y las condiciones higiénicas de Buenos Aires. 4to. 
Buenos Aires, 1889. 














DAD, PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN’ 1889. 


ASSMANN, R. Erlaiuternde Besprechungen der neuen “‘ Instruktion fiir die Beobach- 
ter an den meteorologischen Stationen 11, 01, undiv. Ordnung des kéniglichen 
preussischen meteorologischen Instituts.” 111. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 
241-252. 

——— Mikroskopische Beobachtungen der Struktur des Reifs, Rauhreifs und 
Schnees. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 129-133. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 
339-342, 1 pl. 

Ueber Eisfilamente. Jas Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 7-13. 

BABINET. Résumé des observations centralisées par le service hydrométrique du bas- 
sin de la Seine, pendant Vannée 1887. Ann, Soc. mét., Paris, XxxviI, 1889, 36-68. 

Banos, J. Irrigation in Egypt. [Published by the Ministry of Agriculture of 
France.] Translated from the French by Major A. M. Miller, U.S. Army. 50th 
Cong. (U.S.), 2d sess., H. R. Misc, Doc. No, 134, 4to. Washington, 1889. 111 p., 
22:pls 4 

BaATre.t, A. Sull’ evaporazione dell’ acqua del terreno humido. Ann. di meteorol. 
ital., Roma, 1x, 1887, parte I (1889), 31 p.,1 pl. 

BAYARD, FRANCIS CAMPBELL. The diurnal range of the barometer in Great Britain 
and Ireland. Derived from the hourly records of the nine principal observato- 
ries in the Kingdom during the years 1876-80, Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., London, 
XV, 1889, 146-163, pl. 11-x. 

BEBBER, W. J. VON. Die Regenverhiltnisse der Erde nach Loomis. Das Wetter, 
Braunsch., v1, 1889, 218-231, 1 ch. 

Die Regenverhiiltnisse Indiens. Nach Blanford bearbeitet. Met. Zeits., 
Wien, vi, 1889, 1-11, 2 pl., 46-52. 

——— Lehrbuch der Meteorologie fiir Studirende und zum Gebrauch in der Praxis. 
8vo. Stuttgart, 1890 [1889], 392 p., 5 pl. 

Abhiingigkeit der Stirke des Unterwindes von der Unterlage. Ann. Hydr., 
Berl., xvil, 1889, 485-488. 

— — ‘Typische Witterungs-Erscheinungen. Weitere Folge. Zeitraum 1881-’85. 
Arch. deutsch, Seewarte, Hamb., 1x, 1886. 4to. Hamb., 1887, 29 p.,20pl. (Distrib- 
uted in 1889.) 

BENTELI, A. Die Niveau-Schwankungen der 13 grésseren Schweizer Seen im Zeit- 
raume der 20 Jahre 1867~386. Mitth. Naturf.-Ges., Bern, 1888. 8°. Bern, 1889. ; 

Bera, Emit. Untersuchungen eines Wintergewitters.  Repert. fiir Meteorologie xu, 
Nr. 13. 4to. St. Petersburg, 1889. 28 p. 

BERTHOLD, J. Ueber die interdiurne Verindeilichkeit der Temperatur in drei ver- 
schiedenen Hoéhenlagen des siichsischen Erzgebirges, wihrend der Periode1876~85. 
Mitth. Ver. fiir Erdk., 1888, (1889), 72-105. 

BEZOLD, W. von. Ueber eine nahezu 26-tiigige Periodicitit der Gewittererscheinun, 
gen. Sitzungsber. Ak., Berl., 1888, 2 Halbbd., 905-914. Repert. Phys., Miinch., 
Leipz., xxv, 1889, 177-186. 

Zur Thermodynamik der Atmosphire. Sitzwngsber. Ak., Berl., 1888, 485-552, 
1189-1206. Met. Zeits., Wien, V1, 1889, 201-209, 249-260, 287-294. 

BILLWILLER, R. Vergleichende Resultate der durch Schitzung erhaltenen Daten 
uber den mittleren Bewolkungsgrad des Himmels und der Aufzeichnungen des 
Sonnenscheinautographen. Vierteljahrss. Ziir. Naturf.-Ges., 1888, 293-307. 

BIRKNER,O. Einige Ergebnisse der Hagelforschung im Kénigreich Sachsen. Das 
Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 97-101. 

Bericht iiber die Wasserkatastrophe in der Lausitz wiihrend der Nacht vom 
17. zum 18. Mai 1887. Jahrb. kénig. sdchs. met. Inst., Chemnitz, v, 1887. Ato. 
Chemnitz, 1888. 32 pp., 5 pl. 

BLACKLEY, CHARLES HaRRISON. On an improved method of preparing ozone paper, 
and other forms of the test, with starch and potassium iodide. Quart. Journ. Met. 
Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 193-198, pl. x1. 

BLAKESLEY, T. H. On a new barometer, called “the Amphisbena.” Phil, Mag., 
Lond., XX VI, 1888, 458-460. 

















ha cep 


= PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 243 


BLANFORD, H.F.: A practical guide to the climates and weather of India, Ceylon, 
and Burmah and the storms of Indian seas. 8vo. London, 1889. 369 p. 

— — How rained is formed. Nature, Lond., xXxxtx, 1888-’89, 224-227. 

BLopGETT, LORIN. General tables of temperature in Pennsylvania. In: Ann, rep. 
sec’y internal affairs of Penn. S8vo. Harrisburg, 1889. pp. A. 107-A. 187. 

Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. Observations made in the year 1887; with a 
description of the observatory and its work, under the direction of A. Lawrence 
Rotch. Annals Astr. Obs., Harvard College, xx, part 1, 4to. Cambridge, 1889. 

Borret. Théorie de Varc-en-ciel. J. phys., Par., vit, 1889, 276-283. 

BoLoGna. Atti del primo congresso nazionale di idrologia e di climatologia di Bo- 
logna, 1888. 

Bompiccl, Luria. Le pitt recenti idee sulla formazione delle grandinate. Annuario 
soc. met. ital., Torino, v, 1890 (1889), 180-198. : 

Borromiey, J..T. On a practical constant-volume air-thermometer. Phil. Mag., 
Lond., XxvI, 1888, 149-157. 

BROOCEMANN, K. Ueber harmlose und kritische Tage. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 
1889, 270-280. 

Brickner, Ep. In wie weit ist das heutige Klima konstant? Verh. deut. Geogra- 
phent., V111, 1889, 12 p. 

BUELNA, Evusraquio. Constitucién de la atmoésfera 6 leyes que rigen la densidad, 
peso, altitud y temperatura del aire. 8vo. México, 1839. 114 p. 

Buscu, FrRrepRICH. Beobachtungen iiber die Polarisation des Himmelslichtes, insbe- 
sondere zur Zeit der Abenddiimmerung. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 81-95. 

Busin, P. Le temperature in Italia. 4to. Torino, 1839. 18 p. 

BuszcynskI, B, Zur Vorausbestimmung der Mitteltemperatur des niichsten Tages. 
Wochenschrift, COln, Xxx, 1889, 1-3. 

Buys-BaLtoT. Wann tritt Kompensation ein? Met. Zeits., Wien, vi, 1889, 375-378. 

Uitkomsten van de reeks van meteorol. waarnemingen vedurende 40 jaren 
te Utrecht. Med. k. akad. van Wetensch., afd. Nat., 3de Reeks, Deel v1, Amster- 
dam, 1829. 

CANESTRINI, EvG. Fualminie parafulmini. 16mo. Milapo. 174 p. 

CuHaApreT. Contribution a étude des courants atmosphériques. 8vo. Lyon, 1839. 
16 p. 

CLayton, H. Heim. Verification of weather forecasts. Amer. Met. Journ., Aun 
Arbor, vi, 1889, 211-219. 

CoLLADON, DANIEL. Sur la durée de l’éclair. Compt. rend., Par., ctx, 1889, 12-15. 

Copenhagen. L’institut météorologique de Danemark. Observations faites A Godt- 
haab. Observations Internationales Polaires. Expédition Danoise. ‘Tome 1, 
2liv. 4to. Copenhague, 1889, 

CROLL, JAMES. Discussions on climate and cosmology. 8vo. London, 1889. 327 p. 

On prevailing misconceptions regarding the evidence which we ought to 
expect of former glacial periods. Amer, Journ. Sci., N. Haven, XXXvI, 1889, 
66-72. 

Crova, A. Sur l’analyse de la lumiere diffusée par le ciel. Compt. rend., Par., crx, 
1889, 493-496. 

Sur le mode de répartition de la vapeur d@eau dans Vatmosphére. Compt. 
rend., Par., CVI, 1889, 119-122. 

et HoubaiLie. Observations faites au sommet du mont Ventoux sur 
Vintensité calorifique de la radiation solaire. Compt. rend., Par., CVILI, 1889, 35-39, 

CuRRY, CHARLES EMERSON. (See Davis, W. M., 1889.) 

Davis, G. GUALTERIO. Ligeros apuntes sobre el clima de la Reptiblica Argentina. 
4to. Buenos Aires, 1889. 254 p., 25 pl., 2 ch. 

Davis, W. M. Some American contributions to meteorolory, Journ. Frankl. Inst., 
Phila., xcv11, 1889, 104-115, 176-190. 


H.. Mis, 224 18 





274 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Davis, W. M., and Curry, C. E.  Ferrel’s convectional theory of tornadoes. Amer. 
Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, V1, 1889, 337-349, 418-431, 448-463. 

Davy, Maré. Meteorologia agricola. Traducido por Manuel Moreno y Anda. Capi- 
tulo um. Accién de la luz sobre la vegetacién, accién de la luz sobre la asimula- 
cién. Capitulo m1. Accién del agua sobre la vegetacién. Anuario obs, astron. 
nac. Tacubaya, México, x, 1*90 (1889), 302-367. 

DENzA, F. Le valanche degli inverni 1885 e 1888. Torino, 1889. 

—--— Parole dette nella sala dei Pregadi nel palazzo Ducale di Venezia all’ inaugu- 
razione della terza assemblea generale della Societa meteorologica italiana il 15 
settembre 1888. (Societa meteorol. ital.) 16mo. Torino, 1889. 10 p. 

Deutsche physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt. Bestimmungen der Deutschen Phy- 
sikalisch-Technischen Reichsanstalt fiir die Priifung und Beglaubigung von Ther- 
mometern. Repert. Phys., Miinch., Leipz., xxv, 18389, 322-327. 

Dickson, H. N. Weather folk-lore of Scottish fisherman. Journ. Scottish Met. Soc., 
Edinb., vii, 1888-’89, 349-355. 

The temperature of the surface of the sea on the east coast of Scotland. Journ. 
Scottish Met. Soc., Edinb., vii, 1888-’89, 332-349. 

Dines, W.H. Some experiments made to investigate the connection between the 
pressure and velocity of the wind. (With discussion.) Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., 
Lond., xv, 1889, 183-190, 2 fig. 

Doserck, W. The law of stormsinChina. Nature, Lond., Xxx1x, 1888-89, 301-302. 

D6rinG, W. Der wetterkundige Navigateur. Die Orkane. Zweite reich vermehrte 
Auflage. 8vo. Oldenburg u. Leipzig. 204 p. 

Dorey, G. Ueber den Einfluss der Barometer-Minima und Maxima auf das Wetter 
in Magdeburg. 8vo. Halle a.8., 1889. 38 p. 

DreisBacH, H. Praktische Anleitung zur Vorausbestimmung des Wettérs auf Grund 
lokaler Beobachtungen. Paderborn, 1889. 

DrupeE,O. Betrachtungen iiber die hypothetischen vegetationslosen Einéden im 
temperierten Klima der nérdlichen Hewisphire zur Eiszeit. Petermann’s Mitt., 
Gotha, xxxv, 1889, 282-290. 

Durour, Cu. Cyclone de Jougne, le 13 juillet 1889. Compt. rend., Par., C1x, 1889, 
485-487. 

Durour, Henri. Hygrométre 4 condensation. <dArch. sc. phys. nat., Geneve, XXI, 
1889, 108-112, pl. 11. 

Dunwoopy, H.H.C. (See U.S. Signal Office.) 

DuURAND-CLAYE, ALFRED. Hydraulique agricole et génie rurai. Lecgons professées 
a Vécole des pontset chaussées. Rédigées par M. Félix Launay. (Livre premier, 
Météorologie). 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1889. 

EBERMAYER, E. Einfluss des Waldes und der Bestandsdichte auf die Bodenfeuchtig- 
keit und auf die Sickerwassermengen. Forsch. Geb. dgr.-Phys., Heidelb., xu, 
1889, 147-174. 

Wald und Blitzgefair. Forsch. Geb. Agr.-Phys., Heidelb., x11, 1889, 376-379. 

Beziehungen des Waldes zu Gewitter und Hagel. Jforsch. Geb. Agr.-Phys., 
Heidelb., x11, 1889, 368-372. 

EGESON. Weather system of sun-spot causality. 12mo. Sydney, 1889. 63 p., 4 ch. 

Evuis, WILLIAM. On the variation of the temperature of the air in England during 
the period 1849 to 1888. Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 22&-235. 

ELsTeR, JULIUS, und GrITEL, Hans. Messungen des normalen Potentialgefiilles 
der atmosphiirischen Elektricitiét in absoluten Maase. Sitz.-Ber, Akad., Wien, 
XCVI, 1889, 909-960. 

Erk, F. Der Einfluss des Gebirges af die tiigliche Periode des Luftdruckes am 
Nordabhang der bayerischen Alpen. Deutsches met. Jahrb., Bayern, Miinchen, x, 
1888 (1889), LXIV-LXXIVv. 

Espy, JAMES P. Sketch of (with portrait). Pop. Sci. Month., N. Y., XXxtv, 1889, 
834-840. 














| 
| 








PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 275 


EXNER, FRANZ. Beobachtungen iiber atmosphiirische Elektricitiit in den Tropen, I. 
Sitz.- Ber. Akad., Wien, XCviit, 1889, 1004-1027. 

Bemerkungen zu Herrn Sohneke’s Theorie der Luft-Elektricitiit. Eine 
Erwiderung. epert. Phys., Miinch., Leipz., xxv, 1889, 743-749. 

EXNER, Karu. Ueber die kleinen Héfe und die Ringe behauchter Platten.  Sitz.- 
Ber. Akad., Wien, Xcvutt, 1889, 1130-1141, 1 pl. 

Fas. Kalender der kritischen Tage 1889. Mit Bezug auf Witterungserscheinungen, 
Erdbeben und Schlagwetter in den Bergwerken. Berlin, 1889. 56 p. 

FALB’SCHEN (Die) Wetterprognosen Das Wetler, Braunsch., vi, 1889, 153-156. 

Fassic, OLIVER L. (Sce U. S. Signal Office.) 

Faye, H. Theory of storms, based on Redtield’slaws. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, 
V1, 1889, 289-292, 355-362, 404-414. 

- Marche des tempétes dans les diverses ré 
CVI, 1889, 786-792. 

Sur la tempéte des 11, 12et 13 mars dernier aux Etats-Unis. Compt. rend., CVut, 
1889, 436-441. ; 
FENYI, JULES. Deux éruptions sur le soleil. Ann. Soc. met., Par., crx, 1889, 132-133. 
Beobachtung des Sonnenscheines in der ungarischen Tiefebene Met. Zeits., 
Wien, VI, 1889, 231-234. 

FERREL, WILLIAM. A popular treatise on the winds, comprising the general motions 
of the atmosphere, monsoons, cyclones, tornadoes, watersponts, hail storms, etc, 
8vo. New York, 1889. 505 p. 

The law of thermal radiation. Amer. Journ. Sci., New Haven, XXXvitl, 1889, 
3-29. 

Decrease of temperature with increase of altitude. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann 
Arbor, v1, 1889, 145-150. 

Ferri. Il clima di Lugano nei venticinque anni dal 1864 al 1888. S8vo. Berna, 1889. 
26\p.,.). pl. 

FINLEY, J.P. Something about tornadoes. Science, New York, x1i1, 1889, 83-85, 105- 
108. 





gions du globe. Compt. rend., Par., 





State tornado charts. (Wisconsin, Georgia, Missouri, Illinois, Michigan, 
Iowa, Kansas, Indian Territory, Alabama, Ohio, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, 
North and South Carolina, Dakota, Indiana.) Amer. Wet. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 
1883-89, 466-476, 501-507, 545-551; vi, 1889, 13-12, 62-65, 121-126, 158-167, 200- 
210, 249-256, 318-329, 350-354. 

Fox, FortTescur. Strathpeffer spa: Its climate and waters, with observations his- 
torical, medical, and general, descriptive of the vicinity. London, 1889. 

FRANCE. Bureau central météorologique. Rapport du comité météorologique in- 
ternational. Réunion de Zurich. 1888. 8vo. Paris, 1889. 27 p. 

Frey, E. von. Der Kohlensiiuregehalt der Luft in und bei Dorpat bestimmt in den 
Monaten September 1883 bis Januar 1889. Dissertation. 8vo. Dorpat, 1889. 
49 p. 

Fritz, H. Ueber eine kurze Periode in den meteorologischen Erscheinungen. 
Viertletjahres. naturf. Ges., Ziirich, Xxx, 1838; Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 39-40. 

Die wichtigsten periodischen Erscheinungen der Meteorologie und Kosmo- 
logie. Internationale wissenschaftliche Bibliothek. Lxvu. Bd. 8vo. Leipzig, 
18890; -Xix, 427\p.,.1 pl: . 

Fritz, 8. Nogle Bemerkninger om Forholdet imellem de aarlige Forandringer i 
Temperaturens og Lufttrykkets Fordeling ved Jordoverfladen. 8vo. Kopen- 
hagen, 1889. 24 pp., 3 pl. 

Fugss, R. (See SPRUNG, A.) : 

GABRIEL, F. Abnahme des Waldes und der Regenmenge im Béhmenwalde. Wiener 
landw. Zeitung, 1839, 166; Forsch. Geb. Agr.-Phys., Heidelb., x11, 1889, 372-376. 

GIBERNE, AGNES. The ocean of air. Meteorology for beginners. Witha preface by 
Rey. C. Pritchard. 8yo. London. 1889. 350 p. 12mo. New York, 1290. 


276 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Gruon, ALBERT L. The therapy of ocean climate. Medical News, Phila., 1889; 
Sanitarian, New York, Xx11t, 1889, 205-216. 

Groral, CAsIMO DE. La meteorologia e le sue applicazione. Relazione sul tema XII, 
Classe 1, al Congresso meteorologico di Venezia nel settembre 1588, 

GONZALEZ, BENIGNO G. Resumen de 11 anos de observaciones meteorlégicas en el 
colegio del estado de Puebla. 4to. Puebla. 1889. 19 p. 

GOTTHARDT, WILHELM. Studien iiber das Klima von Iran. 1. Theil. 4to. Marburg, 
1889. 28p. 


Gouzy, E. A. Resultate der zu Miinster im Elsass wiihrend der Jahre 1882-88 ge-- 


machten meteorologischen Beobachtungen im Anschluss an jene der Jahre 
1876-’31. 4to. Miinster. 1889. 202 p. 

Greecy, A. W. American weather. <A popular exposition of the phenomena of the 
weather. 12mo. New York, 1888. 286 p., ill., 24 charts. 

(See U. S. Signal Office.) 

GRIESINGER, K. Schneegrenze in der Hohen Tatra. Ler. Ver. Geogr. Univ., Wien, 
1829. 

GROSSMANN, L. A. Beitrag zur Geschichte und Theorie des Psychrometers. et. 
Zeits., Wien, VI, 1889, 121-130, 164-176. 

GruUaN. Das Klima Meldorf’s. m1. Feuchtigkeit und Niederschliige. Jahresb. K. 
Gymn. zu Meldorf, 1889. 

GUNTHER, SIEGMUND. Die Meteorologie ihrem neuesten Standpunkte Gemiiss, und 
mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung geographischer Fragen dargestellt. 8vo. 
Miinchen, 1889, vii, 304 p. 

Der Krakatoa-Ausbruch und die Diimmerungsercheinungen.  Petermann’s 
Mitt., Gotha, Xxxv, 1889, 73-77. 

Gtrzow. Die Temperaturverhiiltnisse von Putbus auf Riigen, auf Grund 33jabriger 
Beobachtungen, 1854-1886. Jahresb. geogr. Ges., Greifswald, 1888, 54 p., 4 pl. 

GUILBERT, GABRIEL. Etude sur l’application des mouvements horaires du barométre 
ala prévision du temps. Ann. Soc. mét., Par., XXXVI, 1839, 183-186. 

GUILLAUME, Cu. Ep. Sur la précision atteinte dans la mesure des températures. 
Compt. rend., Par., C1x, 1889, 963-965. 

Traité pratique de la thermométrie de précision, 8yo. Paris, 1889. xv, 336 p. 

GUILLEMIN. Des changements de climat. Arch. sc. phys. nat., Geneve, XXII, 
1889, 585-587. 

HaGeNBACH, Ep., et Foren, F. A. Etudes glaciaires. Iv. La température de la 
glace dans lintérieur du glacier. Arch. se. phys. nat., Geneve, XX1, 1839, 5-20. 
Haun, F. Die leuchtenden Wolken im Sommer 1887 und 1888, beobachtet in K6- 

nigsberg. AMet. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 186-188. 

HAMBURG, H.E. Om skogarnes intlytande pa Sveriges Klimat. ut. Luftens fuk- 
tighet. (Influences of forests on climate.) fol. Stockholm, 1889. 58 p. 

HANN, J. Ueber den Nutzen der tiiglichen Wetterkarten fiir den Alpenreisenden. 
Mitth. der deut. wnd dster. Alpenner, 1889, Nr. 12. 

Ueber die Luftfeuchtigkeit als klimatischer Faktor. Wiener klinische 

Wochenschrift, 1889. 

Untersuchung iiber die tiigliche Oscillation des Barometers. 4to. Wien, 

1889. 73 p. (Extr. from Denkschr. der k. Akad. der Wiss., LV, 1889.) 

Resultate der meteorologischen Beobachtungen der franzésischen Polar-Ex- 
pedition, 1882~’83, am Cap Horn. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 95-109. 

—— Kar! Prohaska’s Untersuchungen iiber die Gewittererscheinungen in Steier- 
mark, Kirnten und Oberkrain. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 176-184. 

Der tigliche und jiihrliche Gang der Windgeschwindigkeit und der Wind- 

richtung auf der Insel Lesina. Mit einem Beitrag zur Karakterisirung der Bora 

und des Scirocco. Annal. Hydr., Berl., xvi, 1888, 30-41, 287-302; Met. Zeits., 

Berl., vi, 1889, 24-26. 


























: 
{ 
‘ 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. Zt 


—-— Die meteorologischen Beobachtungen des Prof. A. Ackermann in Port au 
Prince, Haiti, 1864-1868. Met. Zeits., Wien, vi, 1889, 209-216. 
Wassergehalt der Wolken- und Nebel-Luft, et. Zeits., Wien, vi, 1889, 303- 





306. 





Beitriige zur arktischen Meteorologie. Nach den: ‘‘ Contributions to our 
knowledge of the Arctic regions.” Parts 1v and v, Lond., 1885, 1888. Met. Zeits., 
Wien, VI, 1889, 321-329. a 

Ueber den Féhn in Ost-Grénland. Met. Zeits., Wien, V1, 1889, 378-381. 

Khmavon Cypern. AMet. Zeits., Wien, vi, 1889, 427-433. 

HarpiInG, Cuarves, Atlantic weather and rapid steamship navigation. Quart. Journ. 
Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 235-238. 

Note on the prolonged spell of cold weather from September, 1887, to October, 
1888 (with discussion). Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., Xv, 1889, 17-24. 

HARRINGTON, M.W. The whirlpool theory of storms. Amer. Met. Jowrn., Ann Arbor, 
VI, 1889, 82-88. ; 

HartLey, W.N. On the limit of the solar spectrum, the blue of the sky, and the 
fluorescence of ozone. Nature, Lond., XXX1x, 188*%~-’89, 474-477. 

Harvard College. Meteorological observations made on the summit of Pike’s Peak, 
Colorado, under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army, January, 
1874, toJune, 1888. Annals Astr. Obs’y, Harvard College. Vol. xxi1. 4to. Cam- 
bridge, 1889. 475 p. 

Hazen, H. A. Cloud formation. Amer, Met. Jowrn., Ann Arbor. V1, 1889, 193-199. 

—— Storms and a central ascending current. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, V1, 
1889, 97-104, / 

——— Anemometer comparisons. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 1888~89, 492- 
500; vi, 1889, 8-12. 

HELLMANN, G. Der Wolkenbruch am 2. und 3. August 1888 im Gebiete des oberen 
Queis und Bober. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 19-21. 

——-— Hohe der Schneedecke am letzten (28.) Februar 1889 in Norddeutschland. 
Wochenschrift, Célu, XXx11, 1889, 91-94. 

Het_miourz, H. von. Ueber atmosphiirische Bewegungen. ‘Sitzungsber. Ak., Berl., 
1888, 1 Halbbd., 647-663. 

—— Ueber atmosphiirische Bewegungen. Zweite Mittheilung. Sitz.-Ber. Akad., 
Berl., 1889, 761-720. 

Hepires, St. C. Studiu asupra climec Bucurestilor in Ann 1885-1888. Partesa I. 
Temp. aeruluc. 4to. Bucuresti, 1889. 70 p., 3 pl. 

HERRMANN, E. Der plotzliche Barometerfall iiber Mitteleuropa am 31. Januar bis 1. 
Februar 1889. Ann. Hydr., Berl., Xvit, 1889, 242-248; Met. Zeits., Wien, V1, 
1889, 394-398. 

Hint, 8S. A. The tornadoes and hail-storms of April and May, 1888, in the Doab and 
Rohilkhand. Journ. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Lvu1, 1889, 46 p., 6 pl. 

On temperature and humidity. Observations made at Allahabad at various 
heights above the ground. Indian Met. Mem., vol. Iv, part vi. 4to. Calcutta, 
1289, 34 p., 4 pl. 

The psychrometer and the condensing hygrometer. Journ. Asiat. Soc. of 
Bengal, Calcutta, LVU, part 11, 1888 (1889), 369-380. 

Hitron, FE. R. Moisture economy in Kansas. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, vt, 
1889, 237-240, 283-288. 

Hinricus, Gustavus. Tornadoes and derechos. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 
1888-89, 306-317, 341-349, 385-595. 

Horrert, H. H. Intermittent lightning-flashes. Phil. Mag., Lond., xxv, 1889, 
106-109, pl. Iv. 

Hopre,H. Das Klimades Erzgebirges. Jahrb. des Erzgebirgszweigvereines, Chemnitz, 
1889, 46 p. 











278 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


Horrr, H. Beniitzung der Kabelleitungen zu Temperaturmessungen. Met. Zeits., 
Wien, vi, 1889, 188-190. > 

Horatius, ANGELO DE. Ricordi del Congresso meteorologico di Venezia, 14-21 set- 
tembre, 1888. 

Horn, Franz. Beobachtungen iiber Gewitter und Hagelschlige in Bayern wiihrend 
der Jahre 1880~’88, Deutsches met. Jahrb., Bayern, Miinch., xX, 1883 (1#89), p. 
1-Ixi. e 

Beobachtungen iiber Gewitter in Bayern, Wiirttemberg und Baden wiihrend 
des Jahres 1888. Deutsches met. Jahrb., Bayern, Miinch., x, 1888 (1889), p. xix- 
XXKV. 

Howortn, Henry H. The climate of Siberia in the mammoth age. Nature, Lond., 
XXXIX, 1888-89, 294-295, 365-366. 

Hurcuins, D. E. Cycles of drought and good seasons in south Africa. 8vo. Wyn- 
berg, 1889. 136 p. 4 diag. 

JAMES, BusHRop W. American resorts; with notes upon their climate. 8vo. Phila. 
and Lond., 1889. 285 p. 

Jamestown, Pa. History of the great flood in Jamestown, Pa., May 31,1889. 16mo. 
Chicago, J. S. Ogilvie, 1889. 223 p. 

Jesse, O. Die leuchtenden Nachtwolken. (Bitte um Beobachtung derselben.) 
Wochenschrift, Cdlu, XX X11, 1889, 116-119. 

Die leuchtenden Nachtwolken im Sommer 1889. Jochenschrift, COln, XXXII, 

1889, 397-400. 

Die leuchtenden Nacutwolken. Met. Zeits., Wien, VI, 1889, 184-186. 

Jonrs, SAMUEL. Rain from a cloudless sky (‘‘serein”) at Stevenage, July 22, 1888. 
Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 123. 

JORDAN, Tuomas B. A design for obtaining an automatic record of the light trans- 
mitted from each quarter of the atmosphere. Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., Xv, 
1889, 122-123. 

JoussrtT, A. Traité de Vacclimatement et de Vacclimatation. 8vo. Paris, (18897), 
458 p., 16 pl. 

KaminskiJ, A. Vergléichbarkeit der Niederschlagsbeobachtungen im europiiischen 
Russland. Repert. fiir Meteorol., xu, 1889. 4to. St. Petersburg, 1889, 32 p. 
KARSTEN, G. Aneroid-Thermoskop, ein neues Demonstrations-Instrument. €&vo. 
Kiel, 1889. 10p., 1 pl. From: Schriften d. naturw. Ver, fiir Schleswig- Holstein, 

VIII. 

Krersnowsk1J, J. Ueber den tiiglichen und jiihrlichen Gang der Vertheilung der 
Windgeschwindigkeit im russischen Reiche. Repert. fiir Meteorol., x11, Nr. 3. 
Ato. St. Petersburg, 1889. 

Kirscu, Tu. Die Vorherbestimmung des Wetters. 16mo. Breslau, 1889. 36 p. 

Kjébenhavn. Dansk Meteorologisk Institut. Selvregistrerende Instrumente af 
dansk Konstruktion udstillede 1888 af Meteorologisk Institut. Tekn. Morenings 
Tidsskrift, 12 Aarg., 1888~89. 

KLEEMANN, REINHOLD. Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Klimas von Halle, 1851-85. 
8vo. Halle a. 8., 1888. 23 p. 

KLENGEL, Frimepricnu. Die historische Entwicklung des Begriffes der Schnee- 
grenze von Bouguer bis auf A. v. Humbolt, 1736-1820. Leipzig, 1889. (Extr. 
from: Mitth. Leipz. geog. Ges.) 

KLOssowsky. Temperatur des Bodens in Siidwest-Russland. (Russian text. ) 
Denkschr. k. landw. Ges. von Siid-Russland, Odessa, 1888. 21 p., 2 pl. 

KoEPPEN, W. Ueber die Konstruktion der Isobaren fiir das Niveau von 2,500™, 
Met. Zeite., Wien, V1, 1889, 348-350. 

Biologische Betrachtungen iiber Cyklonen und Anticyklonen. Das Jetter, 
Braunsch., Vi, 1889, 169-179. 

Kress, A. Beitriige zur Kenntniss und Erklirung der Gewitter-Erscheinungen auf 
Grund der Aufzeichnungen iiber die Gewitter Hamburgs in den Jahren 1878-’87. 
8vo. Stuttgart, 1889. 24p., 7 pl. . 














hy 


ee 


PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 279 


KREMSER, V. Ueberdas Klima der preussischeu Universitiitsstiidte. linisches Jahrb., 
Ber’l., 1, 1889. 

Ueber die Anbringung der Thermometer im Schatten eines Hauses. Das 
Wetter, Braunsch., vi, 18389, 61-64. 

Einiges iiber die aussergewohnlichen ee ees des diesjiihrigen 
Friihsommers zu Berlin. Das Wetter, Braunsch., vi, 1889, 179-181. 

Kurz, A. Die barometrische Héhenformel im phy ee Unterrichte. epert. 
Phys., Miinch., Leipz., xxv, 1889, 593-595. 

LADENDORF. Das Hoéhenklima in meteorologischer, physiologischer und therapeu- 
tischer Beziehung. 1. Theil: Das solare Klima.—Das Hohenklima. Berlin, 1889. 

LAMPRECHT, G. Wetter, Erdbeben und Erdenringe. Beitriige zur astronomischen 
und physikalischen Begriindung der Wetterkunde. 8vo. Zittau, 1889. 44 p. 
and pl, ; 

LANG, C. Klimatische nnd meteorologische Verhiiltnisse. In: Die Landwirthschaft 
in Bayern. Miinchen, 1889. 

Welche Zuverlissigkeit besitzt die abentliche Thaupunkts-Bestimmung als 
Anhaltspunkt “% Stellung der Nachtfrost-Prognose? Deutsches met. Jahrb., 
Bayern, Miinch., 1888 (1889), Anhang I. 25p. 

Pee hee. der Gewitter in Siiddentschland wiihrend 
des zehnjiihrigen Zeitraumes 1879-’88. Deutsches met. Jahrb., Bayern, Miinch., 
x, 1888 (1889), xxxvii-xlix. 

LaNaier, S.P. Observation of sudden phenomena. Amer. Journ. Sci., N. Haven, 
XXXVIII, 1889, 93-100. 

The temperature of the moon. Amer. Journ. Sci., N. Haven, Xxxviti, 1889 
421-440. 

Lasnb, Henri. Remarques théoriques sur les mouvements gyratoires de l’atmos- 
phere (4° article). Ann. Soc. meét., Par., Xxxvu1, 1889, 126-139. 

Lawson, RoBerT. On the deaths cansed by lightning in England and Wales from 
1852 to 1880, as recorded in the returns of the Registrar-General. Quart. J. Met. 
Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 140-146. 

LEPEL, Dr. v. Ueber die feuchten Funkenréhren und die Gewitterblitze. Met. 
Zeits., Wien, VI, 1889, 216-220 

LIEBMANN, B. Christian Thane und die erste meteorologische Station der Ober- 
lausitz. Gymn. Programm, Lobau, 1889. 4to. 33 p. 

LopGcE, OLIver J. On the theory of lightning conductors. Phil. Mag., Lond., ¥XVI, 
1888, 217-230 

Lockyer, J. NORMAN. (See London, Royal Society. ) a 

London. Meteorological Council. Report of the fourth meeting of the International 
Meteorological Committee. Ziirich, September, 1888. 8v9. London, 1889. 

London. Royal Meteorological Society. Tenth annual exhibition of instruments, 
principally actinometers and solar radiation apparatus, held by permission of 
the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, at 25 Great George street, West- 
minster, S. W., March 19th to 22d, 1889. Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 
1889, 166-174. 

London. Royal Society. The eruption of Krakatoa, and subsequent phenomena. 
Report of the Krakatoa cominittee of the Royal Society. Edited by G. J. Symons. 
4to. London, 1888. 494 p., 45 pl. 

Further discussion of the sun-spot observations made at South Kensing- 
ton. Areport to the solar physics committee. Communicated by J. Norman 
Lockyer. Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., xLv1, 1889, 385-401. 

Loomis, E11As. Contributions to meteorology. Twenty-third paper. Relation of 
rain-areas to areas of high and low pressure. Amer. Jown. Sci., N. Haven, XXXvVU, 
1889, 243-256. 

Contributions to meteorology. Chapter ui. Revised edition, 4to. New 

Haven, 1889, 


? 








280 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


LOVERING, JOSEPH, sketch of (with portrait). Pop. Sci. Mon., N. Y., xxxv, 1889, 
690-697, 

McCONNEL, JAMES C. On diffraction-colours, with special reference to coronal and 
iridescent clouds. Phil. Mag., Lond., Xxv1i1, 1889, 272-289, pl. 

On the polarization of sky light. Phil. Mag., Lond., xxvu1, 1889, 81-104. 

Mack, D.K. Die klimatischen Verhiltnisse von Hohenheim. Dargestellt auf Grund 
elfjiihriger Beobachtungen, 1878-’88. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1889. 60 p. 

MarcetT, WILLIAM. The sun, its heat and light. An address delivered to the Royal 
Meteorological Society, March 20, 1889. Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 
127-137. 

On fogs. An address delivered at the annual general meeting of the Royal 
Meteorological Society, on January 16, 1889. Quart. Journ, Met. Soc., Lond., 
Xv, 1889, 59-72. 

Marcui, LUIGI DE. Saggio d applicazione dei principii dell’ idraulica alla teoria delle 
correnti dell’ aria. Annali di meteorol. italiana, VIII, 1886, parte I. fol. Roma, 
1889. 25 p. 

MascarT. Expériences de M. Weyher sur les tourbillons, trombes, tempétes et sphéres 
tournantes. J. phys., Par., vir, 1589, 557-572. 

Marriott, W. The thunderstorms of June 2,6, and7, 1889 (with discussion). Quart. 
Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., Xv, 1889, 219-228. 

Report on the helm wind inquiry (with discussion). Quart., Journ. Met. Soc., 
Lond., xv, 1889, 103-118. 

Maurer, J. Ueber die atmosphiirische Absorption von strahlender Wiirme niedriger 
Temperatur und die Grosse der Sternstrahlung. Vierteljahrsschrift der Ziiricher 
Naturf. Ges., xx xiv, 1889, 63-81. Also, Repert. Phys., Miinch, Leipz., xxv, 1889, 
642-554. 

MaRVIN, C. F. Measurement of wind velocity. Results of recent experiments. 
Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 1888~’89, 552-564. 

——— Anemometer studies. Amer, Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, V1, 1889, 115-120. 

MAZELLE, Ep. Ueber den tiiglichen und jiihrlichen Gang des Luftdruckes in Triest. 
Jahrb. naut. Akad., Triest, m1, 1889. 

Meryrr, Hugo. Die Niederschlags-Verhiiltnisse von Dentschland, insbesondere von 
Norddeutschland, in den Jahren 1876-1885. Archiv der deutschen Seewarte, 
Hamb., x1, 1888 (1889), 45 p. 

Michigan. State Board of Health. Principal meteorological conditions in Michigan 
in 1888. Extr. from: Annual rep. for 1889. 8vo. Lansing, 1889, 76 p. 

MILLER, Maj. A. M. Irrigation in Egypt. (1889.) (See Barois, J.) 

Moun, H. Windstiirke und Windgeschwindigkeit auf norwegischen Leuchtfeuer- 
Stationen. Ann. Hydr., Berl., xvi, 1889, 365-372. 

Die tigliche Periode der Feuchtigkeit in Christiania. Jet. Zeits., Wien, v1, 
1889, 281-287. 

MoLLoy, GrrALp. A series of popular lectures on scientific subjects. mu. Light- 
ning, thunder, and lightning conductors. Iv. The sun asa storehouse of energy- 
vi. The glaciers of the Alps. 8vo. London [1889]. 

Monaco, ALBERT DE. Sur les courants superficiels de VAtlantique nord. Compt. 
rend., Par., cv1t, 1889, 1151-1154. 

Moore, A. W. The climate of the Isle of Man. Jowrn. Scottish Met. Soc., Edinb., 
vill, 1888-’89, 200-217. 

Nakamura, K. Ueber den mittleren tiiglichen Gang des Barometers an heiteren und 
triiben Tagen zu Hamburg. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1859, 41-46. 

NATTererR, Konrap. Einige Beobachtungen iiber den Durchgang der Elektricitiit 
dureh Gase und Diimpfe. Sitz.-Ber. Akad., Wien, xcvuit, 1889, 990-1000, 2 pl. 
Nrumayr, M. Die klimatischen Verhiiltnisse der Vorzeit. Schriften Ver. Verbreit. 

naturw. Kenntn., Wien. 8vo. Wien, 1889. 47 p. 




















PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 281 


NEUMAYER, G. Bericht iiber die Verhandlungen des internationalen meteorologischen 
Comités Versammlung in Ziirich, September 13883. Mit einem Vorwort tiber 
die Entwickelung meteorologischer Forschung in Deutschland und einem Sach- 
register der verschiedenen Berichte des internationalen Comités seit dem 
Meteorologen-Congresse in Rom. 8yvo. Hamburg, 1889. 

New England Meteorological Society. hvenes of papers read at the fifteenth reg- 
ular meeting held at Worcester, Mass., April 16, 1889. Lightning and elec- 
tricity of the atmosphere. A. G. McAdie.—Investigation of the sea-breeze. W. 
M. Davis.—Practical value of self-recording rain-guages. E. B. Weston.—Dia- 
grams illustrating evaporation. Desmond Fitzgerald. dmer. Met. Journ., Ann 
Arbor, v, 188889, 1-8. 

Loan exhibition of instruments, photographs, charts, etc. Amer. Met. Journ., 
Ann Arbor, v, 1888~’89, 440-446. 

NIPHER, FRANCIS E. Report on Missourirainfall, with averages for ten years end- 
ing December, 1887. Tr. Acad. Sc., St. Louis, v, 1889, 383-433, 9 pls., 1 table. 
PARMENTIER, F. Sur la présence du sulfate de soude ina Vatmosphere. Compt. rend., 

Par., Cv1iI, 1889, 1113-1116. 

PartscH. Ueber den Nachweis einer Klimaiinderung der Mittelmeerliinder in ge- 
schichtlicher Zeit. Verh. deutschen Geogr.-Tages, Berl., vut, 1889, 116-125. 

PAULSEN, ADAM. Contribution 4 notre-connaissance de Vaurore boréale. Bull. Acad. 
Danoise, 1889, 29 p. 

Ueber die milden Winde im groénlandischen Winter. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1 
1889, 241-249. 

PELLAT. Ueber die griine Farbe der letzten Sonnenstrahlen. Bull. Soc. philom., 
Par., XII, 1888, 22 p. 

PERNTER, J. M. Lephay’s Messungen der Intensitiit der Sonnenstrahlung am Cap 
Horn. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889; 130-136. 

— Zur Theorie des Bishop’schen Ringes. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 401-409, 

PETERMAN, R. E. Auch ein kritischer Tag. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 252- 
256. 

Prrona, A. Pluie de sable des 6 et 18 mars & Alexandrie. <Astronomie, Par., Vt, 
1889, 201-205. 

PLANTS, GAsTON. Die elektrischen Erscheinungen der Atmosphiire. Autorisirte 
deutsche Ausgabe besorgt von Iguaz G. Wallentin, 8vo. Halle a. S., 1889, 142 p. 

PLOWRIGHT, CHARLES On the rime-frost of January 6th and 8th, 1889 (with dis- 
cussion). Quart. J. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 137-140. 

Porncarh, A. Re bee entre les moni emnetts barométriqnes et les positions de la 
lune et du soleil dans Vannée météorologique 1883. Ann. soc. mét., Par., XXXVH, 
1889, 13-19. 

Pomortsew. Unmriss der Lehre von dér Wetter-Vorhersagung. (Synoptische Meteo- 
rologie.) 8vo. St. Petersb., 1889. 207 p., 18 pl. 

PROBASKA, K. Gewitterbeobachtungen in Steiermark, Kiirnten und Oberkrain. 
Bericht fiir das Jahr 1888 und Ergebnisse vierjiihrige Beobachtungen. (1885- 
1888.) 8vo. Graz, 1889. (Naturw. Ver.) 

Regen bei steigendem Luftduck und die Gewitterregen des Sommers. Met. 
Zeits., Wien., V1, 1888, 226-229. 

Potsdam. Mcteapheimatinates Observatorium. Meteorologische Beobachtungen in 
den Jahren 1884 bis 1887. Bearbeitet von P. Kempe. Publ. Astrophys. Obs., 
Nr. 24, sechsten Bandes viertes Stiick. 4to. Potsdam, 1889. 

PRITCHARD, Rev. C. (See Giberne, Agnes.) 

Queensland. Chief Weather Bureau. Meteorology of Australasia. Meteorological 
instructions by Clement L. Wragge. fol. Brisbane, 1889, 16 p. and pl. 

RaGona, Dom. Vero andamento diurno della umidita& relativa. Annali di met. ital., 
1x, 1887. Parte1. fol. Roma,1889, 25 p. 


282 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


RaGona, Dom. Pressione atmosferica bi-ovaria del 1888 e considerazioni sulle pro- 
prieta delle formule periodiche relative all’ andamento diurno del baromeiro esulle 
ore tropiche dei mesi invernali. Annali di meteorol. ital., ix, 1887. Parte 1. fol. 
Roma, 1889. 41 p. 

Influenza della distanza del sole dal piano dell’equatore celeste sui periodi 

barometrici diurni. Torino, 1889. 

Pressione atmosferica ridotta al medio linello del mare in Modena. Coeffici- 

enti per la temperatura e per pressione atmosferica nel barometro registratore 

Richard. Modena, 1889. 

Studi sulla comparazione degli anemometri. Annali di meteor. ital, 1886. 
Parte 1. fol. Roma, 1889. 

—— Vero andamento diurno della temperatura. fol. Modena, 1589. 27 p. 

——— Evaporazionecomparata. Annalidimeteor. ital, 1886. Partet. fol. Roma, 1889. 

RaNkKIN, ANGUS. St. Elmo’s fire on Ben Nevis. Journ. Scottish Met. Soc., Edinb., Vit, 
1883-89, 191-200. 

RatzEL, F. Die Schneedecke besonders in deutschen Gebirgen. 8vo. Stuttgart, 
1889. 71 p. and ch. 

RatzeL, Frrepricu. Ueber Messung der Dichtigkeit des Schnees. Met. Zeits., 
Wien, VI, 1889, 433-435. 

ReNou, E. Etudes sur le climat de Paris. Troisiéme partie. Température. Annal. 
Bur. centr. mét., Paris, 1887 (1889). I. (Mém.), B. 195—B. 226. 

RIcHTER, Epuarp. DieGletscherder Ostalpen. 8vo. Stuttgart, 18388. 306 p., 7 ch. 

RIGGENBACH, A. Resultate aus 112jiihr. Gewitteraufzeichnungen in Basel. Verh. d. 
Naturf.-Ges. zu Basel, Theil, 11. 8vo. Basel, 1889. 

Roster, Groreio. L’ aria atmosferica studiata del lato fisico, chimico e biologico. 
8vo. Milano, 1889. 538 p. 

Rotcu, A. LAwrRENCE. Meteorology at the Paris Exposition. Amer. Met. Journ., 
Aun Arbor, VI, 1€89, 292-300, 362-368. 

The organization of the meteorological service in some of the principal 

countries of Europe. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 188889, 393-409, 431- 

492; vi, 1889, 49-60, 104-115. 

Observations made at the Blue Hill meteorological observatory in the year 
1888, with a statement of the local weather predictions. Annals Astr. Obs’y, Har- 
vard College, xx, Part it. 4to. Cambridge, 1889. 122>. 

Roturietz, A. Das Klima von Teneriffe. Wochenschrift fiir Astr. uw. Met., Colo, 
XXXII, 1889, 285-288, 291-294, 297-303, 305-310, 313-319. 

Russev1, F. A. R. The causes and character of haze. Nature, Lond , x1, 188)-’90, 
60-65. 

RUSSELL, FRANK. Results of meteorological observations made at Akassa, Niger 
Territory, February, 1887, to October, 1883. Quart. J. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 
199-206. 

RussEv, H.C. The sources of the underground water in the western districts (of 
Australia). Journ. § Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xx111, 1889, 57-63. 

SAUSSURE. Onthe use of the sling psychrometer. Translation of remarks extracted 
from his Voyagesdans les Alpes. &8vo Par. 1796. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, 
VI, 1889, 168-172. 

SAVELIEF, R. Sur les observations actinométriques faites & Kief. (Remarques sur 
les observations; par A. Crova.) Compt. rend., Par., Cv, 1889, 247-290. 

Détermination de la constante solaire faite 4 Kief. Ann. ch. ph., Par., XVI, 
1889, 462-467. 

Sur la marche de la radiation solaire & Kief pendant Vannée 1888. Ann. 
ch. ph., Par., XVII, 1889, 458-462. 

Scumip?, Ap. Hoéhenbestinmmungen und meteorologische Beobachtungen von Dr. 
Junker und Dr. Emin-Pascha, nebst einigen Beobaehtungsreihen von Bohndorft 























and Capitiin Casati Petermann’s Geogr. Mitth. Ergiinz.-Heft. 4to. Gotha, 1889. 


49 p. 


ete 





PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 283 


ScHMoLL, A. Mouvement oscillatoire observé dans des nuages immobiles en appa- 
rence. Astronomie, Par., VIII, 1889, 426-428. 

SCHNEIDER, Oskar. Der Chamsin und sein Einfluss auf die niedere Thierwelt. 
Festschrift Ver Erdkunde, Dresden, 1888, 93-113. 

— — Ueber das Lamont’sche Verfahren zur Ableiting der tiiglichen Periode aus 

stiindlichen Beobachtungen. Met. Zeits., Wien, VI, 1889, 468-471. 

— Ueber die gréssten Barometerspriinge in der Zeit einer Viertelstunde. (1570- 

1888.) Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 13889, 64-65. 

——— Die Theilnahme Sachsens an den meteorologischen Forschungen. Isis, Dres- 
den, 1889. 22p. 

ScHrONROCK, A. Zusammenfassung der Resultate wiederholter Vergleichungen der 
Normal-Barometer in Europa. MLepert. fur Meteor. x11, Nr. 1. 4to. St. Petersb., 
1589, 28 p. 

Scott, R. H. The climate of British North Borneo, Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., 
Xv, 1889, 206-219. 

SEARLE, ARTHUR. Atmospheric economy of solar radiation.’ With comments by Pro- 
fessor Ferrel. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v1, 1889, 173-179. 

Srecer, R. Die Schwankungen der Hocharmenischen Seen seit 1800 in Vergleichung 
mit einigen verwandten Erscheinungen, Mitth. k. k. geogr. Ges., Wien, 1888. 
8vo. Wien, 1888. 70 p., 1 pl. 

——— Neue Beitriige zur Statistik der Seespiegelschwankungen. Jahresb. Ver. Geogr. 
Oniv. Wien, xtv. 8vo. Wien, 1888, 14 p. 

SInGer, Karu. Die Temperatur-Mittel fiir SiiddeutsehJand. Deutsches met. Jahrb. 
Bayern, Miineh., x, 1888 (1889), Anhang 1, 65 p. 

Smituy, RurertT T. Insolation. Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 42-47. 

SmytTu, C. Piazzr. Mean Scottish meteorology 185687, and eight years observations 
of the new rock thermometers at the Royal Observatory. 4to. Edinb., 1889. 
18 pl. 

Sorsy, H.C. On the temperature of the tidal estuaries of the south-east of England. 
Scot. Geogr. Mag., Edinb., v, 1689, 589-595. 

SPITALER, R. Ueber die Temperaturanomalien auf der Erdoberfliiche im Januar und 
Juli. Petermann’s Mitt., Gotha, xxxv, 1889, 281-232, Taf. 17,18. 

SprunG, A., und Furss, R. Nene Registrirapparate fiir Regenfall und Wind, mit 
elektrischer Uebertragung. Zeits. fiir Instrumentenk., 1X, 1889; Met. Zeits., Wien, 
VI, 1889, 344-348. 

SpurGceon, C. H. The salt-cellars. (Contains many weather proverbs.) 2 vols. 
London (1889). 

SRESNEWSKIJ, B. Die Stiirme auf dem Schwarzen und Azowschen Meere. Lepert. 
fiir Meteor., x1, Nr. 7. 4to. St. Petersb., 1889. 75 p., 2 pl. 

STASSANO, ENRICO. Nuova conferma della teoria atmosferica delle aurore polari. 
Rend. 7. ace., Roma, V (1. sem.), 1889, 210-213. 

Sreran, J. Ueber die Theorie der Eisbildung, insbesondere iiber Eisbildung im 
Polarmeere. Sitz.-Ber. Akad., Wien, XCVUI, 1889, 965-983. 

SrratTen, A.C., and others. Remarkable hailstorm near Montereau, France, August 
15th, 1888 (with discussion). Quart. Journ. Met. Soc., Lond., Xv, 1889, 47-51. 
Symons, G. J. Results of an investigation of the phenomena of E glish thunder- 
storms during the years 185759 (with discussion). Quart. Journ, Met. Soc., Lond., 

Xv, 1889, 1-13. 
Remarkable hailstones. Nature, Lond., xii, 1889-90, 134-135. 

Taber, C, A. M. Winds, ocean currents, and ice periods. Explanatory chapters 
concerning winds, ocean currents, and frigid eras. 12mo Boston, 1880. 2&6 p. 
LTaTuaM, W. P. A contribution to meteorology. Mr. Espy ; Dr. Hare; tornadoes; 

hailstorms. J. Frankl. Inst., Phila., xcvur, 1889, 437-445. 

TEISSERENC DE Bort, LHON. Etude sur la synthese de la répartition des pressions a 
la surface du globe. Ann. bur. centr. mét,, Par., I (mém,), 1887 (1889), e. 1-e, 23, 
4 pl. 





© 


284 PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 


TOMLINSON, CHARLES. On lightning and gunpowder magazines. Phil. Mag., Lond., 
XXVIII, 1889, 368-375. 

On the theory of hail. Phil. Mag., Lond., xxv, 1889, 169-184, pl. v. 

TREITSCHKE, Friepr. Witternang in Thiiringen im Jahre 1888. Das Jetter, 

3raunsch., V1, 1889, 108-113. 

Tripp, WitttaAM B. South American rainfallsouth of the tropics. Scot. Geogr. Mag., 
Edinb., v, 1889, 297-301, map. 

Une, Wit. Das Derstgefiihl als klimatischer Konstante. Das Wetter, Braunsch., 
VI, 1889, 101-108. 5 

Das siittigungsdeficit. Das Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 73-79. 

U.S. Congress. Irrigation in Egypt. (1889.) (See Barois, J.) 

U. S. Hydrographic Office, Navy Department. The St. Thomas-Hatteras hurricane 
of September 3 to 12, 1889. Washington, 1889. 10 ch. (with text). 

West Indian hurricanes. From the pilot chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, 
May, 1889. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann Arbor, v, 1889, Suppl., 1 ch.; Science, N. Y., 
XIII, 1889, 434-435. 

U.S. Signal Office. Bibliography of meteorology. Prepared under the direction of 
General A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer; edited by Oliver L. Fassig. Part 1. 
Temperature. 4to. Washington, 1889. 386 p. (Lith.) 

Bibliography of meteorology. Prepared under the direction of General A. 

W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer ; edited by Oliver L. Fassig. Part 11. Moisture. 

4to. Washington, 1889. 471 pp. (Lith.) 

Rainfall of the Pacifie Slope and the Western States and Territories. Fif- 

tieth Congress, first session. Senate Ex.Doc.91. 4to. Washington, 1888 101 

pp., 15 ch. 

Charts showing the normal monthly rainfall in the United States, with notes 

and tables. Prepared under the direction of General A. W. Greely, Chief Signal 

Officer, by Capt. H. H.C. Dunwoody. 4to. Washington, 1389. 12 p., 13 ch. 

Floods in the Middle Atlantic States, May 31 to June 3,1-89. Extract from 
Monthly Weather Review, June, 1889. 4to. Washington, 1889. 5 p.,4 ch. 

——— Tri-daily weather charts of the Signal Service, illustrating the severe storm 
of March 11 to 14,1888. Reprint from Monthly Weather Review of March, 1888, 
with charts. 15.1 inches by 8.7 inches. [Washington, 1589. } 

—— On the climate of Oregon and Washington Territory. Senate Ex. Doc. 282. 
Fiftieth Congress, first session. 4to. Washington, 1889. 37 p.,7 ch. 

——— Instructions for weather predictions and verifications. Amer. Met. Journ., Ann 

Arbor, VI, 1889, 19-32. 

—- (See Harvard College.) 

Venezia, Conferenze di meteoro‘ogia e di fisiea terrestre, tennute in Venezia nel 
settembre 1883 da M. del Gaizo, G. Giovannozzi, O. Zanotti-Bianco, con pre- 
fazione del prof. F, Denza. 8vo. Torino, 1889, 90 p. 

Verrin. Ueber die Volumina der in die barometrischen Minima und Maxima hinein- 
und aus denselben herausstr6menden Luft. Arch. deutsch. Seewarte, Hamb., Xt, 
1888. 4to. Hamburg, 1888. 24 p., 2 pl. 

WacHLowskI, A. Zur Klimatologie yon Czernowitz. Progr. Gym., Czernowitz, 
1886, 36 p. 

Die Niederschlagsverhiiltnisse in Galizien. Met. Zeits., Wien, vi, 1889, 
294-299. 

WAGNER, COLOMAN. Niederschliige und Gewitter zu Kremsmiinster. Progr. k. k. 
Obergym. Kremsmiinster. 8vo. Linz, 1888. 34 p. 

WaGNrER, Ernst. Einfluss des Mondes auf die Gewitter. Met. Zeits., Wien, V1, 
1889, 299-303. 

Ueber den Einfluss der Sonnenrotation auf meteorologische Vorgiinge. Das 

Wetter, Braunsch., v1, 1889, 1-7. 

Was bedeuten die Mittelwerthe in der Meteorologie? Das Wetter, Braunsch., 

VI, 1839, 85-89. 






































PROGRESS OF METEOROLOGY IN 1889. 285 


WAGNER, Ernst. Erliiuternde Besprechuugen der neuen “ Instruktion fiir die Beob- 
achter an den meteorologischen Stationen 1., 11. und tv, Ordnung des kdniglich 
preussischen meteorologischen Instituts.” wu. Das IWetter, Braunsch., vi, 1889, 
145-158. 

Die ‘‘ Volkssternwarte Urama” zu Berlin. Das Wetter, Braunsch., vi, 1889, 
156-160. 

——— Der Wetterdienst der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, Das JWetler, 
Brauusch., vi, 1889, 193-203. 

Einige neuere Resultate aus Beobachtungen des Polarlichtes. Das J elter, 
Braunsch., V1, 1889, 265-269, 

WaLpo, FRANK. Increase of rainfall. Amer. Met. Journ., Aun Arbor, v, 1888~39, 
412-418. : 

—— Areview of some important tornado literature. 1mer. Met. Journ., And Arbor, 
VI, 1889, 66-82. 

—— Distribution of average wind oe in the United _ ites, Amer. Met. 
Journ., Ann Arbor, VI, 1889, 219-228, 257-266, 300-317, 368-382 

Elias Loomis. Met. Zeits., Wien, v1, 1889, 466-467. 

Wartzov, Spas. Instruction fiir meteorologische Beobachtungen. Beilage des vi 
Jahrg. der Zeitschr. der bulgarischen liter. Ges. in Sophia. &vo. Sophia, 1889, 
(In Bulgarian text.) 

WEBER, L. Ueber Blitzphotographien. Sitz.-Ber. Ahad., Berl., 1889, 781-783, 1 pl. 

WERNER, AD. Riga’s Witterungsverhiiltnisse, nebst einem Anhang: Wasserstand 
und Eisbedeckung der Diina bei Riga. In: Ber. iib. d. Vorarbeiten fiir d. svs- 
tem. Entwiisserung und Reinigung der Stadt Riga. 8vo. Riga, 1887. 28 p., 6 pl. 

WIGERT, THURE. Orage accompagné de trombes pres Upsala. Dihang svenska Vet. 
Akad. Handl., Stockh., x1v, 1885, 9 p. 

WINKELMANN, A. Ueber den Einfluss der Temperatur auf die Verdiimpfung und auf 
die Diffusion von Diimpfen. Ann. Phys. Chem., Leipz., XXXVI, 1889, 93-114, 1 pl. 

WiLp, H. Ueber Assmann’s neue Methode zur Bemitdung der w Been Lufttempera- 
tur. Repert. fiir Meleor., x11, Nr.11. 4to. St. Petersb., 1889. 

WILSON-BARKER, DaAvib (Capt.). A winter’s weather in Massowah. Quart. Journ. 
Met. Soc., Lond., xv, 1889, 35-42. 

WokEIKoF, A. Der Einfluss einer Schneedecke auf Boden, Klima. und Wetter. 
Penck’s geogr. Abh., Wien, 111, 1889, 115 p. 

Wo.Liny, E. Zur Frage der Brauchbarkeit der Thaupunktmethode zur Vorausbe- 
stimmung der Nachtfréste. Forsch. Geb, Agr.-Phys., Heidelb., x1, 1889, 358-366. 

WriGutT, G. F. The ice age in North America, with its bearings upon the antiquity 
of man. With an appendix on ‘‘The probable cause of glaciation,” by Warren 
Upham. 8vo. New York, 1889. Maps and ills. 

ZENGER, CuH.-V. L’ouragan du 7 au 9 février 1889, & Prague. Compt. rend., Par., 
Cv, 1889, 471-473, 














HOW RAIN IS FORMED.* 


By H. F. BLANFORD, F. B.S. 


In certain villages in the Indian Central Provinces, besides the vil- 
lage blacksmith, the village accountant, the village watchman, and the 
like, there is an official termed the gapogar?, whose duty it is to make 
rain. So long as the seasons are good, and the rain comes in due sea- 
son, his office is no doubt a pleasant and lucrative ove. It is not very 
laborious, and it is obviously the interest of all to keep him in good 
humor. But if, as sometimes happens, the hot dry weather of April 
and May is prolonged through Juneand July, and week after week the 
ryot sees his young sprouting crops withering beneath the pitiless hot 
winds, public feeling is wont to be roused against the peccant rain- 
maker, and he is led forth and periodically beaten until he mends his 
ways and brings down the much-needed showers. 

You will hardly expect me, and I certainly can not pretend, to impart 
to you the trade-secrets of the professional rain-maker. Like some other 
branches of occult knowledge which Madam Blavatsky assures us are 
indigenous to India, this art of rain-making is perhaps not to be acquired 
by those who have been trained in European ideas; but we can at least 
watch and interrogate nature, and learn something of her method of 
achieving the same end; and if her scale of operations is too large for our 
successful imitation, we shall find that not only is there much in it that 
may well challenge our interest, but it may enable us to some extent to 
exercise prevision of its results. 

Stated in the most general terms, nature’s process of rain-mwaking is 
extremely simple. We have its analogue in the working of the com- 
mon still. First, we have steam or water vapor produced by heating 
and evaporating the water in the boiler; then the transfer of this vapor 
to a cooler; and finally we have it condensed by cooling, and recon- 
verted into water. Heat is communicated to the water to convert it 
into vapor, and when that heat is withdrawn from it, the vapor returns 
to its original liquid state. Nature performs exactly the same process. 

In the still, the water is heated until it boils ; but this is not essential, 





*A lecture delivered at the Hythe School of Musketry on November 19, 1888.— 
(Nature, January 3, 1889, vol. XxxIx., pp. 224-229.) 
287 


288 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


for evaporation may take place at all temperatures, even from ice. A 
common little piece of apparatus, often to be seen in the window of the 
philosophical instrument maker, and known as Wollaston’s eryophorus, 
is a still that works without any fire. It consists of a large glass tube 
with a bulb at each end, one of which is partly filled with water; and, 
all the air having been driven out of the tube by boiling the water, it is 
hermetically sealed and allowed to cool. It then contains nothing but 
water and water vapor, the greater part of which re-condenses when it 
cools. Now, when thus cold, if the empty bulb be surrounded by ice, or, 
better, a mixture of ice and salt, the water slowly distils over, aud is 
condensed in the colder bulb, and this without any heat being applied 
to that which originally contained the water. And this shows us that 
all that is necessary to distillation is that the condenser be kept cooler 
than the evaporator. 

Nevertheless, at whatever temperature it evaporates, water requires 
heat, and a large quantity of heat, merely to convert it into vapor; and 
this is the case with the cryophorus; for if the evaporating bulb be 
wrapped round with flannel, and so protected from sources of heat 
around, the water cools down until it freezes. That is to say, it gives 
upits own heat to form vapor. A simple experiment that any one may 
try with a common thermometer affords another illustration of the same 
fact. If athermometer bulb be covered with a piece of muslin, and 
dipped into water that has been standing long enough to have the same 
temperature as the air, it gives the same reading in the water as in the 
air. Butif when thus wetted it be lifted out and exposed to the air, 
it begins to sink at once, owing to the evaporation of the water from 
the wet surface, and it sinks the lower the faster it dries. In India, 
when a hot wind is blowing, the wet bulb sometimes sinks 40° below the 
temperature of the air. 

Now this is a very important fact in connection with the formation of 
rain, because it is owing to the fact that water vapor has absorbed a 
large quantity of heat, (which is not sensible as heat, but must be 
taken away from it before it can be condensed and return to the liquid 
state,) that vapor can be transported as such by the winds for thou- 
sands of miles, to be condensed as rain at some distant part of the 
earth’s surface. 

| have said that the quantity of absorbed heat is very large. It 
varies with the temperature of the water that is evaporating, and is the 
greater the lower that temperature. From water that is on the point 
of freezing it is such that 1 grain of water absorbs in evaporating as 
much heat as would raise nearly 54 grains from the freezing to the boil- 
ing point. This is called the latent heat of water vapor. As I have 
said, it is quite insensible. The vapor is no warmer than the water 
that produced it, and this enormous quantity of heat has been employed 
simply in pulling the molecules of water asunder and setting them free 
in the form of vapor, which is merely water in the state of gas. All 





4 
3 
a 
é 
; 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 289 


liquids absorb latent heat when they evaporate, but no other known 
liquid requires so much as water. 

Many things familiar in every one’s experience find their explanation 
in this absorption of latent heat. Forinstance, we feel colder with a wet 
skin than with a dry one, and wet clothes are a fruitful source of chills 
when the body is in repose; although, so long as it is in active exercise 
and producing a large amount of heat, since the evaporation only car- 
ries off the excess, no ill cousequence may ensue. Again, if a kettle 
be filled with ice-cold water and put on a gas stove, suppose it takes 
ten minutes to bring it to boil. In that ten minutes the water has ab- 
sorbed as much heat as raises it from 32° to 212°, an increase of 180°. 
Now, if it be left boiling, the gas-flame being kept up at the same in- 
tensity, we may assume that in every succeeding ten minutes the same 
quantity of heat is being absorbed by the water. But it gets no hotter; 
it gradually boils away. And it takes nearly an hour, or more than 
five times as long as it took to heat it, before the whole of the water 
has boiled away, since all this heat has been used up in converting it 
into steam. It was by an experiment of this kind that Dr. Black in 
the last century discovered the fact of latent heat, and determined its 
amount; and it was the knowledge of this fact that led James Watt to 
his first great improvement in the steam-engine. 

One more example I may give, which those who have been in India 
will be able to appreciate, and which those who intend to go there may 
some day find useful to know. Nothing is more grateful in hot dry 
weather than a drink of cold water. Now, ice is not always to be had, 
but when a hot wind is blowing nothing is easier than to get cold water, 
if you have a pot or bottle of unglazed earthenware, such as are for 
sale in every bazaar, or what is better, a leather water-bottle, called a 
Chhagal, or a water-skin. All these allow the water to soak through 
and keep the outside wet, and if any one of them be filled with water 
and hung up ina hot wind in the course of half an hour or an hour the 
evaporatiou from the outside will have taken away so much heat that 
the contents may be cooled 20° or 30°, notwithstanding that the ther- 
mometer may stand at 110° or 115° in the shade. Sodawater may be 
cooled in the same way if wrapped in straw and kept well wetted while 
exposed to the wind. But itis of little use to do as I have seen natives 
do sometimes, viz, put the bottles into a tub of water in a closed room. 
It is the evaporation that carries off the heat, otherwise the water is 
no cooler than the air around. 

Now to return to our subject. The atmosphere always contains some 
rapor which the winds have taken up from the ocean, lakes, rivers, and 
even from the land, for there are but few regions so dry and devoid of 
vegetation that there is no moisture to evaporate. The quantity of 
water thus evaporated from large water surfaces is a question of some 
importance to engineers, who have to take account of the loss from 
reservoirs and irrigation tanks, and a good deal of attention has been 

H. Mis. 224——19 


290 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


given to measure the amount lost by evaporation. In England it has 
been found to vary in different years from 17 to 27 inches in the year, 
or to say from 14 to 24 inches per month on an average. Now, since 
in the east of England the rain-fall is only about 24 inches in the year, 
it follows that in that part of the Kingdom the loss by evaporation 
from a water surface is not very much less than the rain falling directly 
on the surface. 

In dry countries the evaporation may exceed the local rain-fall. In 
the tropics it has been found to average trom 33 to 6 inches per month 
in the dry season. In the case of a large tank at Nagpur, constructed 
to supply the city with water, it was found that the loss by evaporation 
in the hottest and dryest weather was two and a half times as great 
as the quantity supplied for consumption. 

These statisties will give some idea of the enormous evaporation that 
goes onfrom the water surfaces of the globe, and to this must be added 
all that takes place fromthe land. In the case of light showers nearly 
the whole of the rain is re evaporated, and probably on an average half 
of the total rain-fail on the land is thus lost sooner or later, leaving not 
more than half for the supply of springs and rivers. 

The quantity of vapor in the air is very variable. To us, in England, 
the west and southwest winds are the dampest, coming direct from the 
Atlantic, and northeast winds are the driest. The cause of their ex- 
treme dryness I shall endeavor to explain presently. It is no doubt 
partly due to the fact that they reach us from the land surface of Europe, 
but partly also to another cause to which I shall have to advert later on. 

The quantity of vapor in the air is usually ascertained by the hygrom- 
eter, the ordinary form of which is a pair of thermometers, one hav- 
ing the bulb wet, the other dry, and observing the depression of the 
wet bulb. The principle of this I have already explained. But the 
same thing may be ascertained more directly by passing a measured 
quantity of air through a light apparatus containing sulphuric acid, or 
some other substance that absorbs water vapor greedily, and weigh- 
ing the whole before and afterwards. The increase of the second 
weighment gives the weight of water absorbed. By such means it has 
been ascertained that air at 60° can contain as much as 53 grains of 
vapor in each cubic foot, and that air at 80° can contain rather less 
than 11 grains in the same space. The quantity that air can hold in- 
creases therefore very rapidly with the temperature. But it is seldom 
that it contains this maximum amount, especially at the higher tem- 
peratures. 

In order to condense any part of this vapor we must take away its 
latent heat. It is not sufficient merely to cool it till it reaches the tem- 
perature of condensation, but we have further to abstract 55 times as 
much heat as would raise the condensed water from the freezing to the 
boiling point. Before however proceeding to consider how this cool- 
ing is effected, the question arises, What is the condensing point? For 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 291 


obviously, since water can evaporate at all temperatures, so we should 
expect that it may condense at all temperatures. On what then does 
the condensing point depend ? 

I mentioned just now that air at the temperature of 60° can contain 
as much as 53 grains of vapor, and at 80° rather less than 11 grains in 
each cubic foot. Obviously then if air at 80°, containing this maxi- 
imum quantity, be cooled to 60°, it must get rid of more than 5 grains, 
or nearly half its vapor, and this excess must be condensed. I speak 
of air containing these quantities, but in point of fact it makes no ap- 
preciable difference whether air be present or not. Anexhausted glass 
vessel of one cubic foot capacity can hold 5% grains of vapor at: 60° and 
uo more, and nearly 11 grains at 80° and no more; and if, when thus 
charged at 80°, its contents be cooled to 60°, more than 5 grains will 
be condensed. If however it contain only 5? grains at 80°, none will 
condense until the temperature falls to 60°, but any further cooling 
produces some condensation. Thus then the condensing point depends 
on the quantity of vapor present in the air, and is the temperature at 
which this quantity is the maximum possible for that temperature. 

This preliminary point being explained, we may now proceed to in- 
quire what means Nature employs to condense the vapor in the air, 
producing wt one time dew and hoar-frost, at another time fog and 
cloud, and at another, rain, hail, and snow. 

Let us take the case of dew and hoar-frosé first, as they are compara- 
tively simple. And in connection therewith [ may relate a little inci- 
dent that took place at Calcutta some years ago. A gentleman, who 
had aot much acquaintance with physical science, was sitting one even- 
ing witha glass of iced brandy and water before him. It was in the 
rainy season, when the air, though warm, is very damp, and he had a 
large lump of ice in his tumbler. On taking it up, he noticed to his 
surprise that the glass was wet on the outside, and was standing in 
quite a little pool of water on the table. At first he thought his tum- 
bler was cracked, but putting his finger to his tongue he found the fluid 
tasteless. ‘‘ Very odd,” he remarked; ‘‘ the water comes through the 
glass but the brandy doesn’t.” : 

Now however, with our present knowledge, we may be inclined to 
smile at the simplicity of this remark, it so happens that up to the end 
of the last century very much the same explanation was popularly held 
to account for dew. It was supposed to be a kind of perspiration emit- 
ted from the earth, and no satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon 
had been arrived at by the physical philosophers of the day. It re- 
mained for Dr. Wells to prove, by a long series of observations and 
experiments, which have been quoted by Sir John Herschel and Mr. 
John Stewart Mill as a typical instance of philosophical inquiry, that 
the cold surface of grass and shrubs condenses the vapor previously 
held in suspension in the air, these surfaces being cooler than the air, 
and below its point of condensation. And such of course is also the 


292 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


case of the glass tumbler containing ice. Any one may try the experi- 
ment for himself. To produce hoar-frost, it is only necessary to cool 
the condensing surface below the freezing point, which may be done by 
crushing some ice and mixing it with salt. A tin pot is better than a 
glass to make this experiment. 

When not only the ground, but also the air to a considerable height 
above it, is cooled in like manner, we have the production of fog, fog 
being the form in which the vapor is first condensed, and consisting of 
water in drops too minute to be separately visible. The formation of 
fog is very much aided if the air be laden withsmoke. Smoke consists 
of extremely minute particles of unburnt coal or other fuel, and these 
cool faster than the air at night, and so cool the air in contact with 
them. Each one of them, too, condenses water on its surface, and 
being thus weighted they sink and form that dense fog that Londoners 
know so well. 

Clouds are essentially the same as fog, but formed high up in the air. 
But in their case, and that of rain, snow, and hail, another and differ- 
ent cooling agency comes into play, and this will require some prelimi- 
nary explanation. 

I dare say that some of you may at some time or other have charged 
an air-gun. And if so, you will be aware that when so charged the 
reservoir becomes pretty warm. Now this heat is produced, not, as 
might be supposed, by the friction of the piston in charging, but is due 
to the fact that work has been done upon the air by compressing it into 
a very small space; in other words, work has been converted into heat. 
If the compressed air be allowed to escape at once, its heat is recon- 
verted into work. It has to make room for itself by thrusting aside 
the atmosphere into which it escapes, and when thus expanded it is no 
warmer than before it was compressed. Indeed, not so warm, for it 
will already have parted with some of its heat to the metal chamber 
which contained it. And if when compressed it is allowed to cool down 
to the ordinary temperature, and then to escape, it will be cooled below 
that temperature just as much as it was heated by compression. Thus, 
if in being compressed it had been heated 100°, say from 60° to 160°, 
and then allowed to cool to 60°, on escaping it will be cooled 100° below 
60°, or to 40° below zero, which is the temperature at which mercury 
freezes. This is the principle of the cold air chambers now so exten- 
sively employed on ship-board for the transport of frozen provisions 
from New Zealand and Australia. 

Bearing in mind, then, this fact—that air in expanding and driving 
aside the air into which it expands is always cooled,—let us see how this 
applies to the case before us, the production of cloud and rain. 

The volume of a given weight of air—in other words, the space it oc- 
cupies—depends on the pressure to which it is subject; the less this 
pressure the greater its volume. If we suppose the atmosphere divided 
into a number of layers superimposed on each other, the bottom layer 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED 293 


is clearly subject to the pressure of all those that rest on it. This is 
equal to about 147 pounds on every square inch of surface. Another 
layer, say 1,000 feet above the ground, will clearly be under a less press- 
ure, since 1,000 feet of air are below it; and this 1,000 feet of air weighs 
slightly less than half a pound for every square inch of horizontal surface. 
At 2,000 feet the pressure will be less by nearly 1 pound per square inch, 
and soon. If, then, any mass of air begins to ascend through the at- 
mosphere it will be continually subject to less and less pressure as it 
ascends, and therefore, as we have already seen, it expands and becomes 
cooler by expansion. Cooling from this cause is termed dynamic cool- 
ing. Its rate may be accurately computed from the work it has to do 
in expanding. 

It amounts to 1° for every 183 feet of ascent if the air be dry or free 
from vapor, and if, as is always the ease, it contains some vapor, the 
height will not be very much greater so long as there is no condensa- 
tion. Butso soon as this point is passed, and the vapor begins to con- 
dense as cloud, the latent heat set free retards the cooling, and the 
height through which this cloud-laden air must ascend to cool 1° is 
considerably greater and varies with the temperature and pressure. 
When the barometer stands at 30 inches, and at the temperature of 
freezing, the air must rise 277 feet to lose 1°, and if the temperature 1s 
60° nearly 400 feet. 

Conversely, dry air descending through the atmosphere and becoming 
denser as it descends, since it is continually becoming subject to an in- 
creased pressure, is heated 1° for every 183 feet of descent; and fog 
and cloud-laden air at 30 inches of pressure and the freezing point will 
be warmed 1° in 277 feet only, or if at 60° nearly 400 feet of descent, 
owing to the re-evaporation of the fog or cloud and the absorption of 
latent heat. 

Now, let us see how these facts explain the formation of cloud, and 
first I will take the case of the common cumulus or heap-cloud, which 
is the commonest cloud of the day-time in fine weather. 

When after sunrise the air begins to be warmed, the lowest stratum 
of the atmosphere, which rests immediately on the ground, is warmed 
more rapidly than the higher strata. This is because the greater part 
of the sun’s heat passes freely through a clear atmosphere without 
warming it, and is absorbed by the ground, which gives it out again to 
the air immediately in contact with it. So soon as the vertical decrease 
of temperature exceeds 1° in 183 feet the warm air below begins to as- 
cend, and the cooler air above to descend, and this interchange gradu- 
ally extends higher and higher, the ascending air being gradually 
cooled by expansion, and ceasing to rise when it has fallen to the same 
temperature as the air around it. This ascending air is more highly 
charged with vapor than that which descends to replace it, since, as 
was mentioned before, most land surfaces furnish a large amount of 
moisture, which evaporates when they are heated by the sun, This 


bo 


294 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


process goes on until some portion of the ascending air has become 
cooled to the point of condensation. No sooner does it attain this than 
a small tuft of cumulus cloud appears on the top of the ascending cur- 
rent, and the movement which was invisible before now becomes visi- 
ble. Ina calm atmosphere each tuft of cloud has a flat base, which 
marks the height at which condensation begins, but it is really only 
the top of an ascending column of air. No sooner is this cloud formed 
than the ascent becomes more rapid, because the cooling which checked 
its further ascent now takes place at a much slower rate, and therefore 
the cloud grows rapidly. 

On a summer afternoon when the air is warm and very damp such 
cumulus cloud ascends sometimes to very great heights and develops 
into a thunder-cloud, condensing into rain. Rain differs from fog and 
cloud only in the sizeof the water drops. In fog and cloud these are so 
minute that they remain suspended in the air. But as the cloud be- 
comes denser a number of them coalesce to form a rain-drop, which is 
large’ enough to overcome the friction of theair. It then begins to fall, 
and having to traverse an enormous thickness of cloud below it grows 
larger and larger by taking up more and more of the cloud corpuscules, 
so that when finally it falls below the cloud it may have a considerable 
Size. 

Such then is the modein which rain is formed in an ordinary sum- 
mer shower; and the more prolonged rain-fall of stormy wet weather is 
the result of a similar process, viz, the ascent and dynamic cooling of 
the moist atmosphere. Butin this case the movement is ona far larger 
scale, being shared by the whole mass of the atmosphere, it may be, 
over hundreds or thousands of square miles; and to understand this 
movement we shall have to travel somewhat farther afield, and to in- 
quire into the general circulation of the great atmospheric currents set 
in movement by the sun’s action in the tropics, and modified by the 
earth’s diurnal rotation and the distribution of the continents and 
oceans on its surface. 

Before however entering on this subject, which wili require some 
preliminary explanation, and in which we shall have to take account 
both of ascending and descending currents on a large scale, I will 
draw your attention to another and simpler case, in which both these 
classes of movements are prominently illustrated, and in which they 
exhibit their characteristic features in a very striking manner. 

In the valleys of the Alps, more especially those to the north of the 
central chain, in Switzerland and the Tyrol, there blows from time to 
time a strong, warm, dry wind, known as the Féhn. It blows down the 
valleys from the central chain, melting the snows on its northern face, 
and although there is more or less clear sky overhead, all the southern 
Slopes of the mountains are thickly clouded, and heavy rain falls on 
the lower spurs and the adjacent plain, replaced by snow at the higher 
levels up to the passes and the crest of the range. Cloudy weather also 


Bec 


. $45). 


— ee 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 295 


prevails to the north in Germany, and the weather is stormy over some 
part of western Europe. 

It is only since the general introduction of telegraphic weather re- 
ports and the construction of daily weather charts, have enabled us to 
take a general survey of the simultaneous movements of the atmosphere 
over the greater portion of Europe, that this Fébn wind has been satis- 
factorily explained.* It is found that when a Fo6hn wind blows on the 
north of the Alps, the barometer is low somewhere to the north or 
northwest in Germany, northern France, or the British Isles, and 
high to the southeast in the direction of Greece and the eastern Med- 
iterranean. Under these circumstances, since the winds always blow 
from a place of high barometer to one of low barometer, a strong south- 
erly wind blows across the Alps. On their southern face it is forced to 
ascend. and therefore, as just explained, it is cooled and gives rain in 
Lombardy and Venetia, and snow at higher elevations. But having 
reached the crest of the mountains, it descends to the northern valleys, 
and being by this time deprived of a large part of its vapor, it becomes 
warmed in its descent, owing to compression, absorbs and re-evaporates 
the cloud carried with it, and is then further warmed at the rate of 1° 
for every 1835 feet of descent. Thus it reaches the lower levels asa 
warm, dry wind, its warmth being the effect of dynamic heating. 

Other mountain chains afford examples of the same phenomenon. A 
very striking instance, which much impressed me at the time, is one 
that I witnessed many years ago in the mountains of Ceylon; and it 
was afterwards mentioned to me by Sir Samuel Baker, who had been 
equally struck by it. My own experience is as follows: In June, 1861, 
I paid a week’s visit to the hill sanitarium of Newara Eliya, at an ele- 
vation of 6,200 feet, on the western face of Pedro Talle Galle, the high- 
est mountain in the island. The southwest monsoon was blowing 
steadily on this face of the range; and during the whole time of my 
stay it rained (as far as I am aware) without an hour’s intermission, and 
a deuse canopy of cloud enveloped the hill face, and never lifted more 
than a few hundred feet above the little valley in which Newara Eliya 
is built. But on leaving the station by the eastern road that leads 
across the crest of the range to Badulla, at a distance of 5 miles one 
reaches the col or dip in the ridge near Hackgalle, and thence the road 
descends some 2,000 feet to a lower table-land which stretches away 
many miles to the east. No sooner is this point passed than all rain 
ceases and clouds disappear, and one looks down on the rolling grassy 
hills bathed in the sunshine of a tropical sun, and swept by the dry 
westerly wind that descends from the mountain ridge. In little more 
than a mile one passes from day-long and week-long cloud and rain to 
constant sunshine and a cloudless sky. 

As an almost invariable rule, or at least one with few exceptions, 
ascending air-currents are those that form cloud and rain, and descend- 


* The explanation was originally given by Prof, J. Hann, of Vienna, 


996 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


ing currents are dry and bring fine weather. And this holds good 
whatever may be the immediate cause of these movements. We may 
now proceed to consider these greater examples to which I have already 
referred. 

In the great workshop of nature, in so far at least as concerns our 
earth, with but few exceptions, all movement and all change, even the 
movements and energies of living things, proceed either directly or 
indirectly from the action of the sun. Nowhere is this action more 
direct and more strikingly manifested than in the movements of the 
atmosphere. Were the sun extinguished, and to become, as perhaps 
it may become long ages hence, a solid cold sphere, such as Byron im- 
agined, ‘‘ wandering darkling in eternal space,” a few days would suffice 
to convert our mobile and ever-varying atmosphere into a stagnant 
pall, devoid of vapor, resting quiescent on a lifeless earth, held bound 
in amore than Arctic frost. From such a consummation, despite the 
supposed decaying energy of our sun, we may however entertain a 
reasonable hope that we are yet far distant. 

Bearing in mind the all-embracing importance of the sun, let us see 
how the great movements of the atmosphere are determined by the way 
in which the earth presents its surface to the solar rays. 

Since the quantity of solar heat received on each part of the earth’s 
surface depends on the directness or obliquity of his rays—in other 
words, on the height to which the sun ascends in the heavens at noon— 
being greatest where he is directly overhead, as in summer in the trop- 
ics, it follows that the hottest zone of the earth is thatin the immediate 
neighborhood of the equator, and the coldest those around the poies. 

Did time allow, and were the necessary appliances at hand, it would 
be easy to show you that both as a matter of experiment, and also as a 
deduction from physical laws, there must be under such circumstances 
a flow of air from the colder to the warmer region in the lower atmos- 
phere, and a return current above. And to a certain extent we have 
these constant winds prevailing for about 30° on either side of the 
equator in the trade-winds, which blow towards the equator in the lower 
atmosphere, and the anti-trades blowing in the opposite direction at a 
great height above the earth’s surface. 

In the neighborhood of the equator there is a zone extending right 
round the earth in which the barometer is lower than either to the north 
or the south. It is due to the greater heat of the sun, and it is towards 
this that the trade-winds blow. It shifts to some extent with the seasons, 
being more northerly in the summer of the northern hemisphere, and 
more southerly in that of the southern hemisphere; and its average 
position is rather to the north of the equator, owing to the facet that 
there is more land in the northern than in the southern hemisphere, and 
that land is more heated by the sun than the ocean. 

This simple wind system of the trades and anti-trades does not extend 
right round the earth, nor beyond 30° or 40° of latitude in either hemi- 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 297 


sphere. Were the earth’s surface uniformly land or uniformly water, 
there probably would be a system of trade-winds all round the globe, 
blowing from both hemispheres towards the equator; but even in that 
case they would not extend much, if at all, beyond their present limits. 
In the first place, every great mass of land sets up an independent sys- 
tem of air currents, since the land is hotter than the ocean in the sum- 
mer and colder in the winter. In the summer, therefore, there is a 
tendency to an indraught of air from the sea to the land in the lower 
atmosphere, and an outflow above, and in the winter the opposite ; and 
this tendency modifies or interrupts the system of the trades and anti- 
trades. We have this tendency shown most distinctly in the monsoons 
of southeastern Asia, where, both in the India and China seas, a south- 
west wind in the summer takes the place which in the absence of the 
Asiatic continent would be held by a northeast trade-wind. And it is 
only in the winter that a northeast wind blows, and this is then termed 
the northeast monsoon. 

In the second place, as I have said, the system of trade-winds could 
not in any case extend far beyond their present limits in latitude, owing 
to the fact that the earth is a sphere and not a cylinder. Let us fix our 
attention for a moment on the anti-trades—the upper winds which blow 
from the equator towards the poles. The equator, from which they 
start, is a circle about 24,900 milesin circumference; the poles are mere 
points, and, therefore, the whole of the air that blows towards the poles 
must turn back in any case before it reaches the pole, and must begin 
to turn back before it has gone very faron its journey. And, as a fact, 
a great part of it does turn back between 30° and 40° of latitude, which 
I have already mentioned as being the limit of the trade-winds. A part 
of the remainder descends to the earth’s surface, and sweeps the North- 
ern Atlantic and the North Pacifie as a southwest wind. 

On the chart which represents the average distribution of atmospheric 
pressure in January, there are two somewhat interrupted zones of high 
pressure over the ocean in these latitudes. These mark the regions in 
which the anti-trades descend to the eartl’s surface, and from which 
the trade-winds start. Over the ocean in all higher latitudes, both in 
the northern and southern hemispheres, the barometer is low—for the 
most part, indeed, much lower than over the equator; and the region 
intervening between the zones of high pressure and the seat of lowest 
pressure is that of predominant southwest, or at all events westerly 
winds, Since our islands are situated on the border of this region of 
low pressure, southwest are our prevailing winds. 

But now two questions arise: First, why are these winds westerly, 
and not simply south winds? And second, low is it that the barometer 
is so low over the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans, and also in 
the southern hemisphere in high latitudes, seeing that in these latitudes, 
at least in winter, the sun’s heat is so much less than at the tropics? 
The chart represents the state of things in midwinter of the northern 


298 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


hemisphere, and yet everywhere to the north of latitude 40° the deep 
biue tint indicates that the pressure is lower than even in the southern 
tropic, where the sun shines vertically overhead. Clearly this low 
pressure must be due to some other cause than the warmth of the air. 

The explanation of this remarkable distribution of the atmospheric 
pressure, of the existence of two zones of high pressure in latitudes 30° 
to 40°, and of very low pressure in higher latitudes, except in so far 
as they are modified by the alternations of land and water, was first 
given by the American physicist, Professor Ferrel. Its full demonstra- 
tion is to be obtained only from the consideration of somewhat recondite 
mechanical laws, but a general idea of the causes operating may be 
gathered from very simple considerations, which may be demonstrated 
with a terrestrial globe. 

Starting with the well-known fact that the earth revolves on its axis 
once in the twenty-four hours, let us see what will be the consequence, 
if we suppose a mass of any ponderable matter—that is, any substance 
having weight, no matter whether light or heavy—to be suddenly trans- 
ferred from the equator to latitude 60°. 

As the circumference of the earth at the equator is about 24,900 
miles, anybody whatever, apparently at rest at the equator, is carried 
round the earth’s axis at the rate of 1,036 miles an hour. But in lati- 
tude 60°, where the distance from the axis is only half as great as at 
the equator, it is carried round at only half the same rate, or 518 miles 
an hour; and at the pole it simply turns round on its own axis. Sup- 
posing, then, a mass of air to be suddenly transferred from the equator 
to latitude 60°, with the eastward movement that it had at the equator, 
it would be moving twice as fast to the east as that part of the earth, 
and, to any person standing on the earth, would be blowing from the 
west with a force far exceeding that of a hurricane. It would be mov- 
ing eastwards 518 miles an hour faster than the earth. Indeed, its 
movement would really be far greater than this. In virtue of a me- 
chanical principle known as the law of the conservation of areas, which 
means that anybody revolving round a central point, under the influ- 
ence of a force that pulls it towards that point, describes equal areas in 
equal times, instead of only 518 miles, it would be revolving round the 
earth’s axis 1,554 miles an hour faster than that part of the earth. I 
need not, however, specially insist on this point, because, as a matter 
of fact, the air which constitutes the anti-trades is not suddenly trans- 
ferred, but takes a day or two to perform its journey, and in the mean- 
time by far the greater part of its eastward movement is lost by friction 
against the trade-wind which blows in the opposite direction under- 
neath it. The point on which we have to fix our attention, is that when 
the anti-trades descend to earth, they still retain some of their east- 
ward movement, and blow, not as south, but as south-west or west- 
southwest winds. 

On the other hand, the trade-wind, which blows towards the equator, 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 299 


is coming from a latitude where the eastward movement is less than 
at the equator, and its own movement eastward is therefore less than 
that of the surface over which it blows. A person, therefore, standing 
on the earth, is carried eastward faster than the air is moving, and the 
wind seems to blow against him from the northeast. Similarly, to the 
south of the equator, the trade-wind, instead of blowing from the south, 
comes from the southeast. 

_ Thus then we have in both hemispheres a system of westerly winds 
in all higher latitudes than 40°, and a system of easterly winds—viz., 
the trade-winds—between about 30° and the equator; and if the globe 
were either all land or all water, these systems would prevail right 
round the earth. 

Now, it is the pressure of these winds, under the influence of centrif- 
ugal force, that causes the two zones of high barometer in latitudes 30° 
to 40°, and the very low pressure in higher latitudes. It is not difficult 
to understand how this comes about. You are probably aware that the 
earth is not an exact sphere, but what is termed an oblate spheroid— 
that is, it is slightly flattened at the poles and protuberant at the equa- 
tor, the difference of the equatorial and polar diameters being about 26 
miles. It has acquired this form in virtue of its rotation on its axis. If 
you whirl a stone in a sling, the stone has a tendency to fly off at a tan- 
gent, and so long as it is retained in the sling that tendency is resisted 
by the tension of the cord. In the same way, every object resting on 
the earth, and the substance of the earth itself, has a tendency to fly 
off at a tangent, in consequence of its rotation on its axis, and this 
tendency is resisted and overcome by gravity. Were the earth not re- 
volving, its form under the influence of gravity alone would be a true 
sphere. Ifit were to revolve more rapidly than at present, it would be 
still more oblate, flatter at the poles, and more bulging in the tropical 
zone; if less rapidly, the flattening and bulging would be less. 

This is precisely what happens with the west and east winds of which 
we have spoken. West winds are revolving faster than the earth, and 
tend to make the atmosphere more protuberant at the equator than the 
solid earth; hence they press towards the equator, to the right of their 
path in the northern hemisphere, and the tendency increases rapidly in 
high latitudes. Easterly winds, on the other hand, tend to render the 
form of the atmosphere more nearly spherical, and they, too, press to 
the right of their pathinthe northern hemisphere or towards the pole. 
In the southern hemisphere, for the same reason, both press to the left. 
The result of these two pressures in opposite directions is to produce the 
two zones of high barometer in the katitudes in which we find them— 
viz, between the easterly trade-winds and the westerly winds, which are 
the anti-trades that have descended to the earth’s surface. And the 
low barometer of higher latitudes is produced in like manner by the 
westerly winds pressing away from those regions. 

Thus then we find that all this system of winds, and the resulting 


300 HOW RAIN IS FORMED. 


distribution of atmospheric pressure as indicated by the barometer is 
the result of the sun’s action in equatorial regions. It is this that gives 
the motive power to the whole system, so far as we have as yet traced 
it, and it is this that produces those great inequalities of atmospheric 
pressure that I have so far described. 

It remains now to see how storms are generated by these westerly 
winds. In so far as they retain any southing, they are still moving 
towards the pole in the northern hemisphere; that is to say, they are 
advancing from all sides towards a mere point. Some portion of them 
must therefore be continually turning back as the circles of latitude be- 
come smaller and smalier. But they are now surface-winds, and in 
order so to return they must rise and flow back as an upper current. 
This they do by forming great eddies, or air-whirls, in the center of 
which the barometer is very low, and over which the air ascends, and 
these great air-whirls are the storms of the temperate zone and of our 
jatitudes. It is the ascent and dynamic cooling of the air in these great 
eddies that cause the prolonged rain-fall of wet stormy weather. How 
the eddies originate, or rather what particuiar circumstance causes them 
to originate in one place rather than another, we can scarcely say, any 
more than we can say how each eddy originates in a rapidly-flowing 
deep river. Some very small inequality of pressure probably starts 
them, but when once formed, they often last for many days, and travel 
some thousands of miles over the earti’s surface. 

Two such storms are represented on the charts of February 1 and 2, 
1883, one on the coast of Labrador, the other to the southwest of the 
British Isles. The first of these appears on the chart of January 28, in 
the North Pacific, off the coast of British Columbia. On the 29th it had 
crossed the Rocky Mountains, and was traversing the western part of 
the Hudson’s Bay Territory. On the 30th it had moved to the south- 
east, and lay just to the west of the Great Lakes, and on the 31st be- 
tween Lake Superior and Hudson’s Bay. On February 1 it had reached 
the position on the coast of Labrador shown in the chart, and on the 
2nd had moved further to northeast, and lay across Davis’s Straits, 
and over the west coast of Greenland. After this it again changed its 
course to southeast, and on February 4 passed to the north of Scotland, 
towards Denmark, and eventually on to Russia. 

The second storm had originated off the east coast of the United States 
between January 28 and 29, and on the following days crossed the At- 
lantic on a course somewhat to north of east, till, on February 2, it lay 
over England. 

These storms always move in some easterly direction, generally be- 
tween east and northeast, and often several follow in rapid succession 
on nearly the same track. It is this knowledge that renders it possible 
for the Meteorological Office to issue the daily forecasts that we see in 
the newspapers. Were it possible to obtain telegraphic reports from a 
few stations out in the North Atlantic, these storm warnings could be 


HOW RAIN IS FORMED. SO 


issued with much more certainty, and perhaps longer before the arrival 
of the storm than at present. In tbe case of such storms as that which 
reached our islands on February 2, we often have such warnings from 
America, but their tracks are often more to the northeast, in the di- 
rection of Iceland, in which case they are not felt on our coasts, and 
hence the frequent failure of these American warnings. 

It is the region of low pressure in the North Atlantic that is the 
especial field of these storms. As they pass across it, they produce 
considerable modifications in the distribution of pressure, but some of 
its main features remain outstanding. ‘Thus there is always a belt of 
high barometer between the storm region and the trade-winds, and in 
the winter there is almost always a region of high barometer over North 
America, and another over Europe and Asia, however much they may 
shift their places, and be temporarily encroached on by the great storm 
eddies. 

These regions of high pressure are the places where the winds de- 
scend, and, as I mentioned inthe earlier part of this lecture, these winds 
are dry, and generally accompany fine weather. On the contrary, the 
eddies, where the air ascends, are damp and stormy, and especially that 
part of the eddy that is fed by the southwest winds that have swept 
the Atlantic since their descent, and so have become charged with va- 
por. 

And now we are prepared to understand why east, and especially 
northeast winds are generally so dry. They are air that has descended 
in the area of high barometer that (especially in the winter and spring) 
lies over Europe and Asia, and has subsequently swept the cold land- 
surface, which does not furnish much vapor, and therefore they reach 
us as dry cold winds. To begin with, the air comes from a considera- 
ble height in the atmosphere, and in ascending to that height in some 
other part of the world, it must have got rid of most of its vapor in 
the way that has been already explained. In descending to the earth’s 
levelit must, of course, have been dynamically heated by the compression 
it has undergone, but all or nearly all this heat has been got rid of by radi- 
ation into free space on the cold plains and under the clear frosty skies 
of Northern Asia and Northern Europe, and it then blows outwards from 
this region of high barometer over the land, towards the warmer region 
of low barometer on the North Atlantic Ocean. 

Thus we see that, in all cases, rain is produced by the cooling of the 
air, and that in nearly all, if not all, this cooling is produced by the 
expansion of the air in ascending from lower to higher levels in the at- 
mosphere, by what is termed dynamic cooling. This last fact is not set 
forth so emphatically as it should be in some popular text-books on the 
subject, but if is an undoubted fact. It was originally suggested by 
Espy some forty years ago, but the truth is only now generally recog- 
nized, and it is one of the results which we owe to the great advance 
in physical science effected by Joule’s discovery of the definite relation 
of equivalence between heat and mechanical work. 


y 


ve 


ea 
ri 


4 





ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. * 


By F. H. WENHAM. 


The resistance against a surface of a defined area, passing rapidly 
through yielding media, may be divided into two opposing forces ; 
one arising from the cohesion of the separated particles and the other 
from their weight and inertia, which, according to well-known laws, 
will require a constant power to set them in motion. 

In plastic substances the first condition, that of cohesion, will give 
rise to the greatest resistance. In water this has very little retarding 
effect, but in air, from its extreme fluidity, the cohesive force becomes 
inappreciable, and all resistances are caused by its weight alone; there- 
fore, a weight suspended from a plane surface, descending perpendicu- 
larly in air, is limited in its rate of fall by the weight of air that can bé 
set in motion in a given time. 

If a weight of 150 pounds is suspended from a surface of the same 
number of square feet, the uniform descent will be 1,300 feet per minute, 
and the force given out and expended on the air, at this rate of fall, 
will be nearly six horse-power; and, conversely, this same speed and 
power must be communicated to the surface to keep the weight sus- 
tained at a fixed altitude. As the surface is increased so does the rate 
of descent and its accompanying power, expended in a given time, 
decrease. It might therefore be inferred that, with a sufficient extent 
of surface reproduced, or worked up to a higher altitude, a man might 
by his exertions raise himself for a time, while the surface descends at 
a less speed. 

A man in raising his own body, can perform 4,250 units of work, 
(that is, this number of pounds raised 1 foot high per minute,) and can 
raise his own weight (say 150 pounds) 22 feet per minute. But at this 
speed the atmospheric resistance is so small that 120,000 square feet 


ot, 
“On Aérial Locomotion, and the Laws by which Heavy Bodies Impelled througli 
the Air, are Sustained.” (From the Transactions of the Aéronautical Society. First 
Annual Report for the year 1866, pp. 10-40.) Notwithstanding its date, this paper 
contains so good a presentation of the problem of aéronauties, that it deserves a 
wider circulation than it has received. 


*A paper read before the Aéronautical Society of Great Britain, June 27, 1866, 


303 


304 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


would be required to balance his exertions, making no allowauce for 
weight beyond his own body. 

We have thus reasons for the failure of the many mis-directed at- 
tempts that have from time to time been made to raise weights perpen- 
dicularly in the air, by wings or descending surfaces. Though the flight 
of a bird is maintained by a constant re-action or abutment against an 
enormous weight of air in comparison with the weight of its own body, 
yet, as will be subsequently shown, the support upon that weight is 
not necessarily commanded by great extent of wing-surface, but by the 
direction of motion. 

One of the first birds in the scale of flying magnitude is the pelican. 
It is seen in the streams and estuaries of warm climates, fish being its 
only food. Onthe Nile, after the inundation, it arrives in flocks of 
many hundreds together, having migrated from long distances. <A 
specimen shot was found to weigh 21 pounds and measured 10 feet 
across the wings from end to end. The pelican rises with much diffi- 
culty, but once on the wing appears to fly with very little exertion, not- 
withstanding its great weight. Their mode of progress is peculiar and 
graceful. They fly after a leader in one single train. As he rises or 
descends so his followers do the same in succession, imitating his move- 
ments precisely. Ata distance this gives them the appearance of a 
long, undulating ribbon, glistening under the cloudless sun of an oriental 
sky. During their flight they make about seventy strokes per minute 
with their wing. This uncouth-looking bird is somewhat whimsical in 
its habits. Groups of them may be seen far above the earth, at a dis- 
tance from the river-side, soaring, apparently for their own pleasure. 
With outstretched and motionless wings they float serenely high in the 
atmosphere for more than an hour together, traversing the same locality 
in circling movements. With head thrown back and enormous bills 
resting on their breasts they almost seem asleep. A few easy strokes 
of their wings each minute, as their momentum or velocity diminishes, 
serves to keep them sustained at the same level. The effort required is 
obviously slight and not confirmatory of the excessive amount of power 
said to be requisite for maintaining the flight of a bird of this weight 
and size. The pelican displays no symptom of being endowed with 
great strength, for when only slightly wounded it is easily captured, 
not having adequate power for effective resistance, but heavily flapping 
the huge wings that should, as some imagine, give a stroke equal in 
vigor to the kick of a horse. 

During a calm evening flocks of spoonbills take their flight directly 
up the river’s course, as if linked together in unison and moved by the 
same impulse, they alter not their relative positions, but at less than 
15 inches above the water’s surface, they speed swiftly by with ease 
and grace inimitable, a living sheet of spotless white. Let one eir- 
cumstance be remarked,—though they have fleeted past at a rate of 
near 30 miles an hour, so little do they disturb the element in which 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 305 


they move that not a ripple of the placid bosom of the river, which 
they almost touch, has marked their track. How wonderfully does their 
progress contrast with that of creatures who are compelled to drag 
their slow and weary way against the fluid a thousand-fold more dense, 
flowing in strong and eddying current beneath them. 

Our pennant drops listlessly, the wished-for north wind cometh not. 
According to custom we step on shore, gun in hand. <A flock of white 
herons, or “ buffalo-birds,” almost within our reach, run a short distance 
from the pathway as we approach them. Others are seen perched in 
social groups upon the backs of the apathetic and mud-begrimed ani- 
mals whose name they bear. Beyond the ripening dhourra crops which 
skirt the river-side, the land is covered with immense numbers of blue 
pigeons, flying to and fro, in shoals, and searching for food with rest- 
less diligence. The musical whistle from the pinions of the wood-doves 
sounds cheerily as they dart past with the speed of an arrow. Ever 
and anon are seen a covey of the brilliant, many-colored partridges of 
the district, whose long and pointed wings give them a strength and 
duration of flight that seems interminable, alighting at distances be- 
yond the possibility of marking them down, as we are accustomed to do 
with their plumper brethren at home. But still more remarkable is the 
spectacle which the sky presents. As far as the eye can reach it is 
dotted with birds of prey of every size and description. Eagles, vult- 
ures, kites, and hawks of manifold species, down to the small, swallow- 
like, insectivorous hawk common in the Delta, which skims the surface 
of the ground in pursuit of its insect prey. None seem bent on going 
forward, but all are soaring leisurely round over the same locality, as if 
the invisible element which supports them were their medium of rest 
as well as motion. But mark that object sitting in solitary state in the 
midst of yon plain; what a magnificent eagle! An approach to within 
80 yards arouses the king of birds from his apathy. He partly opens 
his enormous wings, but stirs not yet from his station. On gaining a 
few feet more he begins to walk away, with half-expanded but motion- 
less wings. Now for the chance, fire! A charge of No. 3 from 11-bure 
rattles audibly but ineffectively upon his densely feathered body; his 
walk increases to a run, he gathers speed with his slowly-waving wings, 
and eventually leaves the ground. Rising at a gradual inclination, he 
mounts aloft and sails majestically away to his place of refuge in the 
Libyan range, distant at least 5 miles from where he rose. Some frag- 
ments of feathers denote the spot from where the shot had struck him. 
The marks of his claws are traceable in the sandy soil, as, at first with 
firm and decided digs, he forced his way, but as he lightened his body 
and increased his speed with the aid of his wings, the imprints of his 
talons gradually merged into long scratches. The measured distance 
from the point where these vanished to the place where he had stood, 
proved that with all the stimulus that the shot must have given to his 
exertions he had been compelled to run full 20 yards before he could 
raise himself from the earth, 

H. Mis. 224——20 


306 : ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


Again the boat is under weigh, though the wind is but just sufficient 
for us to stem the current. An immense kite is soaring overhead, 
searcely higher than the top of our lateen yard, affording a fine oppor- 
tunity for contemplating his easy and unlabored movements. The cook 
has now thrown overboard some offal. With a solemn swoop the bird 
descends and seizes it with his talons. How easily he rises again with 
motionless expanded wings, the mere force and momentum of his de- 
scent serving to raise him again to more than half-mast high. Observe 
him next, with lazy flapping wings, and head turned under his body ; 
he is placidly devouring the pendent morsel from his foot, and calmly 
gliding onwards. 

The Nile abounds with large aquatic birds of almost every variety. 
During a residence upon its surface for nine months out of the year, 
immeuse numbers have been seen to come and go, for the majority of 
them are migratory. Egypt being merely a narrow strip of territory, 
passing through one of the most desert parts of the earth and rendered 
fertile only by the periodical rise of the waters of the river, it is proba- 
ble that these birds make it their grand thoroughfare into the rich dis- 
trict of Central Africa. 

On nearing our own shores, steaming against a moderate head-wind, 
from a station abaft the wheel the movements of some half-dozen gulls 
are observed, following in the wake of the ship in patient expectation 
of any edibles that may be thrown overboard. One that is more famil- * 
iar than the rest comes so near at times that the winnowing of his wings 
can be heard; he has just dropped astern, and now comes on again. 
With the axis of his body exactly at the level of the eyesight, his every 
movement can be distinctly marked. He approaches to within 10 
yards, and utters his wild, plaintive note, as he turns his head from side 
to side, and regards us with his jet black eye. But where is the angle 
or upward rise of his wings, that should compensate for his descending 
tendency, in a yielding medium like air? The incline can not be de- 
tected, for, to all appearance, his wings are edgewise, or parallel to his 
line of motion, and he appears to skim along a solid support. No 
smooth-edged rails, or steel-tired wheels, with polished axles revolving 
in well-oiled brasses, are needed here for the purpose of diminishing 
friction, for nature’s machinery has surpassed them all. The retarding 
effects of gravity in the creature under notice, are almost annulled, for 
he is gliding forward upon a frictionless plane. There are various rea- 
sons for concluding that the direct flight of many birds is maintained 
with a much less expenditure of power for a high speed, than by any 
mode of progression. 

The first subject for consideration is the proportion of surface weight, 
and their combined effect in descending perpendicularly through the 
atmosphere. The datum is here based upon the consideration of safety, 
for it may sometimes be needtul for a living being to drop passively, 
without muscular effort. One square foot of sustaining surface for 
every pound of the total weight, will be sufficient for security. 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 307 


According to Smeaton’s table of atmospheric resistance, to produce a 
force of 1 pound on a square foot, the wind must move against the plane 
(or, Which is the same thing, the plane against the wind), at the rate of 
22 feet per second, or 1,320 feet per minute, equal to 15 miles per hour. 
The resistance of the air will now balance the weight on the descending 
surface, and consequently it can not exceed that speed. Now 22 feet 
per second is the velocity acquired at the end of a fall of 8 feet,—a 
height from which a well-knié man or animal may leap down without 
much risk or injury. Therefore, if aman with parachute weigh together 
143 pounds, spreading the same number of square feet of surface con- 
tained in a circle 144 feet in diameter, he will descend at perhaps an 
unpleasant velocity, but with safety to life and limb. 

It is a remarkable fact how this proportion of wing-surface to weight 
extends throughout a great variety of the flying portion of the animal 
kingdom, even down to hornets, bees, and other insects. {In some in- 
stances however, as in the gallinaceous tribe, including pheasants, this 
area is somewhat exceeded, but they are known to be very poor flyers. 
Residing as they do chiefly on the ground, their wings are only required 
for short distances or for raising them or easing their descent from their 
roosting-places in forest trees, the shortness of their wings preventing 
them from taking extended flight. The wing-surface of the common 
swallow is rather more than in the ratio of 2 square feet per pound, but 
having also great length of pinion, it is both swift and enduring in its 
flight. When on a rapid course this bird is in the habit of furling its 
wings into a narrow compass. The greater extent of surface is proba- 
bly needful for the continual variations of speed and instant stoppages 
requisite for obtaining its insect food. 

On the other hand, there are some birds, particularly of the duck 
tribe, whose wing-surface but little exceeds half a square foot, or 72 
inches per pound; yet they may be classed among the strongest and 
swiftest flyers. A weight of 1 pound suspended from an area of this ex- 
tent would acquire a velocity due to a fall of 16 feet, a height sufficient 
for the destruction or injury of most animals. But when the plane is 
urged forward horizontally, in amanner analogous to the wings of a 
bird during flight, the sustaining power is greatly influenced by the 
form and arrangement of the surface. 

In the case of perpendicular descent, as a parachute, the sustaining 
effect will be much the same, whatever the figure of the outline of the 
superficies may be, and a circle perhaps affords the best resistance of 
any. Take for example a circle of 20 square feet (as possessed by the 
pelican) loaded with as many pounds. This, as just stated, will limit 
the rate of perpendicular descent to 1,320 feet per minute. But instead 
of a circle 61 inches in diameter, if the area is bounded by a parallelo- 
gram 10 feet long by 2 feet broad, and whilst at perfect freedom to de- 
scend perpendicularly, let a force be applied exactly in a horizontal 
direction so as to carry it edgeways, with the long side foremost, at a 


308 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


forward speed of 30 miles per hour, just double that of its passive de- 
scent; the rate of fall under these conditions will be decreased most 
remarkably, probably to less than one-fifteenth part, or 88 feet per min- 
ute, or 1 mile per hour. 

The annexed line represents transversely the plane 2 feet wide and 10 
teet long, moving in the direction of the arrow | ............... Dect hee 
with a FoRArA speed of 30 miles per hour, or < See ene 

2,640 feet per minute, and descending at 88 feet® 

per minute, the ratio being as 1 to 30. Now, the particles of air caught 
by the forward edge of the plane must be carried down eight-tenths of 
an inch before they leave it. This stratum, 10 feet wide and 2,640 feet 
long, will weigh not less than 134 pounds; therefore the weight has 
continually to be moved downwards 88 feet per minute from a state of 
absolute rest. If the plane, with this weight and an upward rise of 
eight-tenths of an inch, be carried forward at a rate of 30 miles per 
hour, it will be maintained at the same level without descending. 

The following illustration, though referring to the action of surfaces 
in a denser fluid, are yet exactly analogous to the conditions set forth 
in air: 

Take a stiff rod of wood and nail to its end at right angles a thin lath 
or blade about 2 inches wide. Place the rod square across the thwarts 
of a rowing-boat in motion, letting a foot or more of the blade hang 
perpendicularly over the side into the water. The direct amount of 
resistance of the current against the flat side of the blade may thus be 
felt. Next slide the rod to and fro thwart-ship, keeping all square; the 
resistance will now be found to have increased enormously ; indeed, 
the boat can be entirely stopped by such an appliance. Of course the 
same experiment may be tried in a running stream. 

Another familiar example may be cited in the leeboards and sliding 
keels used in vessels of shallow draught, which act precisely on the 
same principle as the plane or wing-surface of a bird when moving in 
air. These surfaces, though parallel to the line of the vessel’s course, 
enable her to carry a heavy press of sail without giving way under the 
side pressure, or making lee-way, so great is their resistance against 
the rapidly passing body of water, which can not be deflected sideways 
at a high speed. 

The succeeding experiments will serve further to exemplify the action 
of the same principle. Fix a thin blade, say 1 inch wide and 1 foot 
long, with its plane exactly midway and at right angles to the end of 
a spindle or rod. On thrusting this through a body of water, or im- 
mersing it in a stream running in the direction of the axis of the spin- 
dle, the resistance will be simply that caused by the water against the 
mere superficies of the blade. Next put the spindle and blade in rapid 
rotation. The retarding effect against direct motion will now be in- 
creased near tenfold, aud is equal to that due to the entire area of the 
circle of revolution. By trying the effect of blades of various widths, 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 309 


it will be found that, for the purpose of effecting the maximum amount 
of resistance, the more rapidly the spindle revolves the narrower may 
be the blade. There is a specific ratio between the width of the blade 
aud its velocity. It is of some importance that this should be precisely 
defined, not only for its practical utility in determining the best pro- 
portion of width to speed in the blades of screw-propellers, but also for 
a correct demonstration of the principles involved in the subject now 
under consideration; for it may be remarked that the swiftest-flying 
birds possess extremely long and narrow wings, and the slow, heavy 
flyers short and wide ones. 

In the early days of the secrew-propeller it was thought requisite, in 
order to obtain the advantage of the utmost extent of surface, that the 
end view of the screw should present no opening, but appear as a com- 
plete disk. Accordingly, some were constructed with one or two 
threads, making an entire or two half-revolutions ; but this was subse- 
quently found to bea mistake. In the case of the two blades, the length 
of the screw was shortened, and consequently the width of the blades 
reduced, with increased effect, till each was brought down to consider. 
ably less than one-sixth of the circumference or area of the entire 
circle; the maximum spred was then obtained. Experiment has also 
shown that the effective propelling area of the two-bladed screw is 
tantamount to its entire circle of revolution, and is generally estimated 
as such. 

Many experiments tried by the author, with various forms of screws 
applied to a small steam-boat, led to the same conclusion,—that the two 
blades of one-sixth of the circle gave the best results. 

All screws re-acting on a fluid such as water must cause it to yield to 
some extent. This is technically known as “slip,” and whatever the 
ratio or percentage on the speed of the boat may be it is tantamount 
to just so much loss of propelling power, this being consumed in giving 
motion to the water instead of the boat. 

On starting the engine of the steam-boat referred to, and grasping a 
mooring-rope at the stern, if was an easy matter to hold it back with 
one hand, though the engine was equal in power to five horses, and the 
serew making more than five hundred revolutions per minute. The 
whole force of the steam was absorbed in “slip,” or in giving motion 
to the column of water; but let her go and allow the screw to find an 
abutment on a fresh body of water not having received a gradual mo- 
tion, and with its inertia undisturbed when ranning under full way, 
the screw worked almost as if in a solid nut, the “slip” amounting to 
only 11 per cent. 

The laws which control the action of inclined surfaces, moving either 
in straight lines or circles in air, are identical, and serve to show the 
inutility of attempting to raise a heavy body in the atmosphere by 
means of rotating vanes or a screw acting vertically ; for unless the ratio 
of surface compared to weight is exceedingly extensive, the whole 


~ 


310 ; ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


power will be consumed in “slip,” or in giving a downward motion to 
the column of air. HEven if a sufficient force is obtained to keep a body 
suspended by such means, yet, after the desired altitude is arrived at, 
no further ascension is required; there the apparatus is to remain sta- 
tionary as to level, and its position on the constantly yielding support 
can only be maintained at an enormous expenditure of power, for the 
screw can not obtain a hold upon a fresh and unmoved portion of air in 
the same manner as it does upon the body of water when propelling the 
boat at full speed; its action under these conditions is the same as when 
the boat is held fast, in which case, although the engine is working up 
to its usual rate, the tractive power is almost annulled. 

Some experiments made with ascrew, or pair of inclined vanes acting 
vertically in air, were tried in the following manner: To an upright 
post was fixed a frame containing a bevel wheel and pinion, multiplying 
in the ratio of three to one. The axle of the wheel was horizontal, and 
turned by a handle of 5§ inches radius. The spindle of the pinion 
rotated vertically, and carried two driving-pins at the end of a cross- 
piece, so that the top resembled the three prongs ofa trident. The 
upright shaft of the screw was bored hollow to receive the middle prong, 
while the two outside ones took a bearing against a driving-bar, at right 
angles to the lower end of the shaft, the top of which ended in a long 
iron pivot, running in a socket fixed in a beam overhead ; it could thus 
rise and fall about 2 inches with very little friction. The top of the 
serew-shaft carried a cross-arm, witb a blade of equal size at each ex- 
tremity, the distance from end to end being six feet. The blades could 
be adjusted at any angle by clamping-screws. Both their edges and 
the arms that carry them were beveled away to a sharp edge to dimin- 
ish the effects of atmoshperic resistance. A wire stay was taken from 
the base of each blade to the bottom of the upright shaft, to give rigid- 
ity to the arms, and to prevent them from springing upwards. With 
this apparatus experiments were made with weights attached to the up- 
right serew-shaft, and the blades set at different pitches, or angles 
of inclination. When the vanes were rotated rapidly, they rose and 
floated on the air, carrying the weights with them. Much difficulty 
was experienced in raising a heavy weight by a comparatively small 
extent of surface, moving at ahigh velocity; the “slip” in these cases 
being so great as to absorb all the poweremployed. The utmost effect 
obtained in this way was to raise a weight of 6 pounds on 1 square foot 
of sustaining surface, the planes having been set at a coarse pitch. To 
keep up the rotation required about half the power a man could exert. 

The ratio of weight to sustaining surface was next arranged in the 
proportion approximating to that of birds. Two of the experiments are 
here quoted, which gave the most satisfactory results. Weight of wings 
and shaft, 174 ounces; area of two wings, 121 inches—equal to 110 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 311 
square inches per pound, The annexed figures are given approximately, 
in order to avoid decimal fractions : 


| 
Mean sus- Pitch or 








| No. of rev- taining | Feet per angleofrise Ratio of ae 
olutions . Be z me ca pitch to Slip. 
sae minute speed per | minute.  inonerev-| *, ‘eed 
POE TUUULe: hour. | olution. SE = 
} | 
Sie ae Pe ae _.| we 
Miles. | Inches. | | Per cent. 
First experiment ........-.. 210 38 3, 360 26 *2 | 123 
Second experiment .... ..-. 240 44 3, 840 15 | a 8 
| 
| 
* Nearly. 


The power required to drive was nearly the same in both experi- 
ments—about equai to one-sixteenth part of a horse-power, or the third 
part of the strength of a man as estimated by a constant force on the 
nandle of 12 pounds in the first experiment and 10 in the second, the 
radius of the handle being 54 inches, and making seventy revolutions 
per minute in the first case and eighty in the other. 

These experiments are so far satisfactory in showing the small pitch 
or angle or rise required for sustaining the weight stated, and demon- 
strating the principle before alluded to, of the slow descent of planes 
moving horizontally in the atmosphere at high velocities ; but the ques- 
tion remains to be answered, concerning the disposal of the excessive 
power consumed in raising a weight not exceeding that of a carrier- 
pigeon, for unless this can be satisfactorily accounted for there is but 
little prospect of finding an available power of sufficient energy in its 
application to the mechanism for raising apparatus, either experimental 

or otherwise, in the atmosphere. In the second experiment, the screw- 
shaft made two hundred and forty revolutions, consequently, one vane 
(there being two) was constantly passing over the same spot four hun- 
dred and eighty times each minute, or eight times in a second. This 
caused a descending current of air, moving at the rate of near 4 miles 
per hour, almost sufficient to. blow a candle out placed 3 feet under- 
neath. This is the result of “slip,” and the giving both a downward 
and rotary motion to this column of air will account for a great part of 
the power employed, as the whole apparatus performed the work of a 
blower. If the wings, instead of traveling in a circle, could have been 
urged continually forward in a straight line in a fresh and unmoved 
body of air, the “slip” would have been so inconsiderable, and the 
pitch, consequently, reduced to such a small angle as to add but little 
to the direct forward atmospheric resistance of the edge. 

The small flying screws, sold as toys, are well known. It is an easy 
matter to determine approximately the force expended in raising and 
maintaining them in the atmosphere. The following is an example of 
one constructed of tin-plate with three equidistant vanes. This was 
spun by means of a cord wound round a wooden spindle, fitted into a 
forked handle asusual. The outer end of the coiled string was attached 


a2 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


to a small spring steelyard, which served as a handle to pull it out by. 
The weight or degree at which the index had been drawn was after- 
wards ascertained by the mark left thereon by a pointed brass wire. It 
jS not necessary to know the time occupied in drawing out the string, 
as this item in the estimate may be taken as the duration of the ascent; 
for it is evident that if the same force is re-applied at the descent, it 
would rise again, and a repeated series of these impulses will represent 
the power required to prolong the flight of the instrument. It is there- 
fore requisite to know the length of string and the force applied in 
pulling it out. The following are the data: 


Miameter Of SCLrewsocme aac eetrcce aenierine oe ceiomars inches.. 84 
NVieto lat OfRCTO Wee crete avai acai’ sfetersievar= alerela) Setae acapeteevey er grains.. 396 
Lencth ofstrine drawn OUtios 22. set nse eee lees feets. 2 
Koreeemployedic 2 ii5.2- hoe sara at clei sseasel ste etoleeiae pounds... 8 
Durationofficht=c.c-s--- see ease eee eine ee SSCCONGS cnet O 


From thisit may be computed that, in order to maintain the flight of the 
instrument, a constant force is required of near 60 foot-power per minute 
—in the ratio of about 3 horse-power for each hundred pounds raised 
by such means. The force is perhaps over-estimated for a larger screw, 
jor as the size and weight is increased the power required would be 
less than in this ratio. The result would be more satisfactory if tried 
with a sheet-iron screw impelled by a descending weight. 

Methods analogous to this have been proposed for attempting aérial 
locomotion ; but experiment has shown that a screw rotating in the air 
is an imperfect principle for obtaining the means of flight and support- 
ing the needful weight, for the power required is enormous. Suppose 
a machine to be constructed having some adequate supply of force, the 
screw rotating vertically at a certain velocity will raise the whole. 
When the desired altitude is obtained, nearly the same velocity of rev- 
olution and the same excessive power must be continued, and con- 
sumed entirely in “slip,” or in drawing down a rapid current of air. 

If the axis of the screw is slightly inclined from the perpendicular, the 
whole machine will travel forward. The “slip,” and consequently the 
power, is somewhat reduced under these conditions ; but aswift forward 
s eed can not be effected by such means, for the resistance of theinclined 
disk of the screw will be very great, far exceeding any form assimilat- 
ing to the edge of the wing of a bird. But, arguing on the supposition 
that a forward speed of 30 miles an hour might thus be obtained, even 
then nearly all the power would be expended in giving an unnecessary 
and rapid revolution to an immense serew, capable of raising a weight, 
say, of 200 pounds, The weight alone of such a machine must cause it 
to fail, and every revolution of the screw is a subtraction from the much 
desired direct forward speed. A simple narrow blade or inclined plane 
propelled in a direct course at this speed (which is amply sufficient for 
sustaining heavy weights) is the best—and in fact the only means of 
giving the maximum amount of supporting power with the least possi- 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. wo 


ble degree of “slip” and direct forward resistance. Thousands of ex- 
amples in nature testify its suecess and show the principle in perfee- 
tion,—apparently the only one, and therefore beyond the reach of 
amendment,—the wing of a bird, combining a propelling and supporting 
organ in one, each perfectly efficient in its mechanical action. 

This leads to the consideration of the amount of power requisite to 
maintain the flight of a bird. Anatomists state that the pectoral mus.- 
cles for giving motion to the wings are excessively large and strong ; 
but this furnishes no proof of the expenditure of a great amount of force 
in the act of flying. The wings are hinged to the body like two powerful 
levers, and some counteracting force of a passive nature, acting like a 
spring under tension, must be requisite merely to balance the weight of 
the bird. It can not be shown, that while there is no active motion, 
there is any real exertion of muscular foree, for instance, during the 
time when a bird is soaring with motionless wings. This must be con- 
sidered as a state of equilibrium, the downward spring and elasticity 
of the wings serving to support the body, the muscles in such a ease 
performing like stretched india-rubber spring would do. The motion 
or active power required for the performance of flight must be considered 
exclusive of this. 

It is difficult, if not impossible, by any form of dynamometer to ascer- 
tain the precise amount of force given out by the wings of birds; but 
this is perhaps not requisite in proof of the principle involved; for when 
the laws governing their movements in air are better understood it is 
quite possible to demonstrate by isolated experiments the amount of 
power required to sustain and propel a given weight and surface at any 
speed. 

If the pelican, referred to as weighing 21 pounds with near the same 
amount of wing area (in square feet), were to descend perpendicularly, 
it would fall at the rate of 1,320 feet per minute (22 feet per second), 
being limited to this speed by the resistance of the atmosphere. 

The standard generally employed in estimating power is by the rate 
of descent of a weight. Therefore, the weight of the bird being 21 
pounds, which falling at the above speed, will expend a force on the air 
set in motion nearly equal to 1 horse (.84 horse-power) or that of five men; 
and conversely, to raise this weight again perpendicularly upon a yield- 
ing support like air, would require even more power than this expres- 
sion, which it is certain that a pelican does not possess; nor does it 
appear that any large bird has the faculty of raising itself on the wing 
perpendicularly in a still atmosphere. A pigeon is able to accomplish 
this nearly, mounting to the top of a house in a very narrow compass ; 
but the exertion is evidently severe and ean only be maintained for a 
short period. For its size, this bird has great power of wing; but this 
is perhaps far exceeded in the humming-bird, which, by the extremely 
rapid movements of its pinions, sustains itself for more than a minute 
in still air in one position. The muscular force required for this feat is 


314 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


much greater than for any other performance of flight. The body of the 
bird at the time is nearly vertical. The wings uphold the weight, not 
by striking vertically downwards upon the air, but as inclined surfaces 
reciprocating horizontally like a screw, but wanting in its continuous 
rotation in one direction, and in consequence of the less arising from 
rapid alternations of motions, the power required for the flight will ex- 
ceed that specified in the screw experiment before quoted, viz, 3 horse- 
power for every 100 pounds raised. 

We have here an example of the exertion of enormous animal force 
expended in flight, necessary for the peculiar habits of the bird, and 
for obtaining its food; but in the other extreme, in large heavy birds, 
whose wings are merely required for the purpeses of migration or loco- 
motion, flight is obtained with the least possible degree of power, and 
this condition can only becommanded by arapid straight-forward course 
through the air. 

The sustaining. power obtained in flight must depend upon certain 
laws of action and re-action between relative weights; the weight of a 
bird, balanced, or finding an abutment, against the fixed inertia of a 
far greater weight of air, continuously brought into action in a given 
time. This condition is secured, not by extensive surface, but by great 
length of wing, which, in forward motion, takes a support upon a wide 
stratum of air, extending transversely to the line of direction. 

The pelican, for example, has wings extending out 10 feet. If the 
limits of motion imparted to the substratum of air, acted upon by the 
incline of the wing, be assumed as 1 foot in thickness, and the velocity 
of flight as 30 miles per hour, or 2,640 feet per minute, the stratum of 
air passed over in this time will weigh nearly 1 ton, or one hundred times 
the weight oi the body of the bird, thus giving such an enormous sup- 
porting power that the comparatively small weight of the bird has but 
little effect in deflecting the heavy length of the stratum downwards, 
and therefore the higher the velocity of flight the less the amount of 
‘‘ slip” or power wasted in compensation for descent. 

As noticed at the commencement of this paper, large birds may be 
observed to skim close above smooth water without ruffling the surface, 
showing that during rapid flight the air does not give way beneath them, 
but approximates towards a solid support. . 

In all inclined surfaces, moving rapidly through the air, the whole 
sustaining power approaches toward the front edge; and, in order to 
exemplify the inutility of surface alone, without proportionate length 
of wing, take a plane 10 feet long by 2 broad, impelled with the nar- 
row end forward, the first 12 or 15 inches will be as efficient at a high 
speed in supporting a weight as the entire following portion of the 
plane which may be cut off, thus reducing the effective wing-area of a 
pelican, arranged in this direction, to the totally inadequate equivalent 
of 25 square feet. 

One of the most perfect natural examples of easy and long-sustained 


seat emails 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 315 


flight is the wandering albatross. ‘A bird for endurance of flight 
probably unrivalled. Found over all parts of the Southern Ocean, It 
seldom rests on the water. During storms, even the most terrific, it is 
seen now dashing through the whirling clouds, and now serenely float- 
ing, without the least observable motion of its outstretched pinions.” 
The wings of this bird extend 14 or 15 feet from end to end, and meas- 
ure only 84 inches across the broadest part. This conformation gives 
the bird such an extraordinary sustaining power, that it is said to sleep 
on the wing during stormy weather, when rest on the ocean is impossi- 
ble. Rising high in the air, it skims slowly down, with absolutely mo- 
tionless wings, till a near approach tothe waves awakens it, when it 
rises again for another rest. 

If the foree expended in actually sustaining along-winged bird upon 
a wide and unyielding stratum of air, during rapid flight, is but a small 
fraction of its strength, then nearly the whole is exerted in overcoming 
direct forward resistance. In the pelican referred to, the area of the 
body, at its greatest diameter, is about 1u0 square inches; that of the 
pinions, 80. But as the contour of many birds during flight approxi- 
mates nearly to Newton’s solid of least resistance, by reason of this 
form, acting like the sharp bows of a ship, the opposing force against 
the wind must be reduced down to one third or fourth part; this gives 
one-tenth of a horse-power, or about half the strength of a man, ex- 
pended during a flight of 30 miles per hour. Judging from the action 
of the living bird when captured, it does not appear to be more power- 
ful than here stated. 

The transverse area of a carrier pigeon during flight (including the 
outstretched wings) a little exceeds the ratio of 12 square inches for 
each pound, and the wing surface, or sustaining area, 90 square inches 
per pound. 

Experiments have been made to test the resisting power of conical 
bodies of various forms, in the following manner: A thin lath was 
placed horizontally, so as to move freely on a pivot set midway; at one 
end of the lath a circular card was attached, at the other end a sliding 
clip traversed, for holding paper cones, having their bases the exact 
size of the opposite disk. The instrument acting like a steelyard ; and 
when held against the wind, the paper cones were adjusted at different 
distances from the center, according to their forms and angles, in order 
to balance the resistance of the air against the opposing flat surface. 
The resistance was found to be diminished nearly in the ratio that the 
height of the cone exceeded the diameter of its base. 

It might be expected that the pull of the string of a flying kite 
should give some indication of the force of inclined surfaces acting 
against a current of air; but no correct data can be obtained in this 
way. ‘The incline of a kite is far greater than ever appears in the case 
of the advancing wing surface of a bird. The tail is purposely made 
to give steadiness by a strong pull backwards trom the action of the 


316 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


wind, which also exerts considerable force on the suspended cord, which 
for more than half its length hangs nearly perpendicularly. But the 
kite, as a means of obtaining unlimited lifting and tractive power, in 
certain cases where it might be usefully applied, seems to have been 
somewhat neglected. For its power of raising weights, the following 
quotation is taken from vol. xLI of the Transactions of the Society of 
Arts, relating to Captain Dansey’s mode of communicating with a lee- 
shore. The kite was made of a sheet of holland exactly 9 feet square, 
extended by two spars placed diagonally, and as stretched spread a 
surface of 55 square feet: ‘‘The kite, in a strong breeze, extended 
1,100 yards of line five-eighths of an inch in circumference, and would 
have extended more had it been at hand. It also extended 360 yards 
of line, 13 inches in circumference, weighing 60 pounds. The holland 
weighed 34 pounds; the spars, one of which was armed at the head 
with iron spikes for the purpose of mooring it, 63 pounds; and the tail 
was five times its length, composed of 8 pounds of rope and 14 of elm 
plank, weighing together 22 pounds.” 

We have here the remarkable fact of 92+ pounds carried by a surface 
of only 55 square feet. 

As all such experiments bear a very close relation to the subject of 
this paper, it may be suggested that a form of kite should be employed 
for reconnoitering and exploring purposes, in lieu of balloons held by 
ropes. These would be torn to pieces in the very breeze that would 
render a kite most serviceable and safe. In the arrangement there 
should be asmaller and upper kite, capable of sustaining a weight of 
the apparatus. The lower kite should be as nearly as practicable in 
the form of a circular flat plane, distended with ribs, with a car attached 
beneath like a parachute. Four guy-ropes leading to the car would be 
required for altering the angle of the plane—vertically with respect to 
the horizon, and laterally relative to the direction of the wind. By 
these means the observer could regulate his altitude so as to command 
a view of a country in a radius of at least 20 miles; he could veer to a 
great extent from side to side, from the wind’s course, or lower himself 
gently, with the choice of a suitable spot for descent. Should the cord 
break or the wind fail, the kite would, in either case, act as a para- 
chute and as such might be purposely detached from the cord, which 
then being sustained from the upper kite, could be easily recovered. 
The direction of descent could be commanded by the guy-rope, these 
being hauled taut in the required direction for landing. 

The author has good reasons for believing that there would be less 
risk associated with the employment of this apparatus than the recon- 
noitering balloons that have now frequently been made use of in war- 
fare.* 





*The practical application of these suggestions appears to have been anticipated 
some years previously, In a small work, styled the ‘“ History of the Charvolant or 
Kite Carriage,” published by Longman & Co., appears the following remarks: 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. St 


The wings of all flying creatures, whether of birds, bats, butterflies, 
or other insects, have this one peculiarity of structure in common: The 
front, or leading edge, is rendered rigid by bone, cartilage, or a thicken- 
ing of the membrane; and in most birds of perfect fight even the indi- 
vidual feathers are formed upon the same condition. In consequence 
of this, when the wing is waved in the air, it gives a persistent force in 
one direction, caused by the elastic re-action of the following portion of 
the edge. The fins and tails of fishes act upon the same principle: in 
the most rapid swimmers these organs are termed ‘“lobated and 
pointed.” The tail extends out very wide transversely to the body, so 
that a powerful impulse is obtained against a wide stratum of: water, 
on the condition before explained. This action is imitated in Macin- 
tosh’s screw-propeller, the blade of which is made of thin steel, so as to 
be elastic. While the vessel is stationary, the blades are in a line with 
the keel, but during rotation they bend on one side more or less, accord- 





“These buoyant sails, possessing immense power, will, as we have before remarked, 
serve as floating observatories. - - - Elevated in the air, a single sentinel, 
with a perspective, could watch and report the advance of the most powerful forces, 
while yet at a great distance. He could mark their line of march, the composition 
of their force, and their general strength, long before he could be seen by the enemy.” 
Again, at page 53, we have an account of ascents actually made as follows: ‘‘ Nor 
was less progress nade in the experimental department, when large weights were re- 
quired to be raised or transposed. While on this subject, we must not omit to observe 
that the first person who soared aloft in the air by this invention was a lady, whose 
courage would not be Cenied this test of its strength. An arm-chair was brought on 
the ground, then lowering the cordage of the kite by slackening the lower brace, the 
chair was firmly lashed to the main line, and the Jady took her seat. The main-brace 
being hauled taut, the huge buoyant sail rose aloft with its fair burden, continuing 
to ascend to the height of 100 yards. On descending, she expressed herself much 
pleased with the even motion of the kite, and the delightful prospect she had enjoyed. 
Soon after this, another experiment of a similar nature took place, when the invent- 
or’s son successfully carried out a design not less safe than bold—that of scaling, by 
this powerful aerial machine, the brow of a cliff 200 feet in perpendicular height. 
Here, after safely landing, he again took his seat in a chair expressly prepared for 
the purpose, and, detaching the swivel-line, which kept it at its elevation, glided 
gently down the cordage to the hand of the director. The buoyant sail employed on 
this occasion was 30 feet in height, with a proportionate spread of canvas. The rise 
of the machine was most majestic, and nothing could surpass the steadiness with 
which it was maneuvered, the certainty with which it answered the action of the 
braces, and the ease with which its power was lessened or increased. - - - Sub 
sequently to this, an experiment of a very bold and novel character was made upon 
an extensive down, where a wagon with a considerable load was drawn along, whilst 
this huge machine, at the same time, carried an observer aloft in the air, realizing 
almost the romance of flying.” 

It may be remarked that the brace-lines here referred to were conveyed down the 
main-line and managed below; butit is evident that the same lines could be managed 
with eqnal facility by the person seated in the car above; and if the main-line were 
attached to a water-drag instead of a wheeled car, the adventurer could cross rivers, 
lakes, or bays, with considerable latitude for steering and selecting the point of 
landing, by hauling on the port or starboard brace-lines as required. And from the 
uniformity of the resistance offered by the water drag, this experiment could not be 
attended with any greater amount of risk than a land flight by the same means, 


318 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION, 


ing to the speed and degree of propulsion required, and are thus self- 
compensating; and could practical difficulties be overcome would prove 
to be a form of propeller perfect in theory. 

In the flying mechanism of beetles there is a difference of arrange- 
ment. When the elytra, or wing-cases, are.opened, they are checked 
by a stop, which sets them ata fixed angle. It is probable that these 
serve as ‘‘aero-planes,” for carrying the weight of the insect, while a 
delicate membrane that folds beneath acts more as a propelling than a 
supporting organ. A beetle can not fly with the elytra removed. 

The wing of a bird or bat is both a supporting and propelling organ, 
and flight is performed in a rapid course, as follows: During the down- 
stroke it can be easily imagined how the bird is sustained; but in the 
up-stroke the weight is also equally well supported, for in raising the 
wing it is slightly inclined upwards against the rapidly passing air, and 
as this angle is somewhat in excess of the motion due to the raising of 
the wing, the bird is sustained as much during the up as the down 
stroke—in fact, though the wing may be rising, the bird is still pressing 
against the air with a force equal to the weight of its body. The fac- 
ulty of turning up the wing may be easily seen when a large bird 
alights, for after gliding down its aerial gradient, on its approach to the 
ground it turns up the plane of its wing against the air; this checks its 
descent, and it lands gently. 

It has before been shown how utterly inadequate the mere perpen- 
dicular impulse of a plane is found to be in supporting a weight when 
there is no horizontal motion at the time. There is no material weight 
of air to be acted upon, and it yields to the slightest force, however great 
the velocity of impulse may be. On the other hand, suppose that a 
large bird in full flight can make 40 miles per hour, or 3,520 feet per 
minute, and perform one stroke per second. Now, during every frac- 
tional portion of that stroke the wing is acting upon and obtaining an 
impulse from a fresh and undisturbed body of air, and if the vibration 
of the wing is limited to an arc of 2 feet, this by no means represents 
the small force of action that would be obtained when in a stationary 
position, for the impulse is secured upon a stratum of 58 feet in length 
of air at each stroke. Sothat the conditions of weight of air for obtain- 
ing support, equally well apply to weight of air and its re-action in pro- 
ducing forward impulse. 

So necessary is the acquirement of this horizontal speed, even in 
commencing flight, that most heavy birds, when possible, rise against 
the wind, and even run at the top of their speed to make their wings 
available, as in the example of the eagle, mentioned at the commence- 
ment of this paper. It is stated that the Arabs on horseback can 
approach near enough to spear these birds, when on the plain, before 
they are able to rise. Their habit is to perch on an eminence where 
possible. 

The tail of a bird is not necessary for flight. A pigeon can fly per- 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 319 


fectly with this appendage cut short off; it probably performs an im- 
portant function in rapid steering, for it is to be remarked that most 
birds that have either to pursue or evade pursuit are amply provided 
with this organ. 

The foregoing reasoning is based upon facts, which tend to show that 
the flight of the largest and heaviest of all birds is really performed 
with but a small amount of force, and that man is endowed with suffi- 
cient muscular power to enable him also to take individual and extended 
flights, and that success is probably only involved in a question of suit- 
able mechanical adaptations. But if the wings are to be modelled in 
imitation of natural examples, but very little consideration will serve 
to demonstrate its utter impracticability when applied in these forms. 
The following diagram, Fig. 1, would be about the proportions needed for 





aman of medium weight. The wings @ @ must extend out 60 feet from 
end to end and measure 4 feet across the broadest part. The man, d, 
should be in a horizontal position, incased in a strong frame-work, to 
which the wings are hinged at cc. The wings must be stiffened by 
elastic ribs extending back from the pinions. These must be trussed 
by a thin band of steel, e e, Fig. 2, for the purpose of diminishing the 


Fig. 2. 


pee Ee a 
d 

weight and thickness of the spar. At the front, where the pinions are 
hinged, there are two levers attached and drawn together by a spiral 
spring, d, Fig. 2, the tension of which is sufficient to balance the weight 
of the body and machine and cause the wings to be easily vibrated by 
the movement of the feet acting on the treadles. This spring serves 
the purposeof the pectoral muscles in birds. But with all such arrange- 
ments the apparatus must fail; length of wing is indispensable! and a 
spar 30 feet long must be strong, heavy, and cumbrous; to propel this 
along through the air at a high speed would require more power than 
any man could command. 

In repudiating all imitations of natural wings, it does not follow that 
the only channel is closed in which flying mechanism may prove suc- 
cessful. Though birds do tly upon definite mechanical principles and 
with a moderate exertion of force, yet the wing must necessarily be ¢ 
vital organ and member of the living body. Itimust havea marvellous 
self-acting principle of repair in case the feathers are broken or torn; 
it must also fold up in a small compass and form a covering for the 
body. 


320 ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


These considerations bear no relation to artificial wings; so in de- 
signing a flying-machine, any deviations are admissible, provided the 
theoretical conditions involved in flight are borne in mind. 

Having remarked how thin a stratum of air is displaced beneath the 
wings of a bird in rapid flight, it follows that in order to obtain the 
necessary length of plane for supporting heavy weights, the surfaces may 
be superposed, or placed in parallel rows, with an interval between 
them. A dozen pelicans may fly one above the other without mutual 
impediment, as if framed together; and it is thus shown how 2 hun- 
dred-weight may be supported in a transverse distance of only 10 feet. 

In order to test this idea, six bands of stiff paper, 3 feet long and 3 
inches wide, were stretched at a slight upward angle, in a light rectan- 
gular frame, with an interval of 3 inches between them, the arrange- 
ment resembling an open Venetian blind. When this was held against 
a breeze, the lifting power was very great, and even by running with 
it in a calm it required much force to keep it down. The success of 
this model led to the construction of one of a sufficient size to carry the 


Fig.3. 





weight of a man. Fig. 3 represents the arrangement: aa is a thin 
plank, tapered at the outer ends, and attached at the base to a triangle, 
b, made of similar plank, for the insertion of the body. The boards 
aa were trussed with thin bands of iron, ¢ ce, and at the ends were ver- 
tical rods, dd. Between these were stretched five bands of holland, 15 
inches broad and 16 feet long, the total length of the web being 80 feet. 
This was taken out after dark into a wet piece of meadow land, one 
November evening, during a strong breeze wherein it became quite 
unmanageable. The wind acting upon the already tightly-stretched 
webs, their united puli caused the central boards to bend considerably, 
with a twisting, vibratory motion. During a lull, the head and shoul- 
ders were inserted in the triangle, with the chest resting on the base- 
board. A sudden gust caught up the experimenter, who was carried 
some distance from the ground, and the affair falling over sideways 
broke up the right-hand set of webs. 

In all new machines we gain experience by repeated failures, which 
frequently form the stepping-stone to ultimate success. The rude con- 
trivance just described (which was but the work of a few hours) had 
taught first that the webs, or aero-planes, must not be distended in a 
frame, as this must of necessity be strong and heavy, to withstand 
their combined tension; second, that the planes must be made so as 
either to furl or fold up, for the sake of portability. 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION, a2 


in order to meet these conditions the following arrangement was after- 
wards tried: aa, Figs. 4 and 5, is the main spar, 16 feet long, half an 
Fig. 
































inch thick at the base, and tapered both in breadth and thickness to the 
end; to this spar was fastened the panels bb, having a base-board for 
the support of the body. Under this and fastened to the end of the 
main spar is a thin steel tie-band, ee, with struts starting from the spar. 
This serves as a foundation of the superposed aero planes, and though 
very light, was found to be exceedingly strong, for when the ends of 
the spar were placed upon supports, the middle bore the weight of the 
body without any strain or deflection; and further, by separation at 
the base-board, the spars could be folded back with a hinge to half their 
length. Above this were arranged the aero planes, consisting of six 
webs of thin holland 15 inches broad ; these were kept iv parallel planes 
by vertical divisions 2 feet wide, of the same fabric, so that when dis- 
tended by a current of air, each 2 feet of web pulled in opposition to 
its neighbor; and finally, at the ends (which were each sewn over laths) 
a pull due to only 2 feet had to be counteracted, instead of the strain 
arising from the entire Jength, as in the former experiment. The end- 
pull was sustained by vertical rods, sliding through loops on the trans- 
verse ones at the ends of the webs, the whole of which 
could fall flat on the spar till raised and distended by a 
breeze. The top was stretched by a lath, /, and the 
system kept vertical by stay cords taken from a bow- 
sprit carried out in front, shown in Tig. 6. All the 
front edges of the aero-planes were stiffened by bands 
of crinoline steel. This series was for the supporting = 

arrangement, being equivalent to a length of wing of 96 feet. Exterior 
to this, two propellers were to be attached, turning on spindies just 
above the back. They are kept drawn up by a light spring, and pulled 

H. Mis, 224——21 


Fig.6. 


ue ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. 


down by cords or chains running over pulleys in the panels 6b, and 
fastened to the end of a swiveling cross-yoke, sliding on the base-board. 
By working this cross-piece with the feet, motion will be communicated 
to the propellers, and by giving a longer stroke with one foot than the 
other a greater extent of motion will be given to the corresponding pro- 
peller, thus enabling the machine to turn just as oars are worked in a 
rowing-boat. The propellers act on the same principle as the wing of a 
bird or bat; their ends being made of fabric, stretched by elastic ribs, 
a simple waving motion up and down will give a strong forward impulse. 
In order to stop, the legs are lowered beneath the base-board, and the 
experimenter must run against the wind. 

An experiment recently made with this apparatus developed a cause 
of failure. The angle required for producing the requisite supporting 
power was found to be so small, that the crinoline steel would not keep 
the front edges in tension. Some of them were borne downward and 
more on one side than the other, by the operation of the wind, and this 
also produced a strong fluttering motion in the webs, destroying the 
integrity of their plane surfaces, and fatal to their proper action. 

Another arrangement has since been constructed, having laths sewn 
in both edges of the webs, which are kept permanently distended by 
cross-stretchers. All these planes are hinged to a vertical central 
board, so as to fold back when the bottom ties are released; but the 
system is much heavier than the former one, and no experiments of any 
consequence have as yet been tried with it. 

It may be remarked that although a principle is here defined, yet 
considerable difficulty is experienced in carrying the theory into prac- 
tice. When the wind approaches to 15 or 20 miles per hour, the lifting 
power of these arrangements is all that is requisite, and by additional 
planes, can be increased to any extent; but the capricious nature of the 
ground-currents is a perpetual source of trouble. 

Great weight does not appear to be of much consequence, if carried 
in the body ; but the aero-planes and their attachments seem as if they 
were required to be very light, otherwise they are awkward to carry, 
and impede the movements in running and making a start. In a 
dead calm it is almost impracticable to get sufficient horizontal speed 
by mere running alone to raise the weight of the body. Once off the 
ground, the speed must be an increasing one, if continued by suitable 
propellers. The small amount of experience as yet gained appears to 
indicate that if the aero-planes could be raised in detail, like a super- 
posed series of kites, they would first carry the weight of the machine 
itself, and next relieve that of the body. 

Until the last few months no substantial attempt has been made to 
construct a flying-machine in accordance with the principle involved 
in this paper, which was written seven years ago. The author trusts 
that he has contributed something towards the elucidation of a new 
theory, and shown that the flight of a bird in its performance does net 


ether ce 


ON AERIAL LOCOMOTION. o2o 


require that enormous amount of force usually supposed, and that in 
fact birds do not exert more power in flying than quadrupeds in run- 
ning, but considerably less; for the wing movements of a large bird, 
travelling at a far higher speed in the air, are very much slower; and 
where weight is concerned, great velocity of action in the locomotive 
organs is associated with great force. 

It is to be hoped that further experiments will confirm the correct- 
ness of these observations, and with a sound working theory upon 
which to base his operations man may yet command the air with the 
same facility that birds now do. 





Ai 


L 








ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 


By Ay BLYrT 
Translated by W. 8. Dauuas, F. L. 8S. 


This memoir is an attempt to further develop and establish ideas 
which I put forward five years ago. It contains an attempt to establish 
a chronology in geology. It sets forth what the English call ‘a work- 
ing hypothesis,” without claiming to be anything else. It was the dis- 
tribution of plants which first introduced the author to this great ques- 
tion; but the problem of a chronology in geology can not be solved 
without the co-operation, it may perhaps be said, of all naturalists. It 
certainly can not finally be solved by any one man. In putting forth 
my hypothesis I must in the first place beg for indulgence for the many 
faults and imperfections with which such an attempt must be affected, 
and express a hope that in any case the hypothesis may be found worthy 
of being further tested. 


Having endeavored in several memoirs on the distribution of plants, 
on peat-mosses, shore-lines, terraces, and morainic ridges, to show that 
climates undergo periodical changes, I published in the Transactions 
of the Society of Sciences for 1883 (No. 9) a memoir on alternation of 
strata and its possible significance for the chronology of geology and 
the theory of the modification of species. The essential contents of this 
paper, as regards the present question of geological chronology, were 
as follows: 

Alternations of strata, under which term is understood an alternation 
of geological formations of different constitution, can be produced by 
local conditions of rapidly passing change, without the action of general 
and persistent causes. But there are also causes of the latter kind 
which effect an alternation of the strata. Two such periodically acting 
sauses are traceable in the geological series of deposits—a_ shorter, 


*“On the probable cause of the Displacement of Shore-lines,—an attempt at a 
Geological Chronology.” Read at the General Meetings of the Society of Science of 
Christiania, December 9, 1887, and June 1, 1888. Translated from the Nyt Magazin 
for Naturvidenskaberne, 1889; Bd. xxx1., pp, 240-297. (From the London, Edinburgh, 
and Dublin, Philosophical Magazine, May and June, 1889, vol. Xxvul, pp. 405-429, 
and 487-519. ) 


= 
325 


er 


326 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 


cu 


somewhat regular one, and a longer, more irregular one. The former 
effects a change of climate, the strength of the marine currents alter- 
nately diminishing and increasing during thousands of years; the latter 
longer period effects a rise or fall of the sea in relation to the land, and 
an alternation of deep-sea formations with shore-formations or fresh- 
water deposits. The opinion has been expressed that these periods, 
which are traced in the series of deposits, might possibly stand in con- 
nection with the two cosmical periods revealed by astronomy—the pre- 
cession of the equinoctial points, and variations in the eccentricity of 
the earth’s orbit; although in the memoir referred to it is not attempted 
to show in what manner such a connection could be established. But 
if, with the aid of these two hypotheses, we construct an “artificial” 
series of strata, we find that one with no less than forty-six changes of 
deposit may be recognized, bed by bed, in the Tertiary formations of 
the Paris basin. 

The result may encourage us to test still further the correctness of 
the two suppositions. As regards the precession this has been at- 
tempted in my paper “On the probable cause of the periodical change 
in the strength of the marine currents.”* 

The contents of this memoir are essentially as follows: The preces- 
sion of the equinoctial lines causes the summers in about 10,500 years 
to be longer, and in the following 10,500 years shorter, than the win- 
ters. The conditions are opposite in the northern and southern hemis- 
pheres. The difference between the number of winter and summer 
days increases with the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. 

The cooling of continents under high latitudes, in the winter, produces 
a diminished pressure of air over the sea. This low pressure draws air 
from lower latitudes. For this reason, in the Atlantic, southwest winds 
prevail. Thus, in the winter, the southwest winds of the North At- 
lantic are on an average three times as strong as in the summer, in con- 
sequence of the great refrigeration of the mainland. In the semi-period 
when the winter falls in aphelion the average annual wind-force is con- 
sequently greater. Now itis the prevalent wind that produces the 
powerful marine currents, such as the warm current in the Atlantic 
Ucean. The strength of the marine currents is dependent upon the 
average wind-force for the last great time period. Now as this aver- 
age wind-force is periodically variable in consequence of the precessions, 
the strength of marine currents and the temperature of the sea must 
also be subject to a periodical variability. For about 10,500 years the 
warm sea-current will increase, to diminish in the next similar period, 
and so on constantly through all time. When the winter falls in 
aphelion, the difference between the littoral and inland climates will 
increase. The propelling force of currents in the sea will increase and 
diminish by 1 to 5 per cent. upon their total annual value according as 








* Vid. Selsk. Forh. Christiania, December 14, 1883; Archiv f. Math. og Naturv., IX. 
Christiania, 1884. 


. 


UN THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. Sat 


the winter falls in aphelion or perihelion, and according as the ececen- 
tricity of the carth’s orbit is small or great. 

Such an alteration in the strength of the marine currents will pro- 
duce an alteration of the climate, which however wil! not be very im- 
portant, but which will nevertheless be great enough to leave its traces 
in the deposits. During colder and drier seasons the streams are fed in 
great part by spring water. This water has drained slowly through 
the beds and is charged with dissolved materials; but the small quan- 
tity of water and the feebler streams carry less clay, sand, and gravel. 
During rainy seasons, the rain carries down quantities of such materi- 
als, but it flows off rapidly, and as it for the most part runs only over 
the surface it has not time to dissolve somuch. Although the springs 
flow more abundantly during rainy seasons, their-water only mingles 
with the rain-water. The streams are therefore poorer in dissolved 
material, but they contain more water, and their more powerful current 
carries more clay, sand, and gravel into the basin. Hence the drier 
seasons will be richer in purely chemical deposits, which will be trans- 
ported in the clearer water; the wet seasons in mechanical deposits. 
Strata of both kinds are formed, of course, at all times, but they are 
deposited at different places in accordance with the variation in the 
quantity of rain. Thus, Lassume that when thick deposits of river- 
sand and clay alternate with each other, when soft clay and marl alter- 
nate with hard marl or liinestone, when thick strata of loose sand alter- 
nate with sandstone, which is bound together by chemically produced 
cement (iron, silica, lime), when clay alternates with Septaria-beds, ete., 
then, in each case, the first-named deposit shows itself to belong to 
seasons with a warmer sea and a greater quantity of rain, which, as 
regards western Europe, will mean seasons with the winter in aphelion. 

That this alternation of deposits implies a period of several thousand 
years’ duration is shown by the fact that the fossils change rapidly 
through the strata. In the Tertiary formations there are only a few, 
often only four to five, such changes of deposits in each stage. The 
whole Oligocene period has only about thirty, the Miocene still fewer, 
and the Pliocene barely twenty such changes. 

In this way, in my opinion, the precessions stamp themselves upon 
the strata, and this should therefore furnish a means of measuring 
tine. The greater the eccentricity of the orbit, the more strongly 
marked will the periods be; when the orbit approaches the circular 
form, they are less recognizable.* 


* But the perihelion also shifts to and fro. The time between two aphelia in the 
winter solstice varied thus in post-glacial times by fully 4600 years. This must have 
some influence. The longer a period with winters in aphelion lasts the longer will 
the warm currents in the Atlantic increase in strength, and the greater will be the 
changes of climate. The mild period during which Bergenian sea-animals lived in 
the Christiania Fjord, and which has left its traces elsewhere in our hemisphere, was 
in my opinion, a consequence of such an unusually long period with the winter in 


328 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 


teferring for other things to the two memoirs cited and to my paper 
‘¢‘On Variations of the Weather in the course of time” (Letterstedtske 
Nordisk Tidskrift, 1885, in English, in Fork. Vid. Selsk. i Christiania, 
1886, No. 8) I will pass on to examine whether there is any probable 
ground for supposing that the other proposition is also correct, whether 
it is conceivable that under high latitudes the sea-level rises and sinks 
with the eecentricity of the earth’s orbit. 


Great part of the earth’s surface consists of strata which still lie un- 
disturbed in their original horizontal position. These parts are called 
‘‘tables” by Suess. But in many places the crust of the earth is so 
traversed by clefts and fissures that it may be compared to a breccia. 
Fragments are often displaced relatively by thousands of feet. Strata 
which originally lay horizontally are folded, thicknesses of 7,000 to 8,000 
feet are bent asif they were straws (Kjerulf, Udsigt over Norges Geologi, 
1879, p. 76). Moreover, the folded strata are upheaved far above their 
original level. Even marine formations so recent as the Kocene are up- 
lifted to heights of 21,000 feet above the sea (Suess, Antlitz der Erde, I, 
p. 564). Sometimes they stand vertically, or are inverted, so that oMer 
strata cover the younger ones. Through fissures eruptive masses are 
brought forth, and have covered thousands upon thousands of square 
kilometers. The distribution of land and sea also varies. It is indeed 
supposed that the great depths of the ocean and the great continents 
have essentially retained their original distribution from the most an- 
cient times, but the shore-lines wander periodically to and fro; and these 
changes of the earth’s surface have taken place from earliest times, and 
are still in action at the present day. 

Geologists in general seek the explanation of these phenomena in the 
cooling and contraction of the body of the earth. The earth’s crust 
folds, just as the skin of an apple wrinkles as the apple dries. The lead- 
ing geologists of the present day adopt this theory, and A. Geikie in his 
“Text-book of Geology” (London, 1882, p. 287) says truly: ‘ With 
modifications, the main cause of terrestrial movements is still sought in 
secular contraction.” 

According to this doctrine changes in the crust of the earth are due 
to the interior contracting more strongly than “ the crust,” so that the 
latter is too large for it. Its weight drags it down. By this means 
great horizontally acting pressure is produced in the crust, which must 
then become folded and cracked in places. The fragments sink down. 

3y this means are formed what Suess has called “ Hinbriiche.” When 
a part of the crust remains in position while all around it sinks, there 
is produced what Suess has called a “ Horst.” The old theory of forces 





aphelion. The winter solstice fell in aphelion (according to Croll) 61,300, 33,300, and 
11,700 years ago. The middle of the Atlantic period with Bergenian sea-animals in 
the Christiania Fjord fell, from the testimony of the peat-mosses 33,000 to 34,000 years 
ago, therefore in accordance with the period of 28,000 years. 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. oo 


acting vertically from below is most decidedly rejected by Suess. He 
and Heim have shown, by their investigations of the Alps, that the 
foldings of the Alps are caused by lateral pressure, and that such Jat- 
eral pressure is sufficient to lift great chains of mountains into the air. 
But Suess goes still further, for ina memoir, * Ueber die vermeintlichen 
sicularen Schwankungen einzelner Theile der Erdoberfliiche” (in Verh. 
K. K. Geol. Reichs., 1880, pp. 171 et seq.), he even denies any elevation by 
forces acting vertically from below ;—neither mountain nor continent is 
elevated in this manner. He says (I. ¢. p. 180): “There are no vertical 
movements of the solid ground, with the exception of those which pro- 
ceed directly from the formation of folds. We shall have to resolve to 
abandon the doctrine of secular oscillations of continents.” 

A. de Lapparent, who sharply criticises Suess’s, theory of ‘* Horste” 
(Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 3, tome XV, pp. 215 et seq.), nevertheless 
agrees with him that the cooling of the earth has formed great folds in 
the crust, and denies that any elevations are not caused by foldings. 
Thus he says (l. ¢. p. 217): “It is no longer necessary to oppose to the 
doctrine of absolute elevations produced by forces acting directly from 
below upwards, a protestation which has lost its object. For the par- 
tisans of vertical impulsions are nowadays more than scattered, and with 
the exception of a very few belated persons no one would now venture 
to ascribe to such an action an important part in the formation of 
mountains.” As he makes no limitations, if must be assumed that he 
will not recognize any forces acting from below to elevate whole land- 
masses. . . 

According to a statement of Suess’s, in his Antlite der Hrde (1885, Bd. 
I, p. 741), he seems to find an essential reason for denying elevation by 
forces acting perpendicularly from below, in that we are quite ignorant 
of any force which could be capable of causing such an elevation. 

The theories of Hutton and von Buch as to the action of sueh forces 
seem therefore to be rejected by geologists of the present day. Nev- 
ertheless there are still a few who hold similar opinions. Thus J. 
C. Russel (U.S. Geological Survey, Fourth Annual Report, Washing- 
ton, 1884, pp. 452, 453,) says that the fractures in “ the Great Basin” 
are not in consequence of any lateral pressure, but are caused by an 
extension in a horizontal direction: ‘“ The fractures are closely related 
to an extension of the strata by upheaval.” It seems to me improba- 
ble that such a relation should be explicable by a folding. C.E. Dutton 
also (U.S. Geological Survey, Sixth Annual Report, 1885, p. 198,) at the 
same time that he recognizes that many chains are folded by lateral 
pressure, says, with regard to the mountain-masses in Western North 
America: “The mountains of the West have not been produced by 
horizontal compression, but by some unknown forces beneath which 
have pushed them up.”* 





*The current doctrines with regard to refrigeration and compression are discussed 
by Pierce in a discourse before the American Academy on the 11th»May, 1869 (see 


330 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


It is not my intention to maintain that refrigeration has not at all 
contributed to give the surface of the earth the form which it now pos- 
sesses. But I think that an auxiliary theory is required, which, while 
it will not entirely supersede the old theory, may yet serve to explain 
things which the old theory can not render comprehensible. 

Henry H. Howorth has written two memoirs, namely, ‘ Recent Ele- 
vations of the Earth’s Surface in the Northern Circumpolar Regions” 
(Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., 1873, vol. XLIM, p. 240) and “ Recent Changes 
in the Southern Circumpolar Regions” (op. cit., 1874, vol. XLIV, p. 252), 
in which he has brought together what was at that time known as to the 
displacement of shore-lines in the last section of geological time, and the 
principal result of his investigations is summed up in the following 
words: ‘* The South Pole, as well as the North, is a focus of protrusion, 
the land around it is being gradually elevated.” In the last section of 
geological time, ¢. e., in the Post-glacial period, the land has in general 
sunk under lower and risen under higher latitudes. 

Suess arrived at a similar result in his above-cited memoir (Verh. K. 
K. Geol. Reichs. 1880, pp. 174-175). He has likewise studied the dis- 
placement of coast-lines over the whole earth during the period nearest 
to the present time, and sums up the result as follows: ‘ Terraced land 
i.e. land whieh has recently risen in relation to the sea] appears every- 
where in the high northern latitudes, so far as man has hitherto penetrated 
into these solitudes. It also extends far, although not everywhere 
equally far, down into the temperate latitudes, but generally decreasing 
in height. In other words, around the North Pole, and far down, the 
sum of the negative [7. e., descending] movements of the coast-lines is 
greater than the positive; towards the south, however, these two sums 
approximate more and more. In tropical seas, in the regions of the coral 
formations, the opposite condition occurs, the sum of the positive move- 
ments preponderates. Further towards the south, beyond 25° to 35° 
south latitude, the terraced land of the north begins againin South America, 
South Africa, South Australia, and New Zealand, i. e., the same prepon- 
derance of the negative movements, with the same oscillating * charac- 
ter as in the north.” The exceptions (according to Suess) are few and 
of little importance. 





Proc. Amer. Acad, Arts and Sci., 1873, vol. viul, p. 106), as also by O. Fisher (‘‘ Physics 
of the Karth’s Crust,” 1881) and Dutton (‘‘A Criticism upon the Contractional Hypoth- 
esis,” in Amer. Journ. Sci., 1874, ser. 3, vol. vitt, pp. 113 et. seq.). They all consider 
that contraction is not sufficient to explain the known phenomena; nay, the last- 
named even thinks that the phenomena are opposed to this. A. de Lapparent, on the 
other hand, in his memoir ‘‘ Contraction et refroidissement du globe ” (Bull. Soc. Géol. 
l'rance, 1887, sér. 3, vol. XV, pp. 333 et seq.) seeks to prove that they are quite suffi- 
cient. 

* With this word Suess alludes to the circumstances that the coast-lines and terraces 
occur at various levels one above the other. He thinks that each of these levels in- 
dlicates an oscillation of the sea. I believe that the greater part of these levels are 


merely a consequence of climatic changes due to the precessions. (See Forh. Vid. 
Selsk. Christ, 1881, No. 4.) 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 331 


Howorth and Suess have therefore both come to the same result. But 
their explanations are directly opposite. Howorth thinks that it is the 
land which has arisen under higher latitudes ; that the earth, as it were, 
swells up towards the poles and contracts under the tropics. Suess, 
who will not admit any other elevations than those which are the con- 
sequences of foldings, is of the opinion that it is the sea which has flowed 
towards the lower latitudes. He indicates as a possible explanation 
changes in the length of the day and the centrifugal force. But this 
change should then only have acted upon the sea, and therefore, since 
the sea has flowed towards the equator, the day should have been con- 
siderably shorter in the last geological period. We shall see hereafter 
that there is no known cause which could have produced such a short- 
ening of the sidereal day as would serve to explain what Suess wants 
to explain. The old theory of refrigeration is scarcely fitted to explain 
these conditions indicated by Howorth and Suess. Even Suess, who is 
a zealous adherent of the theory of contraction, is obliged here to seek 
for another explanation. 

Another theory however has come forth in our day, a theory which, 
no doubt, is destined to play a great part in geology. It is derived 
originally from the celebrated philosopher J. Kant. In 1754 he wrote 
a memoir entitled *‘ Untersuchung der Frage: ob die Erde eine Verin- 
derung ihrer Achsendrehung erlitten habe?” In this it is shown that, 
by reason of the attraction of the moon and sun, the sea is constantly 
in a2 movement opposite to the daily revolution of the earth. The fric- 
tion of the tidal waves against the bottom and coasts of the sea dimin- 
ishes the force of the axial revolution and works constantly in the same 
direction, so that the sidereal days must for this reason always become 
longer and longer. The moon always turns the same side towards the 
earth because the earth’s tidal action on the mass of the moon while still 
fluid, constantly rendered the axial revolution of the moon slower, until 
at last the moon was compelled to turn always the same side toward the 
earth.* In this way also, at some far distant period the earth will come 
to turn the same side always to the moon. This opinion of Kant’s has 
been recognized as correct by the first physicists of the present day, by 
men such as Robert Mayer, Helmholtz, and W. Thomson. 

There are certain peculiarities in the moon’s movements which astron- 
omers are inclined to explain by the assumption that the sidereal day 
gradually increases by reason of the friction of the tidal wave. But 
with regard to this we will merely refer the reader to Thomson and 
Tait’s “ Treatise on Natural Philosophy,” and to a memoir by the first- 
named author, ‘“ On Geological Time” ( Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1868, 
vol. {11. pp. 1 et seq.) 

In their “ Natural Philosophy,” Thomson and Tait treat the problem 


“Is it possible that the great abundance of old voleanoes in the moon may be ex- 
plained by the great change which its axial rotation, and therefore probably also its 
compression, has undergone ? 


Doz ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


of the earth’s axial rotation. They state that there are various forces 
which may be efficient in altering it,—some make the sidereal day 
shorter, others make it longer. The latter are preponderant, and among 
them the tidal wave plays the greatest part, so that for this reason in 
the course of time the sidereal day becomes always longer and longer. 
Refrigeration is the most powerful force which contributes towards the 
shortening of the sidereal day, but its action is caleclated by Thomson 
(Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, l. e. p. 28) at only one six-thousandths of the 
tidal wave; and this last action cannot be annulled by any of the other 
forces, which act sometimes in one, sometimes in another, direction 
(transport of material from higher to lower latitudes, or vice versa, ac- 
cumulation of ice at the poles, ete.), and which in course of time cease 
to act, the tidal wave acting always for millions of years in the same 
direction (Thomson, “‘Geological Dynamics,” Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 
1869, vol. III, part 2, p. 223). 

In this way, therefore, the sidereal day must in course of time always 
become longer and longer. Now what influence has this upon tie 
earth? If this were fluid throughout, it is clear that it must at once 
change its form. According as the sidereal day became longer and the 
centrifugal force diminished, its compression must have decreased. 
But the old theory of a fiery fiuid interior is now rejected by physicists, 
and Thomson assumes that the earth is on the whole a solid body. 
Now, will this solid body. retain its form without reference to the length 
of the sidereal day, or will it yield and accommodate itself? The sea, 
as a matter of course, will at once yield, and, as the centrifugal force 
decreases, it will sink under lower, and rise under higher latitudes. 
We know that the earth’s present form agrees, at all events in some de- 
gree, with the length of the sidereal day. It has at present a com- 
pression which about agrees with that which it should have from cal- 
culation with its present axial rotation. As it may now be rendered 
probable that the earth, since it acquired a solid surface, has lost so 
much of its axial rotation that the sidereal day has become several 
times longer, the circumstance that the compression suits that agreeing 
with the axial rotation seems to show that the solid earth has really 
changed its form. Jupiter and Saturn have a sidereal day respectively 
of 9° 55™ and 10" 15", and a compression of one-seventeenth and 
one-tenth. In Mars, the sidereal day of which is about 24° 37”, ob- 
servations have not been able to prove definitely any compression. 
There would seem, therefore, to be a connection between compression 
and axial rotation. But it may indeed be objected that Jupiter and 
Saturn are still possibly melted masses. 

W. Thomson and Tait seem to be of opinion that the earth will not 
change its form. They assume that it must have become solid not so 
many millions of years since, seeing that the compression nearly coin- 
cides with the axial rotation. 

J. Croll (‘Climate and Time,” 1875, p. 335; see also Amer. Jour. Sci., 





ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTIUS CRUST, 330 


1876, ser. 3, vol. x11, p. 457) thinks that the sidereal day lengthens so 
slowly that denudation will have time to adjust the form of the earth 
so as to coincide with the length of the sidereal day. Just as the sea 
sinks under low latitudes, the continents in the same latitudes will also 
become lower by denudation, but under higher latitudes the rising sea 
will protect the land instead of denuding it; and in this way the earth 
must then, by denudation alone, acquire a form always suitable to its 
axial rotation. But this is evidently erroneous. Imagine the earth 
formed of ellipsoidal layers with increasing solidity inwards. When the 
centrifugal force diminished, equilibrium would be disturbed throughout 
the whole mass, and in the interior tension would constantly increase. 
Nay, not even at the surface can denudation alter the compression. 
For we know from the recent investigations of the deep sea that in 
this deep sea, far from the continents, no products of weathering are 
present; only volcanic ashes and cosmical dust are deposited. Thus 
denudation is not even capable of obliterating the inequalities of the 
surface, still less the internal tension produced by the lengthening of 
the sidereal day. And as the day has become considerably longer, the 
sea ought to be collected towards the poles and the land under the 
equator, in case the solid earth had not changed its form. 

Others think that the earth may actually change its form. ‘The first 
who expressed this opinion, so far as 1 ean find, is Herbert Spencer. In 
the Philosophical Magazine (1847, vol. xxx, p. 194) he published a 
small memoir, entitled “The Form of the Earth no proof of original 
Fluidity,” in which he maintains that even the solid earth may change 
its form, according as the centrifugal force changes. When a body in- 
creases in size, the power of resistance to external forces increases only 
as the square of the dimensions, while the wasting and destructive 
forces (weight, centrifugal force) increase in the same proportion as the 
mass of the body, and therefore as the cube of the dimensions. As the 
size increases we therefore come to a point at which even the most solid 
body must yield to the forces. We must therefore assume, says Spencer, 
that the earth, by reason of its size, must yield and change its form, in 
case the centrifugal force, for example, changes; for the most solid 
matter known to us, exposed to the same forces which act upon the 
earth, would overstep the bounds of solidity before attaining a thousand- 
inillionth part of the earth’s size. This argument, in Professor Schid¢tz’s 
opinion, is not tenable. At any rate, I believe that Spencer is the first 
who expressed the opinion that even a solid earth can change its form. 
In the above-cited discourse of 1869,* Peirce says that the lengthening 
of the sidereal day may be supposed to have altered the form of the 
solid earth. And Principal Dawson, in his “Story of the Barth and 
Man” (ed. 9, 1887, p. 291), says that this alteration of form by reason 
of the lengthening of the sidereal day must have taken place at longer 
or shorter intervals. So long as the crust of the earth did not yield, 


* See ante, p. 329, foot-note, 


334 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


the sea will have flowed towards the poles; but when the tension be- 
comes so great that the solid crust bursts, the equatorial regions will 
sink in and the sea will flow again towards the equator. * 

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1879, parts I and It, Prof. G. 
Darwin has published a memoir the results of which are briefly as fol- 
lows. He assumes that the earth possesses a small degree of plasticity, 
and calculates the internal friction which the tidal action of the moon 
and sun produce in such a body. He finds that both the sidereal day 
and the month have become much longer, that the distance of the moon 
has increased, that the obliquity of the ecliptic has diminished, and that 
a great part of the internal heat is developed by the internal friction. 
Forty-six million three hundred thousand years ago, according to his 
calculation, the sidereal day was 15" 30™, and the moon’s distance 46.8 
terrestrial radii (against 60.4 at present). But 56,180,000 years ago the 
sidereal day was only 6" 45™ long, the moon’s distance only 9 terrestrial 
radii, and the month only 1.58 day (one-seventeenth of its present 
amount). The interior heat produced by friction in 57,000,000 years, 
if applied at once, would suffice to heat the whole earth 17009 Fahr.t 
He concludes that the compression has constantly diminished: ‘ the 
polar regions must have been ever rising, and the equatorial ones falling 
though as the ocean followed these changes they might quite well have 
left no geological traces.t The tides must have been very much more 
frequentand larger, and accordingly the rate of oceanic denudation much 
accelerated. The more rapid alternation of day and night [57,000,000 
years ago, according to Darwin, the year had 1,300 days] would proba- 
bly lead to more sudden and violent storms; and the increased rota- 
tion of the earth would augment the violence of the trade-winds, which, 
in their turn, would affect oceanic currents. § 

Tresca (Comptes Rendus, 1864, p. 754; 1867, p. 802, ete.) has shown 








* Similar opinions are expressed by Dr. E. Reyer (‘‘ Die Bewegung im Festen,” in 
Jahrb. K. K. Geol. Reichs. Wien, 1880, vol. Xxx, pp. 543 et seq.). W. B. Taylor, in a 
memoir On the Crumpling of the Earth’s Crust ” (Amer. Journ. Sci., 1885, ser 3, vol. 
XXX, pp. 249 et seq.), expresses himself against the theory of the earth’s contraction, 
and thinks that the lengthening of the sidereal day is the cause of the changes in the 
crust. A. Winchell, in a memoir on the ‘ Sources of Trend and Crustal Surplusage ” 
(Amer. Journ, Sci. l. c. p. 417), endeavors to show that the diminishing centrifugal force 
has produced foldings in a north and south direction. J. E. Todd, in a paper entitled 
“Geological Effects of a Varying Rotation of the Earth” (Amer. Naturalist, 1883, 
vol, XVII, pp. 15 e¢ seq.), first enumerates the various forces which may actin acceler- 
ating and retarding the axial rotation. He assumes that the axial rotation decreases 
and increases abruptly, that it acts first upon the sea and afterwards upon the solid 
crust, and that for this reason the sea rises and sinks abruptly in relation to the land. 

tThis heat, produced by the internal friction, must contribute considerably to 
diminish the secular refrigeration. Lapparent has not taken account of this in the 
above-cited memoir on the contraction and cooling of the earth. 

{In a subsequent article, however, Darwin supposes that the coast-lines will shift 
in consequence of the lengthening of the sidereal day (Nature, Sept. 2, 1886, p. 422). 

§ These numerical values make no claim to represent the actual values; they are 
merely the maximum yalues, which according to Darwin are generally possible. 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 33D 


that ice, lead, and also cast-iron, even at ordinary temperatures, may 
be squeezed so strongly that their interior parts change their relative 
positions like particles in a fluid. Iron, in the solid state, by strong 
pressure, is squeezed into cavities and adapts its form to the surround- 
ings. On cutting through such pressed pieces it has been found that 
the particles or crystals have arranged themselves by a flow-like move- 
ment suited to the form of the cavity into which the piece has been 
pressed. 

We must here also refer to the interesting investigations of Reusch 
upon pressed conglomerates. Under the strong pressure which has 
acted in the earth’s crust, the pebbles in conglomerates are squeezed 
out into lance-shaped bodies, and these bodies have even become folded. 
(See Reusch, Stlurfossiler og pressede Konglomerater i Bergensskiferne, 
Univ. Progr. Christiania, 1882, pp. 15, 117.) 

By reason of the enormous pressure which prevails in the interior of 
the earth, it must be supposed that masses from a certain depth are 
more or less in a plastic state. A constant lengthening of the sidereal 
day will cause the equatorial parts to increase in weight. So long as 
the earth does not change its form, aconstantly increasing weight will 
act upon the internal mass from lower towards higher latitudes. There 
is, aS Darwin indicates (Nature, September 2, 1886, p. 422), reason to 
believe, that finally, when the tension has reached a certain amount, 
the earth will yield. <A flow of plastic mass will be directed towards 
higher latitudes, and persist until the earth has approximated to the 
form suitable to the length of the sidereal day. When we consider the 
numerous testimonies as to changes in the solid crust of the earth, and 
the frequent elevations and depressions of the solid land relatively to 
the sea, we may well agree with Darwin, that this view may claim more 
probability than that of Thomson and Tait. 

Wertheim has proved by experiment (according to Fock, Ldrobok i Fysi 
ken, Stockholm, 1861, pp. 202, 219) that there is really no definite limit 
of elasticity for any matter, but that they all, by the action even of 
quite feeble forces, undergo small persistent changes, especially if these 
forces have acted for a somewhat long time. When with feeble press- 
ures we find no permanent change of form, this is because the force 
has not acted long enough. The action of the force, therefore, when it 
has a greater resistance to overcome, depends upon time. By “tension,” 
says Schigtz (Larebog i Fysik, Christiania, 1881, p. 65), ‘lengthening 
constantly increases, although very slowly, after it first commences ; 
therefore a weight which has acted for a short time will not produce 
persistent elongation such as it would be if it were allowed to act for 
a longer time. This applics not only to tension, but generally ; and 
hence it comes about that wires slacken in course of time, and that 
beams bend little by little. A thread is worn out by less force when 
the pressure is long continued than when it is applied for a shorter time.” 

It seems to me that here we have a force which may be capable of 


336 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


effecting displacements in the solid earth. I believe that this is ‘the 
unknown foree from below” which has elevated the mountains of west- 
ern North America, and to which Dutton appeals. The sidereal day 
increases very slowly. The sea adjusts itself in accordance witb the 
smallest change in the length of the day and rises slowly under high 
latitudes. But the solid earth offers resistance to change of form, and 
begins to give way only when the tension reaches a certain amount. 
When this period has arrived the crust also begins to rise under high 
latitudes. Under lower latitudes the movement takes place in the oppo- 
site direction. The solid earth probabiy is a little behind the sea in its 
movements, and while the sea moves evenly and uninterruptedly, the 
change of form in the solid earth must perhaps take place more spas- 
modically, with intervening periods of rest, during which new tension 
is set up. 

‘The elevation of mountains,” says A. Geikie (‘ Text-book of Geology,’ 
1882, p. 917), is in most cases due to a long succession of such move- 
ments ;” and (J. ¢ p. 919) ** the elevation of mountains, like that of con- 
tinents, has been occasional, and so to speak, paroxysmal.” Upheavals 
of the crust take place repeatedly along the same fissure (see, e. g., 
Brégger, Bildungsgeschichte des Kristianiafjords, 1886, p. 78). Some- 
thing of the same kind occurs in volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes rest 
for a shorter or longer time between the different eruptions. Basaltic 
jayers alternate with sedimentary deposits. Harthquakes are a couse- 
quence of a tension set up, to which the crust suddenly yields. All 
this indicates that the crust of the earth does not immediately accom- 
modate itself to the forces, but that it yields only when the constantly 
increasing pressure has approximated to a certain amount. If seems 
moreover to follow from geological investigations that there are periods 
in the earth’s history when changes have taken place on a larger scale 
than usual. In his “ Text-book” above cited (pp. 197, 198) A. Geikie 
refers to the great eruptions (‘ fissure-eruptions ”) which have taken 
place in both the Old and the New World, in which melted masses 
burst forth from numerous fissures and overflowed thousands of square 
miles. The Vulecanism of the present day seems feeble in comparison 
with these gigantic eruptions. 


We will now pass to the inquiry whether these changes in the form 
of the earth may stand in any relation of dependency to the periodical 
variations of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. We start from 
the fact that Thomson and Tait are right when they say that the tidal 
wave is the most powerful of the forces which contribute to change the 
length of the day. But besides the tidal wave of the sea, the interior 
friction accepted by Darwin, (‘ the bodily tides ”) is also effective. Both, 
of course, are dependent upon the distance of the sun and moon; and 
we therefore examine whether the tidal action of these bodies upon the 
earth varies with the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. It appears from 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF’ THE EARTH’S CRUST. Bat 


Darwin’s investigations that the lunar tides in very distant periods 
must have been much greater than now. I disregard this, as the time 
in question is so long ago, and because the profiles, which later on will 
combine in curves for the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, come down 
from a past geologically so near. When I perceived that the depend- 
ence of the tidal wave upon the eccentricity might be of geological im- 
portance, I applied to the observer, H. Geelmuyden, who with his usual 
kindness has given me the following answer: 

‘The action of the eccentrictity of the earth’s orbit, e, upon the force 
which produces tide and ebb, and which, for the sake of brevity, I will 
call the tidal force, is as follows:—Let r be the sun’s distance, then 
the sun’s tidal force is 
C 
a 


P= 


where C represents the sun’s mass and ¢ the earth’s orbital radius. 
; = ee 
In the course of the vear r varies; but the mean value of ~ is found by 
a 


a simple integration to be >: Where ais the unchangeable mean 
a 


1 
a@(1—e)3/ 
distance. Consequently, the annual mean value of the sun’s tidal force 
becomes 


C C 
aie cao eh 


“From this it follows that, when the eccentricity increases, the tidal 
force also increases; if the former increases Je and the latter JP, then 
a ee a, re 
a ie , 
as 1—e*in the denominator is of no significance, If past times be 8e=.5,, 
and Je=—0,00043 per thousand years, then 3e. 4 e=—0.00002, or the sun’s 
tidal force decreases every for thousand years by =,} 99 of its value. 
When theeccentricity has its greatest possible value, 0.0667 according to 
Leverrier, ¢ =0.00415, 3/2 e?=0.00667, then P=1.00667 a or the differ- 

ence between maximum and minimum is ;1, of the value. 

“The monthly mean value of the moon’s tidal force will of course, in 
the same way, be dependent upon the eccentricity of the moon’s orbit; 
but as this is not subject to any noticeable secular variation, it does not 
come under consideration. On the other hand, the moon’s mean dis- 
tance is dependent, although only to an extremely small extent, upon 
the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, namely so that the moon’s tidal 
force becomes 

CG! 


a! 


p/ 


(1—q.3/2¢}. 


H. Mis, 224——22 


338 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


‘‘Here therefore the eccentricity acts in the opposite direction, namely, 
so that the foree diminishes as the ecceutricity increases; but as the 
factor gq, by which 3/2’? is multiplied, is only about 3/400, while the 
Coste C 
=== Oy oa 
ae Os 
proportion to the solar tides most nearly as 5:2), its action upon the 
whole tidal wave is ;35.3=;'; of the former.” 

Thus we see that the tidal force rises and sinks with the eccentricity 
of the earth’s orbit. It varies by about =4;, of its value from the highest 
to the lowest eccentricity. This force is the most important force for the 
alteration of the day, and it makes itlonger. The most important force 
for shortening the day, according to Thomson, will be the refrigeration 
of the earth, but he has calculated its value at only ,,i;> of the tidal force 
and (he has only taken into account the marine tidal wave). If, therefore, 
the tidal force diminishes and increases by ;3; of its value, this period- 
ical variation can not compete with forces which act in the opposite 
direction; and we may therefore conclude that the sidereal day is con- 
stantly becoming ionger, but that its increase is periodically stronger 
and weaker. It increases in length more and more rapidly so long as 
the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit increases, more and more slowly so 
long as the ecccentricity diminishes. In other words, the centrifugal 
force diminishes and the equatorial regions increase in weight more and 
more rapidly under an increasing, and more and more slowly under a 
diminishing, eccentricity. 

As has been stated, there prevails, even among physicists, a disa- 
greement as to how far the earth will change its form in case the cen- 
trifugal force varies. Thomson is most inclined to believe that it will 
not; Darwin is of opinion that it will. And among other physicists 
whom I have consulted a similar divergence prevails upon this point. 
One thinks that a lengthening of the day even by several hours will be 
incapable of altering the form of the solid earth; another believes that 
the solid earth will probably change its form just as easily as the sea. 
And with regard to the rapidity with which the sidereal day lengthens, 
opinions are just as much divided. Darwin regards as possible, varia- 
tions much greater than those which agree with the action of the tidal 
waves calculated by Thomson for recent times. It is therefore clear 
that this problem can hardly yet be finally soived, and that different 
hypotheses will be for the present admissible. We will therefore select 
that which is best fitted to explain the facts, assuming that the varia- 
tion of the tidal wave with the eccentricity of the orbit may possibly 
be the canse of the periodical displacement of coast-lines. But we put 
forth this hypothesis with all possible reserve. Divergencies of opin- 
ion between the most esteemed physicists upon this matter, and the 
neat manner in which the hypothesis is supported by many facts, alone 
give us the courage to put forward conjectures which many will proba- 
bly regard as not only bold, but even improbable. 


magnitude outside the brackets . (the lunar tides being in 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 339 


The motive force of alterations in the form of the earth should there- 
fore be periodically variable with the eccentricity of the orbit. The sea, 
which is fluid, adjusts itself at once in accordance with the smallest 
change in the length of the day. But the solid earth offers resistance ; 
and the day lengthens slowly and imperceptibly. With such small 
forces, as we have already seen, it becomes a matter of time. Even 
small forces can produce an effect, if they only have time to workin. It 
is therefore probable that the solid earth will be behind the sea in its 
movements. Some time will elapse before the “crust” and the inner 
plastic mass begin to yield. The ground under a building often begins 
to give way only when the building has stood for some time. If then 
the solid body of the earth lags behind the sea in its movements, and 
the movements both of the sea and ofthe solid earth occur periodically 
more strongly and more feebly, because the motive force is stronger and 
weaker according as the eccentrivity of the orbit increases or diminishes, 
it was conceivable that the coast-lines would come to be displaced up 
and down once for every time that eccentricity increases and dimin- 
ishes. For there must be the greatest probability that the solid earth 
may yield at one place or another when the tension in the interior be- 
comes strongest. 

It is important now to examine whether the action of the tidal wave 
and variations in its strength are great enough to explain the displace- 
ment of the coast-lines. This is a mathematico-physical problem, and 
it is not for me to solve it. I put it asa question for the decision of 
competent men, and shall confine myself to the following remarks: 

If the sidereal day has once been several times shorter, and the earth 
at the time was a solid body, the tension and pressure in its interior 
will increase with the length of the sidereal day, until finally the tension 
becomes so great that the earth begins to yield. It will then accommo- 
date itself, if not in its entirety, at least partialiy, until the tension is 
equalized, at any rate in part. Perhaps then a state of repose will 
occur, during which a new tension will accumulate, which may introduce 
a new change of form. And these spasmodic changes of form in the 
body of the earth when strained to the limit of its power of resistance 
would occur precisely when the eccentricity had approached its highest 
value, and the tension increased most rapidly, or some time afterwards. 
Under such circumstances, possibly, the small variation which the tidal 
force undergoes with the eccentricity would turn the scale, and deter- 
mine the time for the changes of the solid earth. 

Thomson says ( Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1868) that it is still hope- 
less to attempt to solve the question of how rapidly the sidereal day 
lengthens, by means of tidal action. By way of trial he calculates (J. ¢. 
p. 26) the action of the existing tidai wave to be so great that the earth 
in one hundred years should be retarded one hundred and eighty sec- 
onds, with which corresponds a lengthening of the day of 0.01 second ; 
and if we take this retarding power, for the sake of simplicity, as con- 


340 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


stant, the day, in one hundred thousand years (the time which is on the 
average occupied by an oscillation of the eccentricity) should become 
ten seconds longer. Moreover, Thomson reckons only the marine tidal 
wave. To this should now be added Darwin’s ‘interior tide,” his 
‘bodily tides,” which I know no means of calculating. For many mill- 
ions of years, when the moon was nearer and the tidal action consid- 
erably stronger, the day also increased more rapidly. But nowadays 
its increase is undoubtedly much slower, and we can not expect great 
general changes of level in a short time from this cause. 

To a lengthening of the day by ten seconds (according to Todd,*) 
corresponds a shortening of the equatorial radius by 5.6 meters and a 
double lengthening of the polar radius, therefore, by 11.2 meters. 
What value the lengthening of the day had in Tertiary times we do not 
know. It can not well have been remarkably greater than in recent 
times. And it seems, therefore, in any case to follow, as stated above, 
that the vertical displacement of coast-lines can scarcely have been in 
genera more than a few meters under any oscillation, in case our at- 
tempted explanation is correct. Therefore we must now see whether 
the displacement of coast-lines was so very considerable. 

We must first examine how much is deposited in each precessional 
period and how great is the thickness of the stages. The thickness of 
the deposit depends, in the first place, upon the situation of the place, 
whether it lies near or far from the Jand or the mouths of rivers, and 
upon the nature of the deposit. Chemical deposits are commonly thin- 
ner than mechanical ones. As a mean number for each precessional 
period (twenty to twenty-one thousand years), I have obtained the fol- 
lowing values for the different kinds of alternating deposits: 

Marl and siliceous limestone, from 0.6 to 2.2 meters. 

Clay and siliceous limestone, 1.5 meters. 

Marl, gypsum, siliceous limestone, (marine,) 1.5 to 1.4 meters. 

Ditto, fresh water, 2.8 to 2.9 meters. 

Limestone and marl, 1.8 to 2.5 meters. 

Marl, argillaceous limestone, (ironstone,) sandy marl, 2 meters. 

Sand, calcareous sandstone, (marine,) 2 to 2.3 meters. 

Ditto, fresh water, 3 meters. 

Sand, clay, ferruginous sandstone, (marine,) 5 to 6 meters. 

Clay, limestone, ironstone, sand, 5 to 7 meters. 

Sand, marly clay, ferruginous sandstone, lignite, up to 30 to 60 
meters. 

In each stage, when there has only been one oscillation of the sea, 
there are usually four or five such alternating deposits, so the thick- 
ness of the stages is generally but small. I may cite the following ex- 
amples. First, from the Paris basin: The Caleaire Grossier, which 

*“dmerican Naturalist, 1883, vol. XVII. p. 18. (Or as stated, 1 minute of daily 
lengthening is equivalent to 110 feet of equatorial depression. ) 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 341 


represents twenty-five deposits and several (five to six) oscillations, is 
only 31.5 meters thick; Sables de Beauchamp, 13 to 14 meters; the 
Caleaire de St. Ouen, with ten alternating deposits, is only 6 to 7 meters ; 
marine gypsum, 16 to 17 meters; palustrine gypsum, 20 meters; Sables 
d’Etampes, 11 to 12 meters. 

In the Isle of Wight the beds are thicker, but also richer in mechani- 
cal deposits: Plastic clay, 26 meters; London clay, 61 meters; Lower 
Bagshot (sand, clay, lignite, and ferruginous sandstone, with seven 
alternating deposits), in all, 200 meters; Bracklesham, of the same kind 
as the preceding and without any alternation, 33.5 meters; Middle 
Bagshot, 91 meters; Upper Bagshot, (sand, without alternations), 37 
meters; Lower Headon, 21 meters; Middle, 7 meters, and Upper 
Headon, 26 meters; Osborne Series, 19 meters; Bembridge limestone, 
7.6 meters; Bembridge marl, 23 meters; and Hempstead Series, 52 
meters. 

From Belgium we have the following thicknesses: Montien (coarse 
limestone with foraminifera), 93 meters; Heersien, 32 meters; Land- 
enien, about 60 meters; Yprésien, 140 meters; Bruxellien, 50 meters; 
Laekenien, 10 meters; Wemmelien, up to 80 meters (only determined 
by boring); Tongrien, 21 meters; Rupelien, 60 meters; Anversien, 3 
to 4 meters (but near Utrecht, in an artesian well, 130 meters). 

The thicknesses in the basin of Mayence are as follows: Alzeyer sand, 
50 meters; Septaria clay, 50 meters; Elsheimer sands, 60 meters; Oy- 
rena marls, 40 meters; Cerithium limestones, 25 meters; Corbicula lime- 
stones, 25 meters; Litorinella clay, 20 meters. In Italy, Seguenza gives 
the following thicknesses: Bartonien (in part conglomerates, and per- 
haps several oscillations), 300 meters; Tongrienu, 50 meters; Langhien, 
Astien, and Saharien, each 200 meters; Zancleen, 300 meters. The 
Swiss Mollasse, which is a shore formation, is so thick that it forms 
whole mountains; but, according to Charles Mayer-Eymar, the Aqui- 
tanian has a much greater and, indeed, quite exceptional thickness 
near Bormida, in Tuscany. Here we find (probably inclined from the 
first) fresh-water and superiorly marine shore formations with manifold 
alternations of sandstone and shales, the thickness of which, although 
it has not been exactly measured, is believed to be 3,000 meters, and 
all supposed to be formed in the Aquitanian period. And the same 
stage, according to Giimbel, has a similar thickness in Bavaria. Etna, 
which is 12,000 feet high, has been built up by voleanic eruptions in 
the most recent geological period, and since the Mediterranean had 
acquired a fauna essentially the same as at the present day. 

The formation of the Mediterranean, with its strong vuleanism, has 
been distinguished, according to Suess and Neumayr, by very consider- 
able displacements of the earth’s body. The Egean Sea and the Adri- 
atic have been formed by depressions in the latest geological period. 
Under such circumstances very thick deposits may be formed near land 
in a short time. Eocene marine deposits are uplifted 21,000 feet above 
the sea in folded ranges (e. g., in Upper Asia). But all these are only 


342 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


local disturbances. If we turn, on the other hand, to localities where 
the conditions have been more quietly developed, we find, as may be 
seen from the preceding statements, that the stages have only a small 
thickness. The deposits which form them are partly fresh-water forma- 
tions, partly formations from shallow seas; there are no well-marked 
deep-sea formations among them. They are to a great extent--perhaps 
for the most part—formed in inland seas and bays, in basins which were 
separated by banks from the open sea. We may arrive at this conclu- 
sion from the circumstance that salt-water and fresh-water formations so 
frequently alternate in the Tertiary deposits; for it is only when strati- 
fied formations take place in basin-shaped depressions that fresh-water 
basins can be formed when the sea retires. 

And if we have deep basins which are separated by banks from the 
open sea, a rising or sinking of the shore-line by some few meters will 
be sufficient to submerge or lay dry the banks. The deep basin will 
then alternately be salt and fresh. And a rising of the sea by a few 
meters will likewise suffice to cause the formation of thick salt-water 
deposits in the basin. If the bank then again rises a few meters, the 
basin will remain fresh, and thick fresh-water beds can be deposited 
above the marine beds. In this way the formation of alternating salt 
and fresh-water beds may continue, under small displacements of the 
coast-line, until the basin is filled up. 

It would seem to be more difficult to reconcile the hypothesis with 
the very considerable elevations which particular countries have un- 
dergone in the period which has elapsed since the Glacial period. Thus 
near Christiania and Trondheim the highest trace of the sea from the 
Post-glacial time is situated 188 meters above the sea. But in other 
parts of our country the highest marine terraces are much lower, so 
that it would seem as if the elevation has not been every where equally 
great. It seems to have been weaker and weaker outwards from the 
center of the country. In southern Sweden and Denmark it has also 
been inconsiderable in the same period. Penck has shown (‘ Schwan- 
kungen des Meeresspiegels,” in Jahrb. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, Bd. Vu.) 
that an inland ice exerts an attraction upon the sea, which, for this 
reason, stands higher on the coast of a country, when the land is cov- 
ered with ice. The melting of the inland ice may therefore have caused 
the sea on our coasts to sink somewhat, but the difference between the 
situations of the highest marine traces in the different parts of Scan- 
dinavia is so great,* even in neighboring localities, that it could not 
be explained in this way; and the most probable explanation would 
be that the land has risen in different degrees at different places.t It 








* See E. von Drygalski, ‘‘ Die Geoiddeformationen der Eiszeit,” in Zeitschr. d. Ges. 
f. Erdkunde in Berlin, 1887, Bd. xxi1, pp. 169 et seq. 

t A similar unequal elevation has probably also taken place during earlier periods of 
elevation. In the Bergen conglomerate, the old shales are situated at a higher level, 
the farther one goes from the shore. (See Kjerulf, Udsigt over det sydl. Norges Ge- 
ologi, Christiania, 1879, pp. 154-156, ete.; and Helland in Arch. f. Math. og Nature, 
Christiania, 1881, Bd. v1. p. 222.) ° 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 343 


is also a probable supposition that the crust has not everywhere the 
same power of resistance to the interior pressure, and especially that 
the plastic mass may press in under the more yielding parts of the sur- 
face. We have a striking example of this in the laccolites noticed in 
North America. Eruptive matter is here pressed up from below, and 
has lifted the bed into dome-shaped vaults, so that the elevations have 
been different in degree in different places, and greatest in the middle 
of the domes. We may imagine that similar forces, but on a much lar- 
ger scale, have contributed to the elevation of Scandinavia ;—that Sean- 
dinavia is, sifvenia verbo, as it were a laccolite on a larger scale. We 
must in the next place remember that the changes of the earth’s surface 
which have taken place in the Tertiary and Quaternary periods, how- 
ever great they seem to be in our eyes, are inconsiderable in relation to 
the whole mass of the earth. Even small forces, where they act upon 
a great mass, may produce very considerable local effects, provided 
that the changes do not everywhere occur upon the same scale. If we 
consider that in this way the elevations are not everywhere equally 
great, then a depression of the equatorial belt of only a couple of meters 
will suffice to cause many such countries as Scandinavia to rise many 
meters, and there will still remain pressure which is not exhausted. 
Of course it is not said that whenever the eccentricity has attained 
a high value, Scandinavia will rise to an equally great amount. If the 
elevation has been great in a given period, it is probable that the next 
period of elevation will have more difficulty in upheaving the previously 
elevated land. The position of the weakest points will vary. The next 
time, perhaps, the elevation will chiefly affect other localities. If we 
consider the Tertiary formations in Europe, we see that the series of 
deposits is nowhere complete. It is only by combining all the deposits 
formed at different places that we can obtain a complete outline. In 
part, this is certainly due to the fact that the changes of form in the solid 
earth have not taken place simultaneously everywhere. The great ec- 
centricities produced upheavals at different times in different places. 
There is lastly a circumstance of great importance which may here 
be indicated, and which shows how quietly oscillations take place under 
normal conditions. Although according to our hypothesis, the radii of 
the higher latitudes constantly lengthen, while those of lower latitudes 
are shortened, yet through long geological periods coast-lines return re- 
peatedly, during their displacements, to their old position. Thus A. de 
Lapparent (Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 3, vol. XV. p. 400) says: “ Ihave 
indicated, in the Cotentin, an agreement between the actual shores and 
those at which the sea stopped at various epochs of geological history. 
I have there shown shore-lines reproduced, almost without variations of 
altitude, in the Hettangian, Sinemurian, Liassian, Cenomanian, Danian, 
Parisian, Tongrian, Pliocene, and present epochs, - - - and that 
eight or nine times at least, since the Primary era, the coincidence of 
the shores has been reproduced at the same point;” and in the same 


344 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


work (p. 277) he says: “ It is only by tens of meters that on the coast 
of the Cotentin we must reckon the differences between the successive 
levels of the seas, from the Trias down to the present day.” Here we 
see that the variations of level have taken place with great regularity. 
The sea has risen, and later on the land has been elevated; and these 
alternate risings and sinkiugs have occurred with such ane that 
the coast-line again and again, at long intervals, has returned about to 
its old place. 

After this there seems really to be a possibility that our hypothesis 
is sufficient to explain the displacements of the shore-lines which have 
taken place. We have hitherto considered the conditions under high 
latitudes. Under lower latitudes all may sink. Here “Horste” may 
be formed such as’ Suess supposes, and as to the occurrence of these 
localities Lapparent’s eriticism is unsatisfactory. He has attacked 
Suess’s theory of “Horste” in its entirety, but he has criticised it spe- 
cially only for such localities (Colorado, Vosges, Black Forrest, and the 
central plateau of France) as lie under high latitudes. The localities 
named have (according to Lapparent) risen more than their environ- 
ment, which also is quite in accordance with the opinion above devel- 
oped. But under lower latitudes, when a general sinking takes place 
in the course of time, resistant parts will form true ‘“Horste” in Suess’s 
sense. And it scarcely goes against our hypothesis to assume, with 
Suess, that the Indian Ocean is formed by depression, and that Africa, 
Madagascar, India, &c., are ““Horste,” parts of the crust which have 
remained in position, or which have sunk less than the neighboring 
regions. In these countries, so far as their geology is known at present, 
there seem to be few marine formations of the Mesozoic and Cainozoic 
epochs. 

I have said above that the different parts of the crust may be assumed 
to have different powers of resistance against the interior pressure. 
This may indeed be coneluded from the fact that the surface is uneven, 
and that old (originally horizontal) formations have been upheaved un- 
equally at different spots. In other words, there is an inequality of the 
surface, which has a deeper cause than the operation of eroding forces, 

Changes of the earth’s crust in reality happen in the most various 
degrees at different times. The greatest convulsions occur in the folded 
mountain-chains, and this has been the case in all geological periods. 
It is worthy of note that places where great foldings took place in an- 
cient times seem to have been subsequently unaffected by processes of 
folding.* For upon the abraded sumuinits of old foids there often lie 
other old formations in an undisturbed horizontal position. The most 
highly folded chains are also those in which phowons have been con- 


* Tf the earth’s axis, as some astronomers @ Os Gy lden) thine may shift its position 
in the course of time, calculations as to the pressure produced by the lengthening of 


the day will also anaeees and the situations of the parts of the crust exposed to the 
greatest pressure will also shift. 





| 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 345 


a~ 


tinued to the latest time. Along both sides of the Pacific Ocean from 
Cape Horn to the Aleutian Islands, and opposite to this along the east 
coast of Asia as far as the Sunda Islands, strike mighty chains asso- 
ciated with series of volcanoes; and from the Himalaya through the 
Caucasus, Balkans, Pyrenees, and Atlas a similar series of vast chains 
stretches through localities which are often voleanic. These highest 
mountains of the earth are also the youngest; they are still the least 
affected by the tooth of time.* 

But these strongly folded localities are of smali extent in comparison 
with the other parts of the earth’s surface. On both sides of these 
folds there are great plateaux and plains, quite or nearly without any 
plications, and on the whole with undisturbed horizontal beds. These 
are Suéss’s “tables” (Tafeln). Africa, Western North America, (in the 
Kastern there are no younger plications than from Carboniferous times, ) 
Brazil, Australia, Arabia, Persia, India, Siberia, and Russia, are such 
“ tables,” in which the crust is much Jess disturbed. And no doubt the 
same thing applies to the sea-basins, or at any rate to the greater part 
of them. 

When the sidereal day lengthens, the sea at once adjusts itself to the 
new conditions. It sinks under the lower, and rises under the higher 
latitudes. According as the interior pressure upon the crust increases 
towards the poles, the opposite pressure upon the sea-bottom also in- 
creases in the same regions, because the sea rises. But the parts not 
covered by the sea are exposed alone to the increasing pressure from 
the interior without any exterior counterpressure being developed. 
Under lower latitudes the same thing takes place. According as the 
crust increases in weight the sea sinks, and the pressure upon the in- 
terior increases more rapidly in the continents, where nothing is re- 
moved, than in the sea, where the level of the water sinks. Therefore 
I think that the continents are weak points. The sea’s movements 
weaken the effects of the diminishing centrifugal force for all parts 
covered by the sea, but the pressure acts with undiminished force 
everywhere on the solid land, both under low and under high latitudes. 
Whatever the cause may have been that originally determined the dis- 
tribation of land and sea upon our globe, it seems to me that we may 
reasonably assume that the sea’s mobility is a preservative force, which 
perhaps has contributed to make the continents and oceans, broadly 
speaking, retain their form from the most ancient times until now. 

There is also reason to believe that the continents may yield more 
easily than the bottom of the deep sea, and that they may rise and sink 
more readily. And they are also separated from the depths of ocean 
by lines abounding in volcanoes, lines of weakness, where the connec- 
tion between the parts of the crusts seems to be weaker than elsewhere. 


*'The summary here given is founded upon Suess’s interesting studies in his great 
work ‘ Antlitz der Erde.” 


346 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 


Processes of plication may also perhaps be a consequence of the move- 
ment of “tables” not being of the same kind on both sides. 

But the boundaries between the deep ocean and the foot of the con- 
tinents do not everywhere coincide with the existing shore. Along the 
coasts there are often shallow tracts in the sea. These are the foot of 
the land which the sea has flooded, and the great deep sea only com- 
mences farther out. 


The Trias period has received its name because it shows a distinct 
triple division. It commences with fresh-water and littoral formations, 
upon which follow formations of deeper water, and then closes with 
fresh-water and shore formations. At its commencement the land was 
high relatively to the sea; as it went on the sea rose higher and higher ; 
then the land again began to rise, and at the end of the period it was 
again high in relation to the sea. And these great changes in the situ- 
ation of the coast-line were no doubt effected by means of many smaller 
oscillations. 

But just as it is with the Trias, so is it also with other geological 
formations. They commence with littoral formations (there is often a 
conglomerate at the bottom); these are followed by deeper marine 
formations, and at the close we have again shore formations. The name 
of Trias would therefore really apply to all of them. The first person 
to call attention to this remarkable triple division of formations would 
seem to have been Eaton. It was subsequently discussed by J.S. New- 
berry in his memoir entitled “ Circles of Deposition in American Sedi- 
mentary Recks” (Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1873, vol. XXU, p. 185), and Hull 
(Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1868, I11., pt. 1, p. 39); see also A. Geikie, 
“ Text-book of Geology,” p. 498, where further references to literature 
will be found. Principal Dawson called these tripartite periods “ cycles,” 
and in his ‘Story of the Earth and Man” he established the following 
cycles of this kind: (1) Cambrian ; (2) Lower Silurian; (3) Upper Silu- 
rian; (4) Devonian; (5) Carboniferous; (6) Permian; (7) Trias; (8) 
Lower Jurassic ; (9) Middle Jurassic; (10) Upper Jurassic; (11) Creta- 
ceous; and (12) Tertiary.* It appears therefore that these cycles are 
periods of long duration; each of them has certainly lasted several 
hundred thousand years. And in the middle of each cycle the great 
overflows of the sea have attained their highest point. The cycles 
alternate with continental periods. During the elevation of the land 
the horizontal position of the strata was often disturbed, so that the 
deposits of the new cycle lie unconformably upon the older ones. 

In this way the development has gone on, at any rate in the northern 
hemisphere. Mojsisowics, Suess, and others have pointed out that it 
has taken place simultaneously in the same direction in Europe, Asia, 
and North America. These great changes have taken place over the 
whole of the northern hemisphere, and on both sides of the oceans they 








“We shall see hereafter that this formation includes two cycles. 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 347 


have constantly had the same direction. And the same geologists have 
justly insisted that this law is one of the most remarkable results of 
geological investigations. 

The development of organic life, as we now know, has gone on unin- 
terruptedly from the earliest times. There has certainly never been any 
general destruction, never any completely new creation. The new has 
developed from the old through transitional forms and in the course of 
millions of years. If we knew all the deposits which have been formed 
it would be impossible to draw any boundaries between geological 
formations. One would imperceptibly pass over into the other. The 
boundaries between formations correspond with great gaps in the series 
of beds. In the time which intervened between the youngest bed in an 
older and the oldest in a younger cyele, the land in the northern hemi- 
sphere lay so high that no marine deposits were formed in the parts of 
the earth’s crust which are accessible to our investigations. Neverthe- 
less the development of living forms went on its even course. But 
when, after a long time, the land was again submerged, the life in the 
sea had changed, and beds with new fossils were deposited upon the 
old ones. And it is from the animal remains of marine deposits that 
the formations are determined. Hence, the sudden change of fossils 
where a new formation commences is not due to any catastrophe, but 
simply to a shorter or longer interruption in the formation of deposits 
in the parts of the earth which we are able to examine. There is no 
doubt that there are transition beds between formations, but they lie 
concealed from us at the bottom of the sea. Itis only incertain strongly 
plicated chains that these beds are upheaved and can be examined. 
Thus in the Alps there are transitional beds between the Cretaceous 
and Tertiary, between the Permian and Trias, ete.* 

If we should attempt to establish geological formations by the aid of 
the kuown remains of terrestrial animals and plants, the boundaries of 
these would not coincide with those which are defined by marine ani- 
mals.t Thus, to mention an example, the appearance of Dicotyledons 
does not coincide with the boundary of any formation; but they first 
appear with a number of forms in the Upper Cretaceous period (Ceno- 
manian). 





* “ As Jong ago as 1846, Darwin, in his observations in South America, showed that 
certain assemblages of fossils presented a blending of characters which are of Jurassic 
and Cretaceous age, respectively. Since that date, the study of the fossil faunas of 
South Africa, India, Australia, New Zealand, and the Western Territories of North 
America has furnished an abundance of facts of the same kind, showing that no 
classification of geological periods can possibly be of world-wide application.” (J. 
W. Judd, presidential address to the Geological Society, 1888, and Nature, March 1, 
1888, p. 426). See also Mojsisowics, Die Dolomitriffe Siidtirols und Venetiens, Vienna, 
1879, p. 36; and von Hauer, Die Geologie, Vienna, 1875, p. 515. 

t “The growth of our knowlege concerning the terrestrial faunas and floras of an- 
cient geological periods has constantly forced upon the minds of many geologists the 
necessity of a duplicate classification of geological periods, based on the study of 
marine and terrestrial organisms respectively.” (J. W. Judd, loc, cit, p. 427.) 


348 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


From Tertiary times, with the exception of the deposits in the great 
mountain-chains, we know only formations of shallow seas. The Ter- 
tiary deposits which correspond to the deep-sea strata of older forma- 
tions, and which were deposited farther from the land during that 
period without their formation being interfered with by the numerous 
minor oscillations of the coast-lines, still remain for the most part con- 
cealed from us in the sea. 

Land-formations, fresh-water and littoral formations such as we have 
in abundance in our Tertiary basins, are greatly exposed to destruction, 
for they are more frequently elevated above the protecting sea. Inthe 
older cycles such formations are more rare, probably to a great extent 
because they have been destroyed by denudation. We may therefore 
conclude that the Tertiary formations would much more resemble those 
of the older cycles if our knowledge of them all were equal. Of the older 
cycles we often know especially the deep-water formations, of the young- 
est chiefly those of more shallow waters. At some far-distant period 
the exposed Tertiary formations will come to equal those which are now 
visible from older cycles. 

Dawson (l. ¢. pp. 176-179) expresses the notion that the remarkable 
regularity with which such cycles recur may perhaps have a cosmical 
cause and be conditioned by one or another astronomical period. But 
he seems afterwards to reject this idea, because the Paleozoic cycles 
have deposits which are four or five times as thick as the Mesozoic (I. ¢. 
p. 195), and we might therefore believe that more time must have been 
occupied in their formation. But, on the other hand, he notes that in 
Paleozoic times changes in the organic world went on much more slowly 
in relation to the formation of deposits than subsequently, so that the 
fossils extend through greater thicknesses of strata than in the thinner, 
newer cycles. If I were to judge from these facts adduced by Dawson, 
I should come to a different conclusion; I should regard it as a proba- 
ble supposition that the formation of deposits went on more rapidly in 
Paleozoic times than lateron. If the moon at that time were nearer to 
us and the sidereal day shorter, as Darwin thinks, the tidal wave must 
both have been stronger and have acted more frequently than at pres- 
ent. The coasts would be destroyed much more rapidly, and the sez 
would have much more material to deposit. A ecyele of this period 
would be thicker than the younger cycles, and the fossils would extend 
through a greater thickness of strata than in the latter. For I see at 
present no probable ground for the supposition that the development of 
new species would be accelerated in the same degree as the formation 
of deposits. 

There is therefore reason to assume that it is owing to these great 
changes in the form of the earth, occurring at long intervals, that we 
‘an distinguish between geological formations. But such great changes 
in the distribution of land and sea must necessarily also bring with them 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. d49 


considerable changes of climate, and at the same time also changes of 
living forms. I have already, in one of my memoirs, put forward the 
opinion that the glacial period had its origin in a change of the distri- 
bution of land and sea. If the land gained a great extension in the 
middle and higher latitudes, especially if there should be a formation 
of bridges across the sea such as the supposed bridge through the Farées 
and Iceland from Scotland to Greenland, the warm sea-currents would 
be excluded from the higher latitudes. The northern seas would then 
become icy seas, and where the snow-fall is sufficiently inland ice would 
be formed. In a memoir entitled ‘“ Natiirliche Warmwasserheizung als 
Princip der klimatischen Zustiinde der geologischen Formationen” (in 
Abhandl. Senckenb, Gesellsch. vol. X111, p. 277 et seq.), J. Probst (like Sar- 
torius von Waltershausen, in his Untersuchungen tiber die Klimate der 
Gegenwart und Vergangenheit, 1865) has with justice pointed out the 
great importance which warm sea-currents have, and have had, in ren- 
dering milder the climate of high latitudes. 

It has been generally accepted among geologists that during the older 
formations animal and plant life was more uniform over the whole earth 
than at present. But this opinion must be changed according to recent 
investigations. Thus J. W. Judd says (Nature, March 1, 1888, pp. 424 
et seq.), with regard to the oldest fossiliferous deposits (the Cambrian) : 
“ Even at that early period there were life-provinces with a distribu- 
tion of organisms in space quite analogous to that which exists at the 
present day.” Examples of geographical provinces are indicated by 
him in the Silurian, Trias, Jura, and Cretaceous; and he says further: 
‘‘ | believe that the study of fossils from remote parts of the earth’s sur- 
face has abundantly substantiated Professor Huxley’s suggestion that 
geographical provinces and zones may have been as distinctly marked 
in the Paleozoic epoch as at present.” 

Most deposits of ancient times belong to periods in which the land 
lay low in relation to the sea, and the difference between the geograph- 
ical provinces is far less in the great depths of the sea than near the 
shores and on the solid ground. It has also hitherto been a general 
theory that the climate in old times was warmer and more uniform over 
the whole earth than now. The further we go back, it is said, the 
warmer it was, and this has been regarded as connected with the inte- 
rior heat of the earth. The Glacial period was an interruption of the 
continuity of its gradual cooling. In periods of overflow, when the 
land lay low and the sea had great extension under high latitudes, warm 
marine currents had much easier access to the poles than during conti- 
nental periods. As we now know most about the deposits formed dur- 
ing periods of overflow, and as most of the deposits of continental periods 
are either removed by denudation or concealed under the sea, it is still 
probable that the deposits of older cycles might show less strongly 
marked geographical provinces, and, as a rule, bear witness to warmer 


350 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


climates even under high latitudes. But the great changes in the dis- 
tribution of land and sea compel us to assume that, hand in hand with 
them, occurred a periodical alternation of climate, which has been far 
greater and more radical than the change produced by the precessional 
periods. 

Ramsay, Croll, J. Geikie, and others have thought that they found 
more or less certain traces of Glacial periods in the older formations 
(see, ¢. g., J. Geikie, ‘The Great Ice Age,” ed. 2, 1887, pp. 566 et seq.). 
Some of these traces seem to prove that, at any rate, there have been 
more Glacial periods than the Post-tertiary one. Nevertheless von 
Richthofen remarks (Fiihrer fiir Forschungsreisende, p, 362) that these 
supposed traces of Glacial periods are perhaps only a phenomenon of 
abrasion, and that the actien of the waves upon the shore could pro- 
duce conglomerates with striated stones. As regards these supposed 
old Glacial periods, the most certain traces (see J. Geikie, l. ¢.) appear 
to be furnished by the Devonian Sandstone, “Old Red,” in England and 
Scotland, by the commencement of the Carboniferous period (Scotland), 
by the Permian conglomerate (England), and by the Kocene (Switzer- 
land). The most striking evidence (with striated stones) is from the 
periods when the land had great extension. 

As regards these great overflows, it must be remembered that it is 
only in folded chains and in strongly elevated regions (e.g. in the Alps, 
Himalaya, Colorado, etc.) that sea-formed deposits of the later and lat- 
est geological periods occur at very considerable elevations above the 
sea. These great elevations, if we consider them in relation to the 
whole, can only be regarded as quite local phenomena. At the time 
when the deposits were formed they lay much lower, and when we now 
find an alternation of marine and fresh-water deposits in such forma- 
tions we must not suppose that the sea rose and sank in relation to the 
land by thousands of feet at each oscillation. During the period of 
formation the shore-line need only have moved up and down a few me- 
ters. Afterward the whole system of strata was lifted high above its 
original level by locally acting * geotectonic” forces. 

Therefore I assume that even the great overflows do not depend upon 
any very considerable displacement of coast-lines in a vertical direc- 
tion. When there are large flat countries with basin-shaped depres- 
sions, a small elevation may suffice to produce great geographical 
changes. 

Possibly also these overflows may be due to changes in the eccen- 
tricity of the orbit. 


We will now test our hypothesis by a comparison between the astro. 
nomical periods and the geological series of deposits. 

The curve of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit has been calculated 
from Leverrier’s formule by J. Croll (‘‘ Climate and Time,” 1875, p. 312) 


Jhium 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 351 


for a period of four millions of years ; three millions of years backward 
and one million forward from the present time. The curve is also eal- 
culated according to the same formule by McFarland (Amer. Journ. Sci., 
1880, [3], vol. XxX, pp. 105-111). His calculation extends from 4,250,000 
years backward, to 1,250,000 years forward in time.* He has calculated 
with shorter intervals of time than Croll (Croll 50,000, McFarland 10,000 
years), Which however has had no particular influence in altering the 
form of the curves. McFarland has in the same place calculated the 
curve for the same period of time from new formule of Stockwell’s. 
The two curves, taken in the gross, show a uniform course throughout 
their length, but as regards the first half Leverrier’s curve is thrown 
somewhat backward. Stockwell’s formulw are considered to be more 
accurate than Leverrier’s. 

Both curves are given by McFarland. If we compare them together 
it appears— 

(1) The curves coincide with only a small essential difference from 
the present day until one million years back. 

(2) If we omit the portion between 7’ and 8 of Leverrier’s curve, 
Leverrier’s and Stockwell’s curves are in all essential points identical 
also as regards the older part, although the agreement is not so complete 
as for the last million of years. The reason of this is that the caleula- 
tions are less certain with regard to the older periods ; when the number 
of years enters as a factor in the formula, smallerrors in the values 
adopted for the planets’ masses will be enlarged in proportion to the 
time, and the result becomes less certain. 

(3) A very remarkable consequence proceeds from these calculations. 
The curve repeats itself after the lapse of 1,450,000 years, when it is cal- 
culated according to Stockwell’s formule. In the period of 4,500,000 
years for which McFarland has calculated it, it repeats itself in this 
way with remarkable regularity a little more than three times. In each 
of these cycles there are 16 arcs of the curve. Thus the ares which in 
the accompanying plate are indicated by 1 to 16 correspond with 1/ 
to 16’and 1” to 16”. Mr. Geelmuyden, from calculations which he made 
at my request, has declared that the course of the curve will probably 
be sufficiently correct to be adopted with safety as the foundation for 
geological considerations, and that uncertainties in the curve caused 
by errors in the masses employed by Stockwell will probably not be of 
any importance. 

(4) The mean value of the eccentricity is least at the limits of two 
cycles; it rises in the first and sinks in the last half of each eyele, and 
therefore attains its greatest value about the middle of each cycle. 


*[On the scale shown in the accompanying diagram, the interval of 2,000 years 
would oceupy only ;}5 of an inch on the base line. The epoch of the table (1850)— 
marked ‘‘0” in the third line of curves (cycle 111, just under the are 4”)—may there- 
fore as well be assumed to be the present year. } 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST, 


T0011 + “ym 51-0 + 14 06-0 + TP4 92-0 + 0 


TH $2.0 + 


10-0; 
20:0) j ais) 
£0-0 1 


ie woh . 


rhs 
$0-0) ie 


90-0 OL 





mu Gf mL ()()-1 = ar a 
TO: s 3 TEXeL [= 


TT 8794) 








TM" G2 2 = 





\Ne Cf-2 = TAO + (ae Wega. e+. 


ane AME 


; a I oT LY 
CLOT ‘XX ‘O88T ‘209 “uno p ‘wP— purple _oW "A “YM Waa pardog) ‘ornzny savas Goo‘OOT*T 03 ‘sed savot 000‘'0Cs‘s Moss “Iqao FTI OY JO Aqr1o1aqu9e00q 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. ooo. 


Thus for the first and second of the caleulated cycles and their subdi- 
visions it is as follows: 


Cycle l. +3,250,000—2,720,000 vears, 0.0304. 
— 2,720,000—2,150,000 years, 0.0332. 
—2,150,000—1,810,000 years, 0.0203. 

Cycle 11. +1,810,000—1,250,000 years, 0.0247. 
+1,250,000— 700,000 years, 0.0340. 
= 700,000— 350,000 years, 0.0280. 

Cycle 111. + 350,000 to the present time, 0.0291. 


Now as, according to our hypothesis, the sea-level under high lati- 
tudes will rise and fall with the eccentricity, then it must not only rise 
and fall once for each are of the curve, but the ‘* mean sea-level” for 
longer periods must also rise and fall with the mean value of the eecen- 
tricity, and such cycles as cycles I and Ir must then correspond to two 
cycles in the geological sequence of deposits. The limits between the 
eycles of the curve must correspond to the periods of denudation which 
divide the geological cycles, and the middle must correspond to the 
periods of overflow. 

The correctness of the two hypotheses put forward in my memoir on 
the Alternation of Strata may (as already indicated) be tested in one 
way by the comparison of geological profiles with the curves of the 
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. <A first attempt was made at the time 
with the Upper Eocene and Oligocene beds of the Paris-basin. 

Many difficulties, however, stood in the way of this work. First and 
foremost the caleulation of the curve is less certain for distant periods. 
This difficulty is to a certain extent got rid of by the circumstance that, 
as the curves repeat themselves, it may be less essential. 

Another difficulty is in the finding of long and accurately described 
profiles without gaps in the series of deposits. Survey-profiles are not 
sufficient. Geologists often only state that there are few, some, or 
many alterations of strata, without giving definite numbers. 

A third difficulty is the distinguishing between the alternations of de- 
posits which are due to precessions and those which have their cause in 
other more transitory and local conditions. In the case of shore-forma- 
tions this difficulty is especially perceptible; but it has proved to be 
less than I supposed at first. 

A fourth difficulty consists in the determination of the number of 
oscillations of coast-lines. The higher a place was situated, the more 
rarely was it overflowed; the lower it lay, the more rarely was it up- 
lifted above the sea. And movements of the solid body of the earth, as 
might be supposed, have not been so uniform everywhere as those of 
the sea. 

A fifth difficulty lies in the finding of perfectly typical profiles of the 
' stages produced by the oscillations. When the sea rose and sank 
slowly the number of marine alternations of strata will be less, and of 

H. Mis. 224-23 


354 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


land and fresh-water formations greater, the higher the place lay, and 
the shorter the time which it remained submerged in the sea, during each 
oscillation. But this difficulty is of importance only when the continu- 
ous profiles are so short that they do not embrace several oscillations. 

In the absence of longer, connected, and accurately traced profiles I 
have first endeavored to determine the number of oscillations of coast- 
lines as regards the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Each of these 
oscillations, of which there have been about thirty-six from the com- 
mencement of the Tertiary period until now, has, in temporarily sub- 
merged localities, produced an alternation of marine beds with fresh 
water or terrestrial formations. To each more considerable oscillation 
corresponds a geological “ stage.” In these “ stages” there is a certain 
number of alternations. By studying the literature of the Tertiary 
basins of Europe [ have in this way formed a combined profile, which, as 
regards the alternations of strata, is not yet completed throughout, but 
which goes from the commencement of the Tertiary to the present time, 
and which I shall now proceed to describe. 

The mode in which profiles can be compared with the curve to tes- 
the correctness of the hypotheses is as follows: Each are in the curve 
will correspond to an oscillation of the sea. It is supposed that under 
high latitudes the coast-lines move up and down with thecurve. Such 
an oscillation J call a “ geological stage.” Each are will therefore 
have its corresponding oscillation or * stage,” and in each “stage” there 
will be as many alternations of strataas there are precessional periods in 
the corresponding are. When the eccentricity only sinks inconsiderably 
between two or more arcs, the ares run into one another, and form as it 
were, ranges with two or three small summits. We have then “stages” 
with more oscillations and more alternations of strata than the ordinary 
ones. Weshall see examplesof this in what follows. We can draw aline 
which indicates the boundary between marine and fresh-water forma- 
tions. This line may be nearly or quite horizontal. Whether it is to 
be drawn high or low depends upon how much above the sea the place 
was situated where the deposits were formed at the time when the depo- 
sition took place. The higher it lay, the higher must the line be drawn. 
The place may have been so elevated that it never was submerged. 
Then the lines are situated higher than the curve, and all the deposits 
are fresh-water or terrestrial formations. But it may have lain so low 
that it never rose above the sea, and all the deposits are marine forma- 
tions. But the line may cut the curve. Then marine formations alter- 
nate with land and fresh-water formations. The former correspond to 
those ares of the curve which project above the line; the latter to 
those which lie below it. And when there are no gaps in the series of 
deposits, there will be as many alternations of deposits in the marine, 
fresh-water, and terrestrial formations as there are precessional periods 
in the corresponding ares of the curve, 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. B99 


As a starting-point I will take the profile of the Paris basin*, which 
I will endeavor to join on to recent times. Afterwards I will refer to 
the lower and middle parts of the Eocene period. 

The section of the Paris basin about Méry-sur-Oise (Bull. Soc. Géol. 
Fr. 1878, pp. 243 et seq.) shows the following oscillations and alterna- 
tions of strata, and may, as regards the continuous portion, fit into 
Stockwell’s curve, as appears from the arc numbers cited for each oscil- 
lation: 


Sabies de Cuise, marine. 

Caleaire grossier inférieur et moyen, marine, with seven alter- 
nations. . 

Calcaire grossier; Caillasses a Cerithium, two marine alterna- 
tions, and between them a deposit with fresh-water shells. 

Caleaire grossier ; Caillasses a Lucina, marine, with five alter- 
nations. - 

Calcaire grossier; Caillasses a Cardium, marine, with eleven 
alternations. Gap in the series. 

Sables de Beauchamp, fresh water and marine, about four alter- 
nations. Ares 14-15. 

Caleaire de St. Ouen, fresh water, four above which a marine de- 
posit (Summit of are 16), then six fresh-water alternations. 
Ares 15 to 2’. 

Gypsum, marine, about eleven alternations. Arcs 2’ to 4’. 

Gypse palustre, fresh water, about six alternations. Are 5’. 

Marine verte, brackish, two alternations. Arc 6/. 

Calcaire de Brie, fresh water, one alternation. Between arcs 6/ 
and 7’. 

Marne et Mollasse, sables de Fontenaye, marine, three alterna- 
tions. Are 7’. 

Meulicres de Montmorency, Calcaire de Beauce (p. p.), freshwater. 
Between ares 7 and 8’. : 


There is only one discrepancy: Arc 16, the summit of which should 
correspond to the marine deposit in the middle of the Caleaire de St. 
Ouen, does not go so high that we should expect an inundation of the 
sea. But the oscillation is at any rate also indicated in Stockwell’s 
curve, and the marine formation consists of a single bed, and is so faintly 
marked that it has only recently heen recognized. 

Another profile from another place in the Paris basin (la Frette, Bull. 
Soc. Goél. Fr. 1876, pp. 471 et seq.) has the same number of alternations 
as the above, and extends from 13/ to 2’.. The marine bed at 16 is want- 
ing in this profile, otherwise the same oscillations are indicated. 

The profile at Méry-sur-Oise has in all seventy-one alternations of 
strata, of which twenty-five are in the Caleaire grossier. A great part 





* This section is given in my memoir on Alternations of Strata, 


356 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


« 


‘of the caleulated curve is therefore filled up by the occurrence of thirty- 
seven alternations, without a gap in the series of deposits. With are 
7’ the marine formationsof the basin terminate. In Miocene times came 
the voleanic outbursts in Auvergne. 

These oscillations‘of the coast-lines were not confined to the Paris- 
basin. The sequence of deposits in the basin of the Gironde, which 
seems to have been connected with the Paris-basin only through the 
Atlantic Ocean, is as follows (according to Vasseur, Ann. Sci. Géol. vol. 
XIII, pp. 398 et seq.) : 

The Tertiary formations commence with the Middle Eocene: Num- 
mulitic sand and coarse limestone, marine. After this, elevation and 
erosion. Then again followed a depression: clay with Ostrea cucullaris 
(ares 14 and 15), and another elevation : lacustrine limestone of Plassac, 
and simultaneously with this brackish- water limestone of Bégadan (16/ 
to 1’). Then a new depression: marine limestone of St. Estéphe and 
limestones and marls with Anomia girondica (2' to 4’). Elevation and 
erosion: Mollasse (fresh water) of Fronsadais (6/?). Depression :—Cal- 
caire a4 Astéries de Bourg (marine, 7’). Elevation: lacustrine lime- 
stone of PAgenais, level 1 (between 7’ and 8’). This is contempora- 
neous with the Caleaire de Beauce of the Paris-basin. In the basin of 
the Gironde fresh oscillations took place, namely, the following, which 
are Miocene: Faluns de Bazas, mariue, 8’; elevation: lacustrine lime- 
stone of PAgenais, level 2 (between 8/ and 9’); depression: Faluns de 
Léognan et Merignac, marine (9’). The so-called Mollasse of Anjou, 
which is wanting in the basin of the Gironde, is, according to Tour- 
nouer (Ann. Sci. Géol. l. c. p. 62) younger than 9’, but older than the 
Faluns de Salles of the Gironde; both are marine, and probably indi- 
cate two oscillations, 10/11’. Then followed another Miocene oscilla- 
tion, which has left its traces in the basin of the Loire, in the marine 
Faluns of la Dixmerie (are 12’). 

Thus the Miocene period in France had five oscillations. I have not 
however been able to obtain detailed profiles of all these series of de- 
posits. 

We now pass to England. In the Memoirs of the Geological Survey 
of Great Britain, 1856, we have accurate profiles of the Tertiary forma- 
tions of the Isle of Wight (by Forbes and Bristow). The series of 
beds, from below upwards, has the following oscillations and alterna- 
tions* :— 

Plastic Clay (brackish ?), four alternatious. 

London Clay, marine, at least eleven alternations. 

Lower Bagshot, (in part?) fresh water, seven alternations. 

Middle Bagshot (Bracklesham and Barton), the tirst fresh water, 
the second marine, and with five alternations. 

Upper Bagshot, without alternations. 


* See Postscript to this article, post, p, 370, 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 357 


This part of the series is in part older than the Caleaire grossier, and 
there are at least one,— probably two gaps init. The following series, 
on the contrary, is continuous: 


Lower Headon, fresh water and brackish, seven to eight alterna- 
tions (are 15 and the first part of 14). 

Middle Headon, marine, one alternation, at 14. 

Upper Headon, fresh water and brackish, five alternations, be- 
tween arcs 14 and 15. 

Osborne, fresh water, three alternations, between ares 15 and 1’. 

Bembridge limestone, fresh water, three alternations, between 
ares 1’ and 2’. 

Bembridge oyster-bed, marine, at least one alternation, at 2/ 

Bembridge marl, fresh water, six alternations, ares 2/ and 3. 

Hempstead marl, fresh water and brackish, two alternations, 4’ 
or 5’? 

Hempstead Corbula-beds, marine, imperfect above by denuda- 
tion, one alternation. 


The profiles of the different stages are taken at different parts of the 
island which have lain at different levels. Bearing this in mind, the 
series may be fitted into the curve, and at any rate correspond with 
them pretty closely. 

The number of alternations in this last continuous part of this series 
of deposits is about the same as in the contemporaneous deposits of the 
Paris-basin, although the beds are more than three times as thick (48 
meters in the Paris-basin, 156 meters in the Isle of Wight). 

With the marine deposits of Hempstead the marine formations of 
England are interrupted, and it is only in the Pliocene that we have 
indications of a new marine submergence. The basalts and voleanie 
eruptions of Ireland and the Hebrides are probably, at any rate in 
part, Miocene. Basaltic dikes extend in places across the whole of 
England; but the chief outbreaks were on the western side, and hence 
they can be traced through the Farées to Iceland. 

We will now see whether we can fill up the curve from 7’, where the 
continuous profile from the Paris-basin closes, up to recent times. The 
uppermost bed of the Paris-basin lies upon the boundary between Oli- 
gocene and Miocene. As we have already seen, the Miocene period in 
France had five oscillations. In Transylvania (according to Koch, in 
the Foldtani Kozliny) there are five Miocene stages, namely: Koroder 
beds, Kett6smezé beds, Hidalmas beds, Mezéseger beds, and Feleker 
beds. All these stages are marine. Even if they are not throughout — 
separated by fresh-water formations, as in the case of several, at any 
rate, of the French Faluns, they may nevertheless be regarded as -cor- 
responding to five oscillations. In the deeper seas the bottom will not 
always be upheaved above the sea under low eccentricities; but the 
oscillations will nevertheless operate in changing the fauna, and also 
frequently the constitution of the deposits. 


358 . ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST. 


The Miocene deposits of the Vienna basin are divided into three prin- 
cipal stages,—the first and second Mediterranean, and the Sarmatian. 
But if we study the detailed profiles more closely, there appear to have 
been here also five Miocene oscillations. Thus (according to Suess, Sttz- 
ungsb. Wiener Akad., 1866) the first Mediterranean stage shows the fol- 
lowing sequence of strata from below upwards: 


Beds at Molt, with oyster-shells (broken), at the top with lignite, 
four alternations, are 8’.—Supposed by Suess to be on the same 
horizon with the Faluns of Bazas. 

Beds near Loibersdorf, Gauderndorf, and Eggenburg, marine, 
probably with eight alternations, at any rate in part younger 
than the beds at Molt (ares 8’? and 9’). 

“ Schlier” with gypsum, at the top with land-plants.—Suess calls 
it ‘ein ersterbendes Meer,” and seems inclined to regard it as 
a peculiar stage. Alternations, but scarcely more than two. 
The last part of are 9’. 

Beds at Grund, marine, with few (three to four) alternations, to 
judge from Suess’ profiles.—The fauna forms a transition from 
the first to the second Mediterranean stage, and this deposit at 
Grund is with reason regarded by several Viennese geologists 
as representing a distinct stage. Arc 10’. 


This was followed by the greatest submergence, the second Mediter- 
ranean stage (are 11’), contemporaneous with the French Faluns de 
Salles. The sea rose quite up into the inner Alpine Vienna basin. I 
have been unable to make out the number of alternations in this stage. 
I have only seen sections of the littoral formations described. 

Finally, the last Miocene oscillation, the Sarmatian stage, are 12’. 
In some localities (e. g., near Constantinople) this stage commences with 
fresh water covered by marine formations (see Suess, Antlite der Erde, 
I.p. 419). According to a profile from Hungary (by Peters in Sitzwngsb. 
Wiener Akad., 1861) the stage has four alternations. 

This stage is followed by the Pliocene Congeria-beds, which in the 
Vienna basin are represented only by brackish-water formations, accord- 
ing to Fuchs (Jahrb. k.k. Geol. Reichs., 1875) with four alternations ; are 
13’.. And with these the marine formations of the Vienna basin, Hun- 
gary, and Transylvaniacome to a close. Volcanic outbursts commenced 
in these countries even in the Oligocene period; they became very 
frequent in the Miocene, and during this period the Alps rose to great 
altitudes. 

In the basin of Mayence the marine Oligocene formations (Wein- 
heimer marine sand and Septaria-clay) are followed first by a fresh-water 
formation; then the Miocene period commenced with a depression. 
But during voleanic eruptions the basin was upheaved and became 
more and more fresh-water. A continuous formation of beds took place. 
Over the Cerithium-limestone, the Corbicula-limestone and Littorinella- 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 359 
‘ 
clay were deposited, in all with twenty or more alternations (according 
to Lepsius, Das Mainzerbecken). All these deposits are Miocene. 

We now pass further forward in time. The Pliocene has four oscilla- 
tions, 13/, 14’, 15’, and 16’. We have already mentioned the Congeria- 
beds of the Vienna basin. In England there are three oscillations: 
Coralline Crag (14’), Red Crag (15’), and Cromer Clay or Westleton 
Shingle (16’). Profiles of these are to be found in Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. Lond., 1871 (by Prestwich). The climate of Europe began to become 
colder in the Pliocene. Even the oldest deposit in the Pliocene of En- 
gland contains stones which may have been grooved by ice, and at the 
close of the Pliocene there were already great glaciers ; the Pliocene was 
followed by the Glacial epoch. We have seen how, during strong and 
extensive volcanic action, previously marine basins were during Oligo- 
cene, and especially Miocene, times uplitted above the sea not to be 
depressed afterwards (Paris, Vienna, Hungary, the Mayence basin, and 
we may add Switzerland), and we have seen that the Alps were up- 
heaved in Miocene times. The Fardes and Iceland were built up, at 
any rate in great part, at the same time by basalts and lavas; perhaps, 
moreover, the submarine bank which connects Europe with Greenland 
was uplifted during the last portion of the Miocene period. In the Medi- - 
terranean, according to Neumayr (see Suess, Antlite der Erde, 1. p., 425) 
the coast-lines at the close of the Pliocene lay even lower than at the 
present day. No doubt all these elevations have had much influence 
upon climate. Changes in the length of the day are dependent upon 
variations of the eccentricity. Geographical changes follow upon the 
increase of the day, and climate changes with the distribution of land 
and sea. 

The Coralline Crag in England (according to Prestwich) has a thick- 
ness of only 25 meters, and can not have many alternations. After this 
stage was formed the land rose, but was again partially depressed under 
the sea. During this depression was formed the Red Crag, with the 
Chillesford Clay. In the Coralline Crag two shore-lines were hollowed 
out one over the other and the new stage lies now on the old shore plat- 
forms. The Red Crag is thinner than the Coralline Crag and can not 
include many alternations. 

in Belgium, also, we have two Pliocene stages, which correspond to the 
two English Crag-stages: the Scaldisien, étages supérieur et inférieur. 
To these two oscillations of the North Sea correspond two contempo. 
raneous ones of the Mediterranean. Suess calls them the third and 
fourth Mediterranean stages. And even in the earliest part of the Pli- 
ocene the Mediterranean fauna indicates a somewhat colder climate 
(Suess, l. c. I. p. 431). 

Italy possesses thick Pliocene formations. Seguenza describes de- 
posits 500 to 600 meters in thickness from this period. I have been 
unable to obtain profiles of these deposits. They are in part conglom- 
erates and shore formations, like the great Miocene Mollasse of Switz- 


360 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTI’S CRUST. 


erland, and near the shore thiek deposits can be formed in a short 
time. 

The profiles of Roussillon (by Depéret, in Ann. Sci. Géol. vol. Xvi. 
1885) show four alternations in the stage contemporaneous with the 
Coralline Crag (are 14’). The overlying stage in Roussillon is a fresh- 
water formation. The land had risen. The fresh-water stage has sev- 
eral alternations, probably six to eight, so far as I can see from the 
profiles given, which, however, are not quite accurately described (ares 
15’, 16). 

We now turn again to England. The fossils of the Red Crag show 
a colder climate than that of the Coralline Crag, and the Chillesford 
beds, which belong to the last portion of the Red Crag, have distinctly 
arctic shells. The Glacial epoch was advancing. After the Red Crag 
was formed, England again rose and became united by land with the 
continent. Extinct mammals wandered in its forests, which consisted 
of existing trees (spruce, pines, etc.) and show a temperate climate, 
milder than that of the Chillesford beds, and about as at present. ‘‘ The 
forest bed of Cromer” was overlain by marine deposits—Westleton 
Shingle and Cromer Clay (are 16’). In the latest terrestrial formation 
at Cromer Nathorst has found Arctic plauts (Salix polaris, ete.), and 
the Cromer Clay indicates the vicinity of inland ice. With this the 
Pliocene closes. 

As regards the Quaternary oscillations, we will take the English de- 
posits as described by J. Geikie (“Great Ice Age,” ed. 2, pp.387 et seq.) 
as our guide. 

The Quaternary period commences with the retrogression of the iceand 
with a considerable denudation. Then the sea again rose and covered 
a great part of the east of England. The inland ice again extended 
itself and formed a bottom-moraine, “ the great chalky bowlder-clay ” 
(are 1’). After this glacial period an elevation of the land seems to 
have followed, and the ice retreated. But a new depression followed 
(Bridlington Crag) and a new glacial period (purple bowlder-clay, arc 
2’). A fresh elevation seems to have followed, with a new interglacial 
period. Then came a new depression, which was very considerable, 
and which at Moel Tryfaen in Wales, at Macclesfield, and in Ireland 
has left marine shells at heights of 1,000 to 1,300 feet above the sea 
(nearly approaching that at which the old “ seter” or beach-lines ‘in 
Osterdalen, Liesje, ete. occur). Like the preceding depression, this was 
also followed by a glacial period, the last (Hessle bowlder-clay, arc 3”). 
Finally the land rose and the ice melted. The Post-glacial period came 
with its four peat-beds (the last portion of 3” and 4”). To are 4” cor- 
responds a small oscillation of the sea immediately before the recent 
period. In Seania, Garavallen, a raised beach-formation, rests upon 
peat; in Gotland, in the British Islands (Carse Clay, ete.), and even in 
North America, we may trace the same oscillation of the sea; it was no 
doubt too great to be capable of explanation by local conditions, com- 
pression of peat-beds by shifting sand-dunes, ete. 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 361 


We have already seen that the land (according to Howorth and Suess) 
in many places under high latitudes rose considerably in the Post-glacial 
period, and that a corresponding depression took place in the warm coral- 
seas. The last oscillations therefore affected a great part of the earth. 
From tiis we may conclude that this was the case also with the oscilla- 
tions of former times, and that they have their cause in general cosmi- 
cal conditions. The small oscillation (are 4’) forms an interruption in 
this great upheaval under bigh latitudes. A similar interruption of the 
depression, if our theory be correct, must be exhibited under the trop- 
ics; and in reality in the equatorial parts both of America and the Old 
World, there are numerous evidences of such a small post-glacial oseil- 
lation in coral-reefs, which have been upraised several meters and are 
now lying dry (see Suess, Antlitz der Hrde, 1. pp, 630 et seq). These 
coral-reefs may date from the same time when the northern peat-beds 
were submerged. The sunken peat-beds with the marine deposits 
formed during the depression have been again uplifted, and the raised 
coral-banks have probably again begun to sink (at Bombay there is a 
sunken forest), but the depression has not yet brought them down be- 
neath the sea. 

We may make one or two further observations upon the Glacial 
period and its formations. Contemporaneous with ‘the forest-bed of 
Cromer” (according to Heer) are thelignites of Diirnten in Switzerland, 
The fossils show this. They have nearly the same plant-remains, and 
the same extinct animals. The lignites rest upon and are covered by 
bottom-moraines, and are therefore ‘“inter-glacial.”. They have seven 
alternations of peat and forest-beds, and may be fitted into the curve 
between the ares 15/ and 1’... From this the Alps must have had large 
glaciers even during the time of the Red Crag. And there is no im- 
probability in this if we remember that Leda arctica and other Arctic 
animals were already living on the English coast at this period, and that 
the Chillesford beds indicate a much colder climate than the subsequent 
forest-bed of Cromer. 

It is instructive to see how each rising of the sea in England during 
the Quaternary period had as its consequence the increase of the inland 
ice. This seems to agree with Croll’s theory, that glacial periods are a 
consequence of great eccentricities. But the scanty traces of glacial 
periods in the older formations, and aboveall the distribution of glaciers 
at the present day, show that geographical conditions have the greatest 
influence. It is only when these are favorable that a high eccentricity 
can cause the glaciers to increase; if they are very favorable, there 
may be a glacial period even during a small eccentricity, as in Green- 
land at the present day. When the eccentricity increases, the precipi- 
tation during rainy periods also increases. If the sea is cold, the pre- 
cipitation will fall as snow, and in this way the glaciers will grow as 
the eccentricity increases. 

North Germany (according to Jentzsch) has also had three glacial 


362 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


periods with corresponding bottom-moraines (and oscillations?) ; and 
in the Alps there have been (according to Penck, Vergletsch. d. deutsch. 
Alpen) at least three glacial periods. 

We have thus filled up the curve to the present time, and connected 
the profile of the Paris basin therewith. We will now trace the oscilla- 
tions back to the close of the Cretaceous period in order, if possible, to 
see how many oscillations are included in the Geological period known 
as the Tertiary. 

The Cretaceous period is separated from the Tertiary by a period of 
denudation, during which the land was high relatively to thesea. The 
oldest marine formation of the Tertiary period in Europe is considered 
to be the limestone of Mons,in Belgium. This indicates the first oscilla- 
tion; but this submergence appears not to have left traces in the other 
Tertiary basins. The first marine inundation of the Paris-basin during 
Tertiary times formed the conglomerate of Rilly and Nemours. It was 
followed by an elevation of the land, and the marine conglomerate was 
covered by the fresh-water limestone of Rilly. This oscillation in the 
Paris-basin is perhaps represented in Belgium by the so-called ‘ sys- 
teme Heersien,” which is at the bottom a purely marine formation, but 
has remains of land-plants at the top. Then came a new oscillation, 
and now England also was partially submerged. Here was deposited 
the marine Thanet Sand, and upon this the Woolwich and Reading 
Series (=Plastic Clay), the latter partly a brackish and fresh-water for- 
mation, and which shows that the shore-line had again retreated. In 
Belgium the “systéme Landenien” was formed during this oscillation, — 
below purely marine, above brackish. In the Paris basin there was 
formed the ‘marine sand of Bracheux, which was followed by a fresh- 
water formation with lignite (the Lignites de Soissonnais). Then fol- 
lowed a new depression, and again an upheaval. This has left no 
traces in the Paris-basin; but in England the London Clay was formed, 
and in Belgium the “ systeme Yprésien.” The London Clay commences 
with a shore formation of shingle or gravel (Oldhaven Beds), and the 
upper part of the stage shows that the sea again became shallower, in 
consequence of a new elevation of the land.* The “ systeme Yprésien ” 
in Belgium is divided into two sub-stages,—the older, a clay with 
Foraminifera,—the younger sandy, with numerous fossils, and therefore 
probably indicating a shallower sea. A new submergence formed, in 
Belgium, the marine “ systéme Panisélien” (sand), and in the Paris- 
basin the marine sand of Cuise. With this the Lower Eocene closes. 
It has therefore in all probability, six oscillations. 

The Middle Kocene is represented in France chiefly by the “ Caleaire 
grossier.” In this stage there are five to six sub-stages, and in sev- 
eral places breaks in the series of deposits. The Middle Eocene is, on 
the whole, marine, but with EO fresh-water beds, and it probably 





his stage, as was ne n atone contains at least 11 alternations, and therefore 
probably corresponds with at least two ares of the curve. 





* T 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 363 


also represents six oscillations. In Transylvania it commences (accord- 
ing to Koch in Foldtani Kézliny, 1883, pp. 118 et seq.) with alternations 
of clay and marl, upon which follow alternations of gypsum and marl 
(“ lower gypsum horizon,” first oscillation). Above it, marine deposits, 
the Perforata-beds—trom below upwards—(«) an oyster-bed, (/7) argilla- 
ceous marl (7) calcareous marl (“ lower striata horizon”), (0) a shell-bed 
(‘lower perforata-horizon”), (<) clay (‘upper striata horizon,” second 
oscillation ?), (¢) clay with a few hard marly beds and the same fossils 
as in , (7) another oyster-bed, (7) clay with oysters, (:) caleareous marl 
(‘upper perforata horizon,” third oscillation? ); above this the Ostrea- 
clay, a thick clay with oysters and marly beds, and with a sandy ealea- 
reous bed in the middle (fourth oscillation). Over this again the Lower 
Coarse limestone, generally in two thick beds (fifth oscillation), covered 
by athick bed of clay varied with layers of sand, probably a fresh-water 
formation, and covered by fresh-water limestone. Finally, the last 
(sixth) oscillation, the Upper Gypsum horizon, gypsum alternating with 
clay ; and above it coarse limestone alternating with gypsum ; in other 
places, clay with Foraminifera (marine),—the Upper Coarse limestone. I 
have cited all of these details in order to show that these beds, which 
are all contemporaneous with the ‘*‘ Calcaire grossier” of Paris, seem to 
indicate six oscillations. 

Above the “Caleaire grossier” the Upper Eocene commences with 
the continuous series of the Paris basin, which has already been de- 
scribed. 

The Lower and Middle Eocene therefore appear to include twelve 
oscillations, six of which pertain to each of the two divisions of the 
formation. By this the first cycle of the curve is filled up, so that the 
beginning of the cycle will about fall upon the boundary between Creta- 
ceous and Eocene. Inthe Paris basin the Middle Eocene has twenty-five 
alternations of strata and perhaps one or two breaks. Six oscillations 
about correspond to twenty-five or thirty precessional periods. 

At the commencement of the cycles the mean value of the eccentrie 
ity is low; it rises in the middle of the cycle and sinks again towards 
the conclusion. The position of the shore-lines must also depend upon 
the mean value of the eccentricity. But as it increases very slowly 
through very long periods, it will be very long before its action is to be 
seen on the solid earth. The middle of the cycles ought thus to corre- 
spond to the overflows of the sea, the beginning and close to the periods 
of denudation which separate the formations. Breaks in the series of 
beds may therefore be expected under high latitudes, especially at the 
limits between the cycles. 

The boundary between Cretaceous and Eocene is indicated by what 
Suess (Antlitz der Erde, u, Tter Abschn., p. 376) calls a negative phase; 
the sea had retreated in higher latitudes. During the Eocene it rose 
again, and the Hocene sea had a great extension; we find its formations 
even in the heart of Upper Asia. The limit between the Eocene and 


364 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


Oligocene is again distinguished by a negative phase. In the latter 
part of the Oligocene period, and still more during the Miocene, the 
sea again rose; between the Miocene and Pliocene it retreated far, and 
at the beginning of the Quaternary epoch it rose again. Similar great 
oscillations are also to be traced in North America and in Patagonia. 
But marine Miocene deposits are wanting in the last-mentioned locality, 
where the Miocene fresh-water beds are associated with great quantities 
of volcanic products. 

At the commencement of the Tertiary period, when the sea had re- 
treated far under high latitudes, the climate of Europe was temperate 
rather than tropical (see Saporta, Le Monde des Plantes avant Vappari- 
tion de Vhomme, 1879). According as the sea rose and the Eocene over- 
flow advanced the climate became warmer, and at the close of the 
Eocene period the climate of Southefn Europe was hot and dry. The 
abundant Tertiary flora of the Arctic lands is (according to Saporta 
and Gardner) rather Eocene than Miocene (as Heer supposed). Atthe 
boundary between Eocene and Oligocene the sea retreated, and the 
Arctic Tertiary flora began to migrate into Europe, supplanting the 
more southern plants. Then came the Miocene overflow, and with it a 
rich tropical or sub-tropical flora. Butin proportion as the Miocene sea 
retreated, the European flora also, little by little, lost in richness and 
beauty and the tropical elements became more and more rare. During 
the Pliocene epoch the sea retreated still farther, and the climate be- 
came colder and colder until the Glacial period came in. But the last 
Quaternary overflow has again, after several oscillations, caused the 
ice to retreat, and our climate has again become temperate. There is 
thus clearly a relation of dependency between the climate and geo- 
graphical conditions. Great seas under high latitudes produce warm 
climates, and vice versa. 

Now we have seen that these great geographical changes were in all 
probability a consequence of the rising and sinking of the mean value of 
the eccentricity, and we must therefore believe that these great changes 
of the climate had a cosmical origin, and occurred at the same time 
over the whole earth. We still know too little of the geology of tropical 
countries ; but there is ground for the belief that here also great changes 
have taken place in the distribution of land and sea, and that these 
changes must also have had an influence upon the climate of the warm 
countries. 

It is further probable that the force of vuleanicity stands in relation 
to the changes in the eccentricity. Each of the great geological forma- 
tions, from the Pre-Cambrian itself, has had its voleanoes (see A. Geikie, 
“Textbook,” pp. 259-260); and we have already seen that the same 
author states that there have been periods in the earth’s history when 
vuleanicity was much more powerful and widely distributed than at 
other times. We have seen how the upheaval of the land was accom- 
panied by volcanic outbursts; and as regards the Tertiary period, at 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 365 


any rate, it appears that the great overflows of the sea were followed 
by periods during which the solid ground began to rise during violent 
and wide-spread volcanic eruptions. 


For easy reference we will finally enumerate all the ares in the curve, 
and name the geological stages supposed to correspond to them. To 
some extent we adopt the names given by Charles Mayer Eymar.* 


LOWER TERTIARY ; EOCENE—CYCc LE I. t 
Lower Eocene. Arcs 1 to 6. 


From 3,250,000 years to 2,720,000 years before the present time. 
Are 1. Etage Montien ? 


2. Etage Heersien. 

3. Etage Suessonien. 

4. Etage Yprésien inférieur ? ae 

ce dete se a sony? ¢vondinien. 
5. Etage Yprésien supérieur ? ) 

6. Etage Panisélien. 


Middle Eocene. 
From 2,720,000 to 2,150,000 years before the present time. 


Ares 7-12. Etage Parisien, with six oscillations. 


Upper Eocene. 
From 2,150,000 to 1,810,000 years before the present time. 


Arcs 13-16. Etage Bartonien, with four oscillations. 


UPPER TERTIARY.—CyYc gE II. 


Oligocene. 


From 1,810,000 to 1,160,000 years before the present time. 


Ares 1/-4’.. Etage Ligurien, with four oscillations. 
> 5/-7’.. Etage Tongrien, with five oscillations. 


*See his valuable ‘‘ Classification des Terrains Tertiares” (Zurich, 1884). He di- 
vides his stages into two sub-stages,—one with ‘‘mers amples,” and one with “mers 
basses.” Some of his stages however represent several oscillations. He thinks that 
the precession of the equinoxes is the cause of the changes in the level of the sea. 
The whole of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods must (according to him) have had 
a duration of only a little over 300,000 years. He founds his views upon Schmick’s 
untenable hypothesis of the dependence of the sea-level upon the precessions. 

+ The upper line of curves in the diagram. 

{ The middle line of curves in the diagram. 


366 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 
Miocene. 


From 1,160,000 to 700,000 years before the present time. 


Are 8’. Etage Aquitanien ? 
9’. Ktage Langhien. 
10’. Etage Helvétien. 
11’. Etage Tortonien. 
11’. Etage Messinien. 


Pliocene. 


From 700,000 to 350,000 years before the present time. 


Are 13’. Etage Matéria. 
14’.. Etage Plaisancien 
15’. Etage Astien. 
16’.. Etage Arnusien. 


QUATERNARY.—CyYcteE III.* 
From 350,000 years ago, to the present time. 


Ares 1-3’, Etage Saharien, with three oscillations. 


The limits between the cycles of the curve are not drawn arbitrarily. 
The beginning and the close of the first two cycles are distinguished by 
their unusually low eccentricity. The last are in one cycle and the first 
in the following one have together a duration of about 150,000 years; 
and in all this time the eccentricity was very low. In these two cycles, 
likewise, the highest mean eccentricity occurs in the middle of the 
cycle. 

The Eocene period seems to have had sixteen oscillations, and should 
correspond to the first cycle; the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene 
have likewise together sixteen oscillations, and correspond to the sec- 
ond cycle. The Lower Kocene corresponds to ares 1 to 6, the Middle 
Eocene to 7 to 12, and the Upper Eocene to 13 to 16. In the same way 
the Oligocene corresponds to ares 1/-7’, the Miocene to 8/-12’, and the 
Pliocene to 15/-16’.. There is thus a certain analogy between the oider 
and the younger Tertiary periods. We have here six divisions which 
nearly correspond to each other in the following manner: 


Lower Eocene to the Oligocene: the former with six, the latter 
with seven oscillations. 

Middle Eocene to the Miocene: the former with six, the latter 
with five oscillations. 

Upper Eocene to the Pliocene: both with four oscillations. 


The great overflows of the sea occur in the middle of the cycles, in the 
Middle Eocene, the Upper Oligocene, and the Miocene. In the middle 
of the cycles the mean value of the eccentricity was greatest. At the 


* The lower line of curves in the diagram, a 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 367 


commencement and the last part of the cycles, when the mean value of 
the eccentricity was small, the sea retreated far, as between the Creta- 
ceous and the Eocene, and in the Upper Eoceneand Pliocene. The notion 
therefore presents itself with great probability that there is a connection 
between the cycles in the curve representing the eccentricity of the 
earth’s orbit and what is called a geological epoch, or what has also been 
called a “cycle” or “circle of deposition.” The two Tertiary cycles 
are as it were great stages, each composed of sixteen smaller ones. Just 
as each of these sixteen represents a small oscillation of the sea, so does 
each cycle represent a great oscillation; but this great oscillation has 
been accomplished by means of the sixteen small ones. In the same 
way the mean value of the eccentricity rises and falls in each cycle with 
sixteen oscillations; it islow at the commencement of the cycle, attains 
its greatest value in the middle of the cycle, and falls again towards the 
close. These agreements between the cycles of the curve and the forma- 
tions, between the ares of the curve and the stages, and between the 
number of the ares’ precessions and the alternations of the strata in the 
stages wherever these could be checked, appear to me to be so striking 
as to exclude the notion of an accidental coincidence, and distinctly 
point to a causal relation. 

If we would test the correctness of our hypotheses by means of the 
older formations, the following points must be borne in mind: After in- 
vestigating the laws of the variations of eccentricity, Geelmuyden told 
ine that it is probable that a cycle of about 1,500,000 years must appear 
in the curve, but that without more extended investigation we can not 
conclude that this will continue unchanged for unlimited periods. Even 
in the calculated curve, the Cycle 11 is distinguished from the other two 
by a much lower eccentricity in the ares 4//-9/.. 

If the polar compression in old times was greater, then the preces- 
sional period was also shorter. According to Geelmuyden it would be 
very nearly proportional to the square of the time of rotation. For ex- 
ample, toa rotation time of sixteen hours corresponds a (synodic) pre- 
cessional period of 10,000 years, consequently only half the present period. 
The shorter the period the less marked (other things being equal) must 
the climatic period be, and the more indistinct the alternation of the 
strata. 

Farther, it must be remembered that in Paleozoic and Mesozoic times 
the moon was probably much nearer. In that case the lunar tide was 
much stronger, and stronger in proportion to the solar tide than at 
present. The day was shorter, and the stronger tidal wave acted more 
frequently. The shores were more rapidly destroyed. Deposition, no 
doubt, took place more rapidly. The sidereal day increased more 
quickly in length than at present. All these circumstances must have 
had an influence upon the form of the earth, upon the distribution of 
land and sea, upon the displacement of shore-lines, upon the changes of 
climate, upon the ocean-currents, upon the distribution of chemical and 


368 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


mechanical sediments and the alternations of strata, so that without 
taking these and perhaps other circumstances into consideration, we 
can not prove the applicability of the hypotheses to the Paleozoic and 
Mesozoic series. 


In conclusion, I will briefly notice the chief points in my hypothesis. 

The precession of the equinoxes and the periodical change in the eccen- 
tricity of the earth’s orbit, are reflected in the series of strata and furnish 
the key to the calculation of the duration of geological epochs. 

Precession causes winter and summer to be alternately longer and 
shorter. In the semi-period when the winter is longer than the summer, 
the difference between the inland and coast climate becomes more 
marked. The atmospheric current becomes stronger. As aconsequence 
of this, the currents of the ocean increase in strength, and this again 
re-acts on theclimate. The periodical change of the climate caused by 
precession is not very considerable, but still great enough to leave its 
mark in the alternations of strata, and in the formation of shore-lines, 
terraces, series of moraines, ete. One alternation of strata corresponds 
to each precessional period. 

The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is periodically variable. Its mean 
value rises and falls in periods of about 1,500,000 years, with sixteen 
oscillations. Such arise and fall I call a cycle, and each cycle, in the 
calculated curve, is composed of sixteen ares. 

The tidal wave, which is the most important agent in altering the 
sidereal day, and which makes it longer, rises and falls to acertain ex- 
tent with the eccentricity. It so predominates over the other forces 
which alter the length of the sidereal day, that the day steadily lengthens 
on the average more rapidly in the middle of the cycles when the mean 
value of the eccentricity is greatest. and more slowly at the boundaries 
between them, when it is least, and, as regards the individual arcs, 
with increasing rapidity during rising, and decreasing rapidity during 
falling eccentricity. 

The interior of the earth is plastic in consequence of the great pres- 
sure. Thesurface or “ crust,” opposes the greatest resistance to change 
of form. But as the sidereal day lengthens, and the equatorial parts of 
the earth increase in weight, a constantly increasing strain acts out- 
ward toward higher latitudes, and this strain increases until the re- 
sistance is overcome. It must also be remembered that forces which 
are too small to effect any sudden alteration in a solid body, may 
nevertheless produce a change of form when they act for a long time. 

Hence the lengthening of the sidereal day does not act only upon the 
sea, but also upon the form of the solid earth. The earth constantly 
approaches more and more to the spherical form; but the solid earth, 
in its movements, lags behind the sea, which accommodates itself at 
once to the altered time of rotation. 

As the motive power of these movements of the sea and the solid 





ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 369 


earth is periodically variable in accordance with the eccentricity of the 
orbit, these movements also take place periodically more rapidly and 
more slowly. And as the sea always adjusts itself to the forces before 
the solid earth, it is probable that the shore-lines oscillate up and down 
once for each rising and sinking of the eccentricity of the orbit. This 
applies both to the individual ares of the curve and to the cycles. In 
such a cycle “the mean level of the sea” rises and falls once during 
sixteen oscillations. 

According to Darwin the sidereal day has become several hours 
longer. It is therefore probable that so great a strain must have ac- 
cumulated in the mass of the earth, that a slight increase of the strain 
would suffice to effect changes of form at the weakest points. It is also 
probable that these partial changes in the solid body of the earth must 
oceur especially during great eccentricities, or some time after them, 
when the motive power increases most rapidly. 

The change in the tidal wave with the eccentricity is supposed to be 
sufficiently great to explain the displacement of shore-lines. A vertical 
displacement of the shore-line by a few meters is sufficient to produce, 
in the deeper basins, an alternation of many meters of thick marine and 
fresh-water deposits. And as regards the changes of the solid mass of 
the earth, we must remember that the series of strata is not complete 
at any single place. In other words, the oscillations were not general 
to such an extent as to render them contemporaneous everywhere. It 
is only by partial changes of form, sometimes here, sometimes there, at 
those points which were weakest at each period, that the solid earth 
has approached the spherical form. To each are of the curve therefore 
there corresponds only a partial—not a general—alteration of the form 
of the solid earth. And the oscillation of the shore-lines corresponding 
to the ares therefore can not be demonstrated everywhere, but only in 
the basins where the forces at the time exerted their action. Hence we 
can only obtain a complete profile by combining the beds of all the 
Tertiary basins. Nor were the changes of the solid earth everywhere 
equally great, but they were greatest at the most yielding parts of_the 
surface, so that very considerable local upheavals may be consequent 
upon small changes in the length of the sidereal day. This applies to 
the individual oscillations ; but even the great overflows of the sea (of 
which one falls in each cycle) need not be due to any very great rise in 
the level of the sea, for great plains may be flooded and drained by a 
comparatively small vertical displacement of the shore-line. But these 
great changes in the distribution of land and sea were undoubtedly 
great enough to cause considerable alterations of climate. Great seas 
in high latitudes render their climate mild, and vice versa. 

If now, keeping these principles in view, we compare the curve of the 
eccentricity with the geological series of strata, we find an agreement 
which indicates that the hypotheses are correct. The two cycles of the 
calculated curve correspond to two geological cycles. Each of these 

H. Mis. 224——24 


370 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


eycles has sixteen ares, which correspond to sixteen smaller oscillations 
of the shore-lines, or sixteen geological stages. In each of these stages 
there are as many alternations of strata as there are precessions in the 
corresponding are. And the ‘‘ mean sea-level” rises with the mean ec- 
centricity in the middle of the cycles, and falls at the boundary between 
them, and hand in hand with the mean sea-level the temperature in the 
higher latitudes also rises and falls. 

The theory here discussed agrees with Lyell’s great principle. Slow 
changes in the length of winter and summer and in the force of the 
tidal wave produce periodical changes of climate and displacements of 
shore-lines. The changes take place so slowly that the effects begin to 
appear distinctly only after the lapse of many thousands of years. 
There are two astronomical periods which are the cause of the great 
and fundamental changes of which geology bears testimony to us from 
long past days, and which will still continue, for millions of years, to 
effect similar changes in the geography of our globe, in its climate, and 
its animal and vegetable life. 


POSTSCRIPT. 


With reference to the profile of the Isle of Wight above cited (ante, 
p. 356), I must make a fewremarks. Although with some doubt, I have 
referred the Headon beds to the Upper Eocene. But the difference 
between the faunas of the Grés de Beauchamp and the middle Headon 
is far too great for these beds to be synchronous. 

The cause of the error is that [reckoned too many alternations of cli- 
mate in the Isle of Wight beds. In these fluvio-marine deposits there 
is by no means the same regularity as in beds which are formed in 
basins with less sedimentation. The river eroded its borders and 
shifted its bed, banks were formed and carried away, according as the 
direction of the stream varied and the channel changed. Hence lentic- 
ular interecalations were often formed in the beds, and as precipitous 
cliffs of the Isle of Wight break down, the minor details of the profiles 
change in appearance. But with all this irregularity there are certain 
beds which appear far more constantly, and which we can recognize in 
the different profiles even although their condition is somewhat altered. 
By the aid of these constant beds we find order in the variations, and 
it appears that the great features of the profiles are maintained unal- 
tered ; and it is these great features that we must follow when we wish 
to determine the number of climatic alternations. In the Paris Basin, 
where sedimentation was much less, chemically deposited beds play a 
much more prominent part. In the Isle of Wight the stages are of 
much greater thickness. The Oligocene deposits of the Isle of Wight 
are 156 meters in thickness, aud more than three times as thick as the 
contemporaneous beds in the Paris Basin, which have a thickness of 
only 48 meters. 

In the dry periods the deposition of clay and mud was much less, the 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 371 


water of the river was purer, and chemically formed beds had time to be 
deposited. Instead of clay and marl,—limestone, Septaria beds, iron- 
stone, etc., were formed. These beds were undoubtedly formed much 
more slowly than the sand, clay, and marl deposits which alternate 
with them. They are analogous to the forest beds in peat-mosses. 
Forest beds often separate peat deposits with different species of plants. 
This shows that the forest beds indicate long dry periods, during which 
the formation of peat ceased and the flora became changed ;* when the 
quantity of rain again increased and the formation of peat commenced 
anew, the forest trees which grew around the mosses were changed, and 
the forest beds thus make divisions between different sub-stages or zones 
in the peat. 

Among the beds deposited in water (whether fresh or salt-water for- 
mations) it is chiefly the above mentioned chemically formed beds that 
are formed in dry periods. And just as in the peat mosses forest beds 
often separate peat deposits with a different flora, so limestone and 
Septaria beds aiso frequently intervene between clay, marl, and sand 
deposits with a more or less different fauna, so that these chemically 
produced deposits often form boundaries between geological stages and 
sub-stages. This is the case, for example, in the Fluvio-marine series of 
the Isle of Wight, the main features of which we shall now pass on to 
describe with the aid of Forbes’s detailed and classical statements. We 
shall then see that we have fewer climatic changes than I previously 
supposed, and that the series of beds in the Isle of Wight coincides as 
admirably with the curve of eccentricities as the Parisian deposits, 
although somewhat later on in time than was hitherto supposed; thus 
the agreement with the paleontological results becomes complete. 

We begin from below, with the Upper Eocene Barton Clay. Judging 
from the fossils this is synchronous with the Grés de Beauchamp in 
the Paris Basin. It has five Septaria beds, and corresponds to are 14 
of the curve, which has the same number of precessional periods. The 
Barton Clay is covered by the Headon Sands (previously referred to the 
Upper Bagshot), which have no alternations, and which were probably 
formed in a comparatively short time 

A great gap now follows in the series in the Isle of Wight. In the 
Paris Basin the fresh-water Caleaire de St. Ouen was formed at this 
time. This is only 6to7 meters thick, but it has ten alternations, which 
should represent 200,000 years according to my calculation. It might 
seem that this was a long time for the formation of a stage of so little 
thickness ; but while this stage was deposited the marine fauna was 
changed to such an extent that a great geological boundary has been 
drawn through this point, the boundary between the Eocene and Oligo- 
cene. The first marine Oligocene bed in the Isle of Wight (the Marine 
ao has a fauna of which only 30 to 50 per cent. of the species 


= See “Theori om iaaemmonince no af Nerges Alors niider vekslende regnfulde og 
torre Tider,” in Nyt Mag. for Naturv., 1876, XX1, (pp. 52, 53 of separate copies), 


372 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 


occur in the Barton Beds. The 6 to 7 meters of the fresh-water lime- 
stone in the Paris Basin probably represents more than half the time 
which elapsed between the formation of the Marine Barton and Headon. 

Then the sea rose again; and the Oligocene period commenced. The 
oldest Oligocene stage in the Isle of Wight is the Lower Headon ; it is 
a fresh and brackish water formation, showing one oscillation of the 
shore-line. I have given it seven to eight alternations. The stage con- 
tains five limestones, separated by deposits of sand and clay, and be- 
sides these, two horizons with ferruginous concretions. Reckoning 
these, it has seven periods. Marine fossils (Cytherea, Mytilus) some- 
times occur in the middle of the stage; fresh-water and brackish forms 
above and below. The Lower Headon thus represents one oscillation 
of the shore-line (or a little more) with seven climatic changes. 

The next stage or oscillation is the Middle and Upper Headon. These 
have together six alternations of strata, four limestones, and two beds 
with iron concretions separated by clays and sands. The Middle 
Headon is brackish at the base, but soon becomes a purely marine for- 
mation, with an abundant fossil fauna. The Upper Headon contains 
fresh and brackish water animals. 

Above the Headon come the Osborne Beds, a nearly pure fresh-water 
formation. It has eight to ten alternations: Two Septaria beds, two 
ironstone bands, and six horizons with concretions of argillaceous lime- 
stone, separated by clay and marl. Ten alternations represent two 
oscillations and two ares of the curve. 

Over the Osborne comes the Bembridge Stage. The Bembridge beds 
consist of :—first, a fresh-water limestone, which has three well-marked 
alternations of compact limestone with clay and marl; these three 
alternations recur in profiles from the most different localities; over 
this the marine Bembridge Oyster-bed, and immediately above this a 
Septaria bed, of which Forbes says that it is “ very remarkable and 
constant.” Above this come the Lower Bembridge Marls with brackish 
and fresh water animals, but without alternations; upon this a Septaria 
bed, “sometimes siliceous, sometimes calcareous,” which forms the 
boundary between the two substages, the Lower and Upper Bembridge 
Marls. In these Upper Marls, which likewise contain brackish and 
fresh-water shells and even lignites, I have assumed four climatic alter- 
nations: There are two pyritous bands and a marly bed, and at the top, 
at the limit of the overlying Hamstead * stage, a bed with ferruginous 
concretions capped with marl. But the two pyritous bands and the 
first of the above-mentioned marls constitute no paleontological bound- 
ary, and are far from being so prominent as the Septaria bed. I there- 
fore regard it as the most probable assumption that the whole of the 
Bembridge Marls indicate only three alternations of climate, and thus 
for the whole stage we have six climatic periods. 

Finally, we come to the Hamstcad* Beds. These at the lowest part 


*The name is also often written ‘‘ Hempstead,” but this is incorrect, 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST oto 


consist of brackish and fresh water marls, in which, besides a pyritif- 
erous horizon of little importance, and which forms no paleontological 
horizon, we find indications of two dry periods. One of these, the so- 
called ‘* White Band,” a more or less hardened ferruginous bed rich in 
fossils, forms the boundary between the two substages, the lower and 
Middle Hamstead Marls; and higher up there is a bed of ironstone 
concretions, which nearly coincides with the limit between the sub- 
stages of the Middle and Upper Hamstead Marls. The uppermost part 
of the Hamstead stage is formed by the marine Cerbula bed, in which 
there is a bed with Septaria. The stage therefore represents one oscil- 
lation with three climatic alternations; but it is not completely pre- 
served, the top having been removed by denudation. 

If we now sum up the above statements, we obtain the following 
numbers of oscillations of shore-lines and climatic alternations : 


Barton, one oscillation, with five climatic alternations. 

Headon Hill Sand, without alternations. 

Break in the series. 

Lower Headon, one oscillation (or a little more), seven alterna- 
tions. 

Middle and Upper Headon, one oscillation, with six alternations. 

Osborne, with eight to ten alternations, corresponding to two 
oscillations. 

Bembridge, one oscillation, with six alternations. 

Hamstead, one (incomplete) oscillation, with three alternations. 


Besides the Kocene Barton there are three well-marked marine Oli- 
gocene horizons in this series: The Middle Headon, Bembridge 
Oyster-bed, and Hamstead Corbula beds. The Middle Headon is re- 
garded by paleontologists as synchronous with the marine gypsum in 
the Parish basin. I have fitted the Paris beds, so that the marine 
gypsum coincides with the are 5’, and the Fontainebleau Sands with 
the arc 7’. If we now arrange the equivalent beds in the Isle of Wight 
in the same ares, we see that the Isle of Wight profile fits perfectly 
into the curve of eccentricity, as follows: 


Lower Headon to the are 2’ and perhaps the last part of 1’, with 
seven alterations and seven precessions. 

Middle and Upper Headon, with five alterations, to the are 3’, 
with five precessions. 

Osborne, with ten alterations, to the ares 4/ and 5/, with ten pre- 


cessions. 
Bembridge, with six oscillations, to the are 6/, with five or six 
precessions. 


Hamstead, with three alterations, to the first part of are 7’, with 
three precessions. 


It thus appears that the three marine horizons coincide with the three 
highest eccentricities, the summits of the ares 3’, 6’, and 7’, while the 


374 ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE FARTH’S CRUST. 


lower ares and parts of ares correspond to brackish and fresh-water beds. 
The most unmixed fresh-water formation, the Osborne, coincides with 
the two lowest ares, 4’ and 5’. 

For the sake of comparison, we will again carefully go through the 
profile of the Paris Basin, and compare this with Stockwell’s curve, 
commencing from the bottom. The beds are numbered in the same way 
as in the original description of Dollfus and Vasseur (Bull. Soc. Géol. 
Fr., 1878, sér. 3, tom. VI, pp. 243, et seq.). 

Sables de Beauchamp et Mortefontaine, etc., beds 89 to lll. Are 14 
and first half of 15. In this series we have, first five marine sandstones 
alternating with sand; then a limestone and acaleareous marl, with in- 
tercalated sand and marl. ‘Thus in all six or seven alterations. 

Calcaire de St. Ouen, beds 112 to 142. A fresh-water formation which 
is divided by a marine deposit (128) into two subdivisions. In the 
lower part (from the summit of are 15 to the summit of are 16) there are 
four horizons of hard limestone and siliceous limestone with intercal- 
ated marls. Then comes the marine bed (at the summit of 16). It 
must be remarked that the corresponding are in Leverrier’s curve 
reaches higher up. In the upper division of fresh-water limestones we 
have six alterations of hard limestone and siliceous limestone with marl 
and clay. This division therefore finishes a little to the left of the sum- 
mit of arc 2’. 

Sablas de Monceaux, beds 145 to 145. Marine sand with three Septaria 
layers. The rest of are 2’. 

Marnes & Pholadomya, beds 146 to 154. Marine, with two alterations 
of siliceous limestone and marl. The first part of are 3’. 

Gypsum No. 3, beds 155 to 158. Marine marl and gypsum, one al- 
ternation, and Marne a Luciana, bed 159. The rest of are 3’, 

(The beds 146 to 159 thus have together three alternations and corre- 
spond to the are 3’.) 

Gypsum No. 2, beds 160 to 196, arc 4’.. Marine, at any rate for a great 
part. Butit must be remarked that no fossils have been cited from the 
last part of this series. Gypsum ‘alternating with marls about five 
times. The most important gypsiferous horizons are the beds 161, 171 
to 176, 178 to 188, 191 and 194. 

Gypsum No.1, bed 197, 8 meters thick, with fresh-water animals. One 
alternation. Between arcs 4/ and 5’. 

Marne bleue, beds 198 to 204, and Marne blanche, beds 205 to 209, 
fresh-water marls alternating with marly limestones and ferruginous 
marls about four or five times. Are 5/ and the first third of are 6’. 

Marne verte, beds 210 to 217, a brackish-water formation with two al. 
ternations of clay with marl and siliceous limestone. The upper part 
of are 6’. 

Caleaire de Brie, beds 218 to 220, a fresh-water limestone. Perhaps 
we have here indications of several climatic alternations, for limestones 
oceur alternating with marl three or four times, though certainly in 
very thin beds. Its place is in the hollow between ares 6/ and 7’. 


ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. 315 


Marne et Molasse Marine, beds 221 to 231. Clay alternating with 
marly limestone and sandstone three or four times. The upper part of 
are 7’. 

Sables de Fontenaye, bed 232. Marine sand with a few layers of clay, 
but without marked alternations. The latter part of are 7’. 

Calcaire de Beauce (p. p.) Fresh water, between ares 7/ and 3‘ 

From this we get a complete agreement with the paleontological re- 
sults, as shown by the following comparison of the equivalent forma- 
tions in both basins: 





Paris. | Isle of Wight. 
Grés de Beauchamp, ete ...---.---.------ Barton Clay. Headon Hill Sand. 
Calcaire de St..Ouens.2s-.-2 ees tsee cos Wanting. 
Sables de Monceaux...-.....-.5.-------- Lower Headon. 


Marne & Pholadomya, Gypse No.3, Marne | Middle and Upper Headon. 
a Lucina. 


Gypse No.2-1. Marne bleue.........-.--- Osborne. 

MEM GRAIG Os sere ce one DE se, tye. ore Bembridge Limestone. 

MATOS VELbOs oc cos cic | eres oS o.b% - st ies Bembridge Oyster-bed. 

(Caleainer ecb tienes ere 22 s5 222. 58hront ae Bembridge and Hamstead Marls. 
Marne et Mollasse marine..........---... Hamstead Corbula- beds. 





It will be seen that the number of alterations of strata is about the 
same in the synchronous formations in the Paris and Hampshire Basins. 
This shows that this alternation of strata was due to a general cause ; 
and that this cause is the precession of the equinoxes, seems highly 
probable. 

As moreover the curve of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit ap- 
pears at the same time to be a curve of the variations of the sea-level, 
we may also conclude with probability that for one reason or another 
the sea rose and fell with the eccentricity. 





TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME.* 


By F. A. SEELY, of the U. S. Patent Office. 


In my room in the Patent Office there hangs a Connecticut clock of 
ordinary pattern and quite imperfectly regulated. Its variation of per- 
haps half a minute in a day, however, gives me no concern, since being 
connected by wire with the transmitting clock at the Naval Observatory, 
it is every day, at noon, set to accurate time. At the moment of 12 
o’clock there comes a stroke on a little bell and simultaneously the 
three hands, hour, minute, and second—whether they may have gained 
or lost during the preceding twenty-four hours, fly to their vertical po- 
sition. Immediately after I hear a chorus of factory whistles, sounded 
in obedience to the same signal, dismissing the workmen to their mid- 
day meal. At the same moment and controlled by the same impulse, 
the ball, visible on its lofty staff from all the ships in New York Har- 
bor, drops, and the seamen compare their chronometers for their com- 
ing voyage. The same signal is sent to railway offices and governs the 
clocks on thousands of miles of track and determines the starting and 
stopping and speed of their trains. It goes to the cities of the Gulf and 
of the Pacific as well as to those of the Atlantic coast—noted every- 
where as an important element in the safe, speedy, and accurate conduct 
_ of commerce; and so the work of the regulating clock of the Observa- 
tory, sent out by means which note the minutest fraction of a second of 
time, is playing its important part in the economy of our century. I 
can not follow it out in detail; every one will do so to some extent in 
his own mind. But if we were to divide human history into eras ac- 
cording to the minuteness with which the passage of time is observed 
in the ordinary affairs of life, we should find ourselves to have arrived, . 
and very lately, in what might be called the era of seconds. 

At the opposite extreme is the period when the passage of day and 
night reveals itself to the dullest intellect. Perhaps no savage people 
have ever been so dull as not to have noted more than this. We can 
hardly conceive a state in which the brutal hunter did not take note of 
the declining sun and observe that the close of the day was approach- 





* Read before the Anthropological Society of Washington, April 5, 1887. (From the 
American Anthropologist for January, 1888, vol. 1, pp. 25-50.) 
377 


378 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. | 


ing. The lengthening of his own shadow was an always present phe- 
nomenon, and men must have observed shadows almost as soon as they 
became capable of observing anything. But this kind of observation 
went on for ages without any attempt to sub-divide the day, and none 
but the great natural periods marked off by sunrise and sunset were 
recognized. 

Between this period, marked by the observation of the natural day 
only, and that in which we live, there have been many steps of progress, 
the very dates of which may in some cases be quite distinctly observed. 
We find an era where noon begins to be noted, and the natural day is 
equally divided by its observation. Then we find an erain which either 
the entire day or its great natural fractions are again divided into 
smaller fractions of rather indefinite length, as is now done by some 
savages and as was done in the earlier history of Greece and Rome. 
Next to this comes the era in which definite artificial fractions of the 
day are observed, which may be ealled the era of hours. It was many 
centuries after this before men in the ordinary transactions of life 
counted their time by minutes, but the time when this began is quite 
distinctly marked. 

I would not say that these eras are contemporaneous in all nations, 
nor could I assert that they correspond closely with any recognized 
stages in civilization and culture; in fact, the observation of hours of 
the day does not appear to obtain until civilization is reached. This is 
true however,—men measure most carefully that which they value most, 
and the value of time is enhanced just in proportion to the multiplicity 
of the demands upon it which the existing state of society involves. 
The man who has engagements at the bank, the custom-house, his own 
warehouse or factory, and in a court-room, and a dozen or more indi- 

viduals to meet, each of whom, perhaps, has similar pressing engage- 
ments, and then must reach an express train at 4:30 in order to dine at 
6, fifty miles away, must allot his time with the greatest care and meas- 
ure it with the utmost minuteness. To the savage, the sun rises and 
sets, and rises again ;—one day is as another; nothing presses but hun- 
ger, and that he endures till fortune brings food. He needs no clock to 
tell him it is dinner-time, for itis always dinner-time when there is food. 
When people travelled leisurely by stage-coach, walking up the hills to 
rest the horses, stopping at the wayside inns to dine, and well content 
at the close of the day if 50 or 60 miles had been covered, seconds of time 
and even minutes were of little account; but when trains are run ona 
complex schedule, and for a whole season in advance it is set down at 
just what place each train must be at each moment of every day, and 
the safety of lives and property depends on exact adherence to the pre- 
scribed order, then the station clocks must be invariable and synchro- 
nous and the conductor’s watch true to the second. Civilization is 
marked at every step of its progress by the multiplication of the varied 
relations between men, and since the importance of time is enhanced 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 379 


by the same multiplication, it may fairly be asked whether the accuracy 
with which time is observed in ordinary life, may not after all aftord one 
of the most perfect indications of the social condition of a people. 

The material is not gathered for a full discussion of a question like 
this, and I shall not oceupy myself with it, but as incidental to and sug- 
gested by the topic I have chosen, some tight seems to be thrown on it 
by the attempt to place in their true correlation facts of history not 
hitherto brought together. I have proposed to myself only a study of 
the growth of the common clock, noting the various steps in its devel- 
opment with reference to their period in history, and to the social condi- 
tions which inspired or demanded them, as well as to the state of science 
and mechanie arts which made their consummation possible. The sub- 
ject is too large for a single paper, and I have therefore taken for pres- 
ent consideration that part which relates to time keeping among the 
ancient peoples from whom we chiefly derive our civilization and to a 
period of history which, by a sort of coincidence, practically terminates 
with the beginning our of era. My guide in this inquiry will be the prin- 
ciples in eurematies that inventions always spring from prior inventions 
or known expedients, and that they come iu response to recognized 
wants. It need not be repeated that these principles find copious illus- 
trations in the progress of every art; but the truth can not be too 
strongly enforced that the progress of no art can be intelligently studied 
or thoroughly comprehended without keeping them in mind. 

The few barren and isolated facts that have been preserved to us re- 
garding time-keeping: prior to about six hundred years ago are not 
enough in themselves, however carefully collated, to constitute an in- 
telligible or consecutive history. But I need not say that no event is 
in fact isolated from all others in cause and effect; and if we can not 
have direct light we may look to the concurrent events of history for 
side lights upon our meager facts which will perhaps throw them into 
stronger relief than the direct narration of unphilosophical historians. 
Hence, it [shall seem to any one to lean too much upon the synchronisms 
and sequences of history, it is not that I do not realize the possible fal- 
laciousness of an argument which has no other foundation ; but in the 
progress of inventions such sequences are to be sought for. Invention 
responds to want, and the want may originate in some crisis or event 
having no apparent affinity in character with the want it engendered or 
the invention that sprang to meet it. And these are not mere accidents; 
they are the natural course of what I venture to call the fixed laws of 
eurematics. At the same time these laws do not necessarily always ¢all 
for original invention, since importation of an invention already known 
elsewhere may equally supply the want, and historical crises are as likely 
to lead to importation, where it is possible, as to invention. It is with 
these principles in view, and always looking for such side light as con- 
temporary events can give, that I have attempted to frame the consec- 
utive history of time-keeping, of which this paper is a part. 


380 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


There are three primitive forms of time-keeping instruments—the sun- 
dial, the clepsydra or water clock, and the graduated candle. The last 
plays no part in the evolution of the modern time-keeper, and I shall 
pass it by without further notice, notwithstanding some interesting his- 
torical associations connected with it. But the sun-dial was at the be- 
ginning the only time-keeper, and man’s ideas, developing into wants, 
led to its greater perfection till these wants passed far beyond what, 
with its limitations, it could supply. Its contribution to the present 
state of the art was not large, mechanically considered, but it was enough 
to create the demand for something better, and without this contribu- 
tion the art could not have been. The rude utensil which the Greeks 
called a clepsydra had no resemblance to.the perfected time-piece of 
this century, but nothing in history is surer than that out of it, by slow 
accretions, science and art, by turns mistress and handmaid, have pro- 
duced the masterpiece of both. 

This history is, therefore, the history of a human want and of a me- 
chanical structure developed in response to it. But wants grow, and 
this has grown; and in tracing it we do not find it always in the same 
likeness. Sometimes the want of the moment is satisfied, and then it 
appears in a novel and unexpected form, altered in its whole complexion 
by that which has just appeased it. And as we recognize this Protean 
character, we need pot suppose that the Babylonian astrologer who 
made some improvement in a sun-dial had a single idea or purpose in 
common with those of a railway manager who last week connected his 
regulator by wire with the Observatory. We trace our wantin the de- 
velopment of institutions, in the creation of new demands upon time, in 
the growing complexity of human relations, in political crises, and we 
may determine its character or intensity by the means used to supply it 
and the generality of their adoption. The story of the growth of the in- 
strument is inseparable from that. of the growth of civilization. 

Writers on the history of the clock (and they are not few) have gen- 
erally begun by a reference to the sun-dial as a Babylonian or Chaldean 
invention. We can trace it no further, and have no means of determin- 
ing when the invention was made. We iearn from the Old Testament 
Scriptures that it was known at Jerusalem as early as seven centuries 
before our era, and the manner of its mention indicates that in that city 
it was a novelty. King Ahaz, by whose name this dial is called, had 
introduced other novelties into his capital on his return from Damascus, 
whither he had gone to make his submission to Tiglath-Pileser II, King 
of Assyria; and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the dial had the 
sane origin. However this may be, it was a graduated instrument, 
having degree marks of some kind which showed the daily course of 
the sun. We may infer that it was at least of a Babylonian pattern, 
and it points to a remote period when a graduated dial indicating the 
time of day by a shadow passing over it was known to Oriental peoples. 

Presumably it was their invention. The suggestion that they derived 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 381 


it from Egypt is a guess only, based on the supposed earlier growth of 
Egyptian science. To such a guess might be opposed the fact that in 
all the Egyptian monuments yet explored there is no hint of such an 
instrument. 

The Assyrian monuments are equally silent; and the same specula- 
tion which attempts to account for the absence of all representation of 
a sun-dial in the scuiptures which have revealed to us so much of the 
domestic life of the Assyrian people applies to Egypt also. We may 
believe that it was not a device generally known or commonly used. 
Very likely the knowledge of it was confined to the priests and magi, 
who were not only ministers of the religion of each country, but the 
masters of its science. This device constituted a part of their mystery 
and was religiously kept from the public knowledge. In support of this 
conjecture it may be said that the Phoenicians, who penetrated every 
land, dealt in every merchantable commodity, and from their active com- 
mercial habits were the very persons who would have found the use of 
a time-piece most valuable, do not appear to have known of any such 
instrumentality; but the inner temples of Thebes and Babylon were not 
open to those hardy mariners, and the exhumations of Cyprus reveal 
no more to us than those of Nimroud and Memphis. 

It is scarcely profitable to grope in the darkness for the origin of the 
sun-dial; but certain facts are apparent and may be briefly indicated. 
In Egypt and Assyria observation of the heavenly bodies was a part of 
the religious cult. The regulation of the calendar belonged to the min- 
isters of religion. For the regulation of the calendar, which of course 
involved the determination of the length of the year, the recurrence of 
the solstices must be noted; and these could only be noted by observa- 
tion of the day when the shadow cast by the sun at noon was at its 
maximum or minimum. The observation of shadows for the determi- 
nation of noon led (it could searcely be avoided) to their further ob- 
servation during the entire period of the sun above the horizon, and, at 
last, to marking the surface on which the shadow was cast by perma- 
nent lines dividing the day into some kind of regular parts. All this 
might be done as a matter of scientific observation without conscious 
need of a time-piece. 

The sun-dial took many forms, and more than one of these may have 
been known to the Babylonians. The art of dialing involved mathe- 
matical problems of considerable complexity, and the study of this art 
very likely contributed to the knowledge of mathematics that the world 
possessed at that early period. The consideration of these forms is not . 
germane to my present purpose, which is for the moment only to show 
that long before the appearance of the sun-dial in Greece the instru- 
ment had been apparently perfected by the wise men of the Hast, 

Historians have agreed in fixing the period of the introduction of the 
sun-dial into Greece in the latter part of the sixth century B.c. Herod- 
otus says it was derived from the Babylonians, from whom he also 


382 TIML-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


declares the Greeks to have derived the twelve parts (dvadeza pépea) of 
the day. Others however ascribe its invention to Anaximander, who 
is said to have set it up in Lacedzemon. It is evident that he need not 
have invented it, but might have brought it from some country where 
its use was already known. It is significant that Anaximander and 
Anaximenes (to whom some writers ascribe the honor of the invention), 
were both fellow-citizens and pupils of Thales of Miletus, and that the 
date of this introduction synchronizes with the extensive and intimate 
acquaintance between Egypt and Greece, which, commencing in the 
reign of Psammetichus, reached its culmination under Amasis, the 
fourth king of that dynasty, and in which the people of Miletus bore 
the most prominent part. Under this last king, whom they assisted in 
throwing off the yoke of Assyria, Greeks swarmed in the Egyptian 
court, filled her armies, manned her fleets. They passed to and fro 
continually; Greek philosophers pursued their studies in Egyptian 
schools; and who shall say how many of the secrets of art and science 
found their way at that time from the land of the Pharaohs to the 
spirited and versatile people just emerging from barbarism across the 
Mediterranean? Surely, if under such conditions anything of Egyptian 
origin or likely to have been in Egyptian possession is found to have 
made its appearance among the Greeks, we need not speculate as to 
how it got there. 

It does not appear that the sun-dial was introduced to the Greeks in 
any perfected form. On the contrary, it was at first a mere staff or 
pillar (yyépov), destitute of any graduated dial which could indicate 
the passage of an hour or any definite fraction of a day. The length 
of the shadow, measured in feet, determined the time for certain regu- 
lar daily duties, as a shadow 6 feet long indicated the hour for bathing 
and one 12 feet long that for supper. More accurate and convenient 
forms were perhaps known to philosophers; but if so, they did not 
come into common use. This simple device was sufficient for the sim- 
ple habits of the people. The twelve parts of the day of which Herod- 
otus speaks had no meaning to the Athenians, who had no word meaning 
specifically an hour; and as late as the time of Alexander, the old system 
seems to have been followed. This kind of observation, it may be re- 
marked, was perfectly feasible in the shadow of an Egyptian obelisk, 
which may partly account for the absence of the instrument from other 
monuments of that country. As a matter of history, an obelisk at 
Rome was actually used for a sun-dial in the time of Augustus. 

We learn from this history at what period and in what stage of prog- 
ress the Greeks first had the idea of measuring time. If we associate 
it with the period of Solon, the Athenian law-giver who died about 570 
B. C., we may form some idea of the condition of the people of Athens 
from the character of his legislation and the miseries he attempted to 
mitigate. The Greeks had written language and they had literature,— 
Homer, Hesiod, Sappho. They had a system of weights and measures, 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 383 


and a coinage. They were prolific in political ideas. But the period 
just previous to Solon was marked by the tyranny of the oligarchs, the 
severity of whose legislation gave the term ‘ Draconian” its signifi- 
cance, by widespread poverty, by slavery, by the decline of agriculture 
and industry, and by the unceasing war of factions. Athens was 
emerging from such conditions as these, under the reign of Pisistratus, 
at the time when the Milesian philosopher is said to bave introduced 
the sun-dial. We may conceive that the conditions were not favor- 
able to the general adoption of any novelty of this character, but it is 
noticeable that this period was followed immediately by one of dem- 
ocratic ascendency under the constitution of Cleisthenes, in which the 
naval power and commercial importance of Athens were vastly aug- 
mented, and which continued without interruption until his invincible 
phalanxes laid all Greece at the feet of Philip of Macedon. 
’ It was during this era of maritime vigor, of commercial prosperity, 
and of dominating influence at home and abroad, that Athens achieved 
that splendor in art which has made her a beacon-light for all subse- 
quent peoples and ages; and in this period, time-keeping in common 
life had its first development. But the sun-dial is an instrument of 
limited capacity ; however perfected, it was valueless in the hours of 
night and in the days of cloud and storm that even sunny Greece does 
not always escape. But more than this, it was incapable of in-door 
use; and in the outgrowth of institutions under democratic order and 
among a litigious and voluble people a new and singular want had 
arisen demanding some means of checking time which, from its limita- 
tions, the sun-dial could nut supply. With her other arts, that of ora- 
tory had developed in Athens; but every orator was not a Pericles, 
and whatever may have been the merits or defects of their perform- 
ances the inordinate length of these was too great a tax on the tribu- 
nals. It therefore became necessary to limit avd apportion the time 
of public speakers in the courts, and to do this equitably some practical 
means of indicating time was necessary. Hence arose the demand for 
another instrumentality whose origin and history are now to be traced. 
It is proper to pause for a moment here to note a distinction between 
two kinds of instruments used to measure time. A continuous instru- 
ment like a clock, which marks off the hours of the day and night as 
they pass successively away, is what is called in Gommon language a 
time-keeper ; but there is a class of instruments which do not keep the 
record of continuous time, but are used only for the checking of brief 
periods ; such an instrument is the glass by which the seaman observes 
his log or the cook boils her eggs. To such instruments, for the want 
of a better term, I give the name time-checks, to distinguish them from 
time-keepers. Their use is quite distinct from that of observing the 
time of day, and yet it is apparent at once, that by careful attendance, 
as by turning the hour-glass at the moment when its last sand has run 
out, the time-check may be made to perform the office of a time-keeper, 


384 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


The allusions of ancient writers and of some modern ones to devices of 
these two classes are sometimes mis-leading and confusing because this 
distinction has not been kept in view. It is particularly important in 
the study of the clepsydra, which is originally a time-check only, while 
the sun-dial is a true time-keeper. 

The clepsydra or water clock, in its simplest form, is traced by his- 
torians no further than Greece, about 430 B. C., in the time of Aristo- 
phanes, whose familiar references to it show its use for certain purposes 
to have been common. 

I confess I have been far from satisfied with stopping at this half-way 
house in seeking for the origin of this instrument. I have sought fur- 
ther, and what I have found, if conclusive of nothing, is at least sug- 
gestive. : 

If, taking our lives in our hands, we could step on board a Malay proa, 
we should see floating in a bucket of water a cocoanut shell having a 
small perforation, through which the water by slow degrees finds its 
way into the interior. This orifice is so proportioned that the shell will 
fill and sink in an hour, when the man on watch calls the time and sets 
it afloat again. This device of a barbarous, unprogressive people, so 
thoroughly rude in itself, I conceive to be the rudest that search of any 
length can bring to light. It is in all aspects rudimentary. One can 
scarcely conceive of anything back of it but the play of children, and 
as a starting point for this history, it is much more satisfactory than 
what is disclosed in the polished ages of Greece. There is nothing in 
its structure, if we were to consider that only, to prevent it from being 
a survival of an age long antecedent to the use of metal. The pro- 
tolithic age might have originated it if can conceive that pretolithic man 
could have had use for it. 

Leaving our piratical friends, to whom we are so much indebted, and 
passing to their not remote neighbors in Northern India, we find the 
rude cocoanut shell developed into a copper bowl]. Its operation is the 
same; but the attendant who stands by and watches the moment of its 
sinking, now strikes the hour on the resonant metal. It is easy to see— 
in fact it would be difficult to doubt—that this has been an improve- 
ment on an apparatus like that of the Malay and the natural result of 
improvements in other arts, eminently that of metal-working. It is 
more enduring, more perfectly accomplishes its purpose, and is in the 
precise direction that improvement on the ruder appliance might be ex- 
pected to pursue. 

Passing from Southern Asia to a people geographically remote, I next 
observe the water clock in use up to this day in China. We find the 
metal vessel with its minute perforation as before, but it has undergone 
a radical change in respect to its manner of use. It is now filled and 
the water flows from it in drops. Obviously enough the flight of time 
might be indicated by merely observing when the vessel has emptied 
itself, and then re-filling it, which, as will presently appear, was exactly 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 385 


the simplest Greek and Roman clepsydra and differs in no mechanical 
respect from the ordinary sand-glass. 

But in the days when the Chinese were a progressive people and de- 
veloped inventions for which Kurope had many centuries to wait, this 
water-clock advanced far beyond the crude thing we have been con- 
sidering. It would seem that the problem was to increase its usefulness 
by sub-dividing the unreasonably long intervals required for the com- 
plete emptying of the vessel. If this was done by marking graduations 
on the inside of the vessel and so noting the decline of the level the 
difference in its rate could not fail quickly to make itself manifest.. The 
solution of this problem, not obvious at first, was found in so arranging 
the vessel that it should discharge into another, where the indication 
would be read in the rise of the surface, and contriving to hold the 
water in the upper vessel at a constant level. This was done by employ- 
ing a third source, from which there was a constant flow into the first 
equal to its discharge. As the head in the middle vessel is thus main- 
tained constant, the rise in the lowest is made uniform. Another radical 
improvement enhancing the practical utility of the device was the ar- 
rangement of a float on the surface of the water in the lowest vessel. 
Upon this was an indicator or hand, which in its rise travelled over an 
adjacent scale, and so gave a time indication visible at a distance. 

To show what progress this structure implies in the development of 
the mechanical clock it is worth while to glance a moment at the essen- 
tial elements of such an instrument. Reduced to its lowest terms a 
clock consists of three elements only. These are a motor, or source of 
power, represented in our clocks by a spring or weight; an escape- 
ment, or a means by which the stored power in the motor is let off at a 
measured rate; and a dial, which is but the means by which the rate 
at which the power is let off is made visible to the eye. In this 
Chinese water-clock we discover all these elements. Water, acted on 
by gravity, is a familiar form of motor; the small perforation through 
which it slowly trickles drop by drop is a true escapement, doing in 
its place just what our complicated mechanisms are doing in theirs; 
and, rude as it may appear, it is one which mechanicians of our 
time are not ready to dispense with. The visual indication is given 
by the rise of the float, causing the pointer to pass over the scale. 
Going backward from this Chinese clock we perceive, but less dis- 
tinctly, the same elements in the Indian and Malay devices, in which 
the operation is reversed. In these the weight of the vessel, held 
up by the resistance of the water in which it floats, is the power; 
the perforation admitting the water by slow degrees is the escape- 
ment, and the only indicator is the visible sinking of the vessel 
itself. 

The three devices Gescribed correspond in the degree of their per- 
fection with the conditions of art and culture among the peoples to 
which they belong; and, as these conditions appear to have been 

H, Mis, 224—-—25° 


386 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


unchanged for a long period, we hazard little in assuming that they 
date from a remote epoch. A description of the Hindoo instrument 
appears in a Sanscrit work on astronomy in which it is adopted for 
astronomical observations, and Chinese writers do not hesitate to 
ascribe the invention to Hwang-ti, who flourished, according to their 
chronology, more than twenty-five centuries before our era, and its 
later improvement by the introduction of the float to Duke Chau, 
fourteen centuries later. 

In describing these three devices in the order in which I have placed 
them I do not mean to be understood as intimating that they have 
followed the same order in respect to the time of their development 
nor that they have been transmitted from one people to another in the 
same order. I have, for convenience, proceeded from the lowest form 
to the highest; but it may well be true that the lower was an adapta- 
tion from the higher, fitting it for coarser needs, and so being in a 
certain sense an improvement. Consideration of the lines of commerce 
might in fact lead to the suspicion that the Malay got his notions 
from the Chinese, since they must for many centuries have sailed the 
same waters and been in frequent contact. 

But we may come further west. Writers on this subject, while 
attributing to the Chaldeans the invention of the sun-dial, do not 
generally accredit them with the knowledge of any other instrument 
for measuring time. But if we may take as an authority Sextus Em- 
piricus, who wrote near the end of the second century of our era, 
they had, as he tells quite minutely, the same device, and used it in 
their astronomical observations. ‘They divided,” says this author, 
“the zodiac into twelve equal parts, as they supposed, by allowing 
water to run out of a small orifice during the whole revolution of a 
star, and dividing the fluid into twelve equal parts, the time answer- 
ing for each part being taken for that of the passage of a sign over 
the horizon.” I see no reason for doubting this. In fact the division 
of the zodiac into twelve signs seems to require a means of measuring 
the passage of time at night, and this fact and the story just quoted 
tally with the conclusion that an instrument of the common generic 
character borne by all the forms I have described was known among 
widely distinct peoples of Asia before the dawn of European civiliza- 
tion. 

Such an invention is not likely to be lost by political changes while 
supremacy in the exact sciences is maintained. We know that down 
to the Medo-Persian conquerors of Babylon each successive dominant 
race adopted, as has often happened in history, the dress, the manners, 
and the arts of the conquered; and we need not doubt that this instru- 
ment was in use in the Persian Empire when its sword first crossed 
that of the Greeks. 

No record exists of the introduction of the clepsydra into Greece. 
We might infer from the absence of all reference to it by Herodotus 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 35¢ 


that up to the period when his history ends, 478 B. ¢., it was not 
known. Fifty or sixty years later, when Aristophanes was writing his 
comedies, it was absolutely familiar in Athens. The interval named 
seems short in accounting for so radical a change in the habits of a 
people as is implied by the general introduction of such an appliance; 
and yet, if we ask ourselves as to the condition of the electric tele- 
graph or the sewing-machine fifty years ago or of the telephone ten 
years ago, it need not startle us to conceive that a versatile people like 
the Greeks were capable of as swift changes in their habits of life, as 
these inventions have induced in ours. That this epoch saw more than 
one change in Athens, in the aspect of the city, in the habits of the 
people, and above all in their advance in culture and refinement and 
the arts of peace, we may be sure when we remember that it includes 
all the years of Pericles’ administration. It ineludes also the aban- 
donment by Sparta, always unprogressive, of the leadership of the 
Greek commonwealths, and with this abandonment the removal of the 
re-actionary influences hitherto a clog to the enterprise and prosperity 
of Athens and of all Greece. 

In the absence of data on this subject it seems not unreasonable to 
believe that the knowledge of the clepsydra, vhich was widely spread 
among Oriental peoples, was introduced int>» Athens from the East 
during—or at the termination of—the second Persian war; and if we 
choose to surround its introduction with the halo of romance, it is not 
hard to conceive that these useful devices of civilization were gathered 
up among the spoils of Platza or washed ashore with the wrecks of 
Salamis. A more commonplace and not less likely conjecture would be 
that the instrument was already becoming known in the Creek colonies 
of Asia, and perhaps even in Athens herself, through intercourse with 
the Persians and other Oriental peoples. It came into common use in 
obedience to the want, not of a time-keeper, which was already supplied, 
but of a time-check,—a want created by the conditions of Athenian so- 
ciety which I have already described, and which the only known time- 
keeper could not satisfy. 

If the increasing burden and tediousness of litigation led to the en- 
actment of a statute restricting and apportioning the time of speakers 
in the courts, and providing this means for its regulation, it is easy to 
seé that the use of such means must become at once familiar. I have 
found no trace of such enactments, but that strict ordinances existed 
there is no doubt. We know that the time of speakers was carefully 
proportioned to the importance of the case; and trials of importance 
enough to have the time apportioned were known as zpos édwp, while 
those of trifling importance, in which perhaps no lawyer appeared, 
were known as avev Sdatos, two terms which may be freely rendered 
wet and dry, the dry case being as it happens most quickly disposed of. 
In a case of great moment to the State, involving a charge of faith- 
lessness in an embassy, each party was allowed 10 amphorie, or about 


Os 


388 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


50 gallons of water. Nothing however seems to be known of the 
actual length of time indicated by this quantity of water. A passage 
in Aristotle gives some idea of the form of the clepsydra as commonly 
used. It was a spherical bottle with its minute opening at the bottom 
and a short neck at the top, into which the water was poured. The 
running out of the water at the bottom could be stopped by closing this 
neck. In using the word bottle I do not mean to imply that this 
clepsydra was of glass. Glass vessels of a suitable size could not be 
made at that period. 

The familiar association of this device with the courts is shown in 
many ways. Aristophanes throughout his comedies is in the habit of 
using the word clepsydra as a synonym for court of justice, and in a 
humorous passage in The Wasps the impossibility of conducting a trial 
without it is quite forcibly set forth, by the introduction, to supply its 
place, of a vessel intended for less refined purposes. In fact, 5d0p be- 
came a synonym for time. We find Demosthenes charging his oppo- 
nent with talking 2y rd 2na Sdate, “in my water ;” and on another occa- 
sion he shows the value he attached to the time allotted to him by turn- 
ing to the officer, when interrupted, with a peremptory ob 6: éxthaBe 70 
Bdwp, “You there! Stop the water !” 

I shall again have to refer to this use of the clepsydra when I come 
to the Roman period of this history, and will not follow it further now ; 
nor shall I consider its use as a time-keeper, which, if ever general in 
Greece, was not until a very late period, belonging rather to the Roman 
chapter also. The story that Plato had a clepsydra which indicated the 
hours of night is of little moment, although it is frequently taken as in- 
dicating some kind of a striking apparatus; but the language of the 
author who is the only authority for the statement contains no allusion 
to an audible signal, nor in fact any intelligible allusion except to a 
larger clepsydra than usual. 

In fact, all the improvements by which this instrument was converted 
into a time-keeper belong to so late a period of Greek history that it is 
more convenient to consider them further on. 

Where Greek colonies were founded, and where Greek influence pre- 
dominated Greek acts and culture flourished also. Under the Ptolemies, 
Alexandria became a second home of art and science, not inferior to 
Athens herself. Toa greater or less extent the same must have been 
true of the great cities which dotted the northern coast or the Mediter- 
ranean, such as Tarentum, Agrigentum, and Syracuse. With kindred 
people, similar culture and needs, and with unceasing commercial in- 
tercourse, there is no reason to doubt that whatever was in common use 
in the mother cities found its way to them also. It was in Alexandria 
that in the shape of what is appropriately termed the water-clock the 
clepsydra attained its highest development, in the inventions of Ctesi- 
bius, who is placed by some writers in the third century B. Cc. and by 
others with more probability in the second, I reserve these inventions 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 389 


also for the latest epoch in this history, to which they seem more prop- 
erly to belong, and will now pass to Rome. 

There is no reason to believe that the Etruscan people, with all their 
proficiency in certain arts and a vigorous and extensive maritime com- 
merce, possessed any artificial means of indicating time. If they had, 
it could hardly have failed to come into use among the Romans, whose 
relations with them for centuries were close, even if generally hostile. 
But it was not till a late period, long after Etruria had been crushed 
under the successive assaults of her northern and southern enemies, 
that any device of this character was known to the people of Rome. 

Indeed, the condition of society and of the arts in Rome at that era 
was not such as to require any reckoning of the time of day beyond 
the observation of sunrise and sunset. In the. twelve tables, which 
date from the middle of the fifth century B. C., noon also is mentioned. 
But the facts that history has preserved to us show that the Romans of 
that time were a thoroughly rude and almost barbarous people. It was 
not till two centuries later than this, in the year of Rome 485 (268 B. 
c.), that silver coinage was first struck. Pliny says that barbers were 
first introduced about the same time, and that till then the Romans had 
gone unshorn, Cicero says the arts which had reached some degree of 
perfection in Etruria were even allowed to retrograde. He says the 
Romans had some knowledge of arithmetic and land surveying, but 
they could not improve their calendar, and were not even in condition 
to erect a common sun-dial. As to the state of commerce and agricult- 
ure, we are told that in the fourth century of Rome, private enterprise 
was so inadequate to the provisioning of the city, that state commis- 
sioners were placed in charge of it. 

It would seem that Rome was at that period a capital, populous in- 
deed, but without arts or sciences, without industries and without culti- 
vation. War was the only trade and pJunder the only source of public 
or private revenue. For the civil purposes of such a people the natural 
divisions of time were all that were necessary. They marked the pe- 
riods for toil and repose, and that was enough. 

These were a ruder people than those of Athens in the time of Solon ; 
but if they had less of culture they had less of tyranny and less of in- 
testine warfare to contend with at home than had the Greeks, and they 
were always reaching out, widening their domain, absorbing neighbor- 
ing peoples, and making each in its turn add to the strength and glory 
of their capital. Whatever the art and science of the subdued nations 
could contribute to the prosperity of Rome, came by the enforced levy 
of the conqueror. 

The time system of early Rome was, like everything else, of the 
rudest character. Growing out of their military habits and adapted to 
them, it divided the day and night each into four watches, the periods 
of which must have been roughiy determined by observation of the 
courses of the sun and stars. In the city, according to Pliny, noon be- 


390 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


gan to be accurately observed some years after the publication of the 
law of the twelve tables. The accensus watched for the moment when, 
from the Senate House, he first caught sight of the sun between the 
Rostra and the Grieco-Stasis, when he proclaimed publicly the hour of 
noon. From the same point he watched the declining sun and pro- 
claimed its disappearance. 

Authorities differ as to the date of the introduction of the sun-dial 
into Rome. Pliny attributes it to the consul L. Papirius Cursor, who 
set it up at the temple of Quirinus. This has been supposed to be a 
trophy from the Samnite war, but, as the Samnites were a ruder people 
even than the Romans, that seems scarcely credible. Varro, as reported 
by Pliny, gives a clearer story, that the first public sun-dial erected in 
Rome was fixed upon a column near the Rostra in the time of the first 
Punie war by the Consul Valerius Messala, and adds that it was brought 
from the capture of Catina. The date given by Varro, 491 A. U. c., 
corresponds to 262 B. c., and is about thirty years later than that 
ascribed by Pliny to the dial of Cursor. As a source for this instru- 
ment, Sicily with her Greek arts and refinements, is much more prob- 
able than the rude Samnite people, and with real appreciation of Pliny’s 
frankness, we may accept the story he quotes from Varro in preference 
to his own. 

What were the social conditions in Rome at this period, the middle 
of tie third century before our era? It needs scarcely more than a 
glance at a chronological table to see that it was a period of swift ad- 
vance from the primitive rudeness that has been described. In the 
year 283 B. c. Etruria and her allies, hitherto perpetual foes to Rome, 
were totally defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, and about 265 B. ©. 
Etruscan independence disappeared forever, simultaneously with the 
subjugation of all Italy. The whole peninsula her own, Rome reaches 
out beyond. The Grieco-Egyptian monarchy, then at the very height 
of its power and magnificence under Ptolemy Philadelphus, seeks her 
alliance. The Greek cities across the Adriatic court her favor. She 
pushes her conquering arms across into Sicily, which, in 241 B. C., be- 
comes a Roman province, followed a little later by Corsica and Sar- 
dinia. No longer prima inter pares among the warring tribes and na- 
tions of Italy, she has sprung as if at a single bound into her position 
as one of the great powers of the world. 

The absorption of Magna-Grvecia and Sicily brought under her do- 
minion for the first time a cultured people and populous cities, filled 
with and habituated to Grecian art and the appliances of refinement 
and luxury, and the sun-dial of Catina is but one instance of what was 
borne away to embellish the Imperial City. Doubtless the fame and 
wealth of the capital offered strong inducements to the skilled artisans 
of dismantled Tarentum, while the captives of Agrigentum may in 
their turn have contributed in no small degree to her industrial popu- 
lation. 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. ool 


The colonists planted by thousands far and wide over the conquered 
territory of Italy formed a sturdy rural population,—a strong reliance 
in peace and war. And the great highways built for the march of the 
legions, and hitherto searcely resounding but to their armed tread, now 
became the arteries of a steady and growing traffic. The needs of a 
circulating medium in her domestic and foreign trade were ill supplied 
by the copper coins she had struck hitherto, and the products of vari- 
ous foreign mints tbat had come to her with her otber acquisitions ; and 
in 258 B. C., she began to coin silver of her own. Carthagenian jeal- 
ousy of her aggressive rivalry led to the necessity of maintaining a 
fleet, and (after some disasters) to maritime supremacy. 

‘‘The ten years preceding the first Punic war,” says Dr. Thomas Ar- 
nold, ‘+ were probably a time of the greatest physical prosperity which the 
mass of the Roman people had ever seen,” and it is in this very decade, 
with enlarging industries, with a growing commerce, with multiplying 
complications in public and private business, that Rome stepped from 
the spring time of her history into her vigorous summer, and with this, 
step time-keeping began. 

The Catanian sun-dial was no mere gnomon such as had been intro- 
duced into Greece three centuries earlier. Greek science and genius had 
been at work on it, and it was an improved instrument, constructed for 
a particular latitude, and that 5° south of Rome. But there was no 
science yetin Rome to detect its imperfections, and, in spite of them, 
for ninety-nine years it served as the regulator of time for the city. 
Searcely credible as it may seem, it was not therefore till about a cen- 
tury anda half before the Christian era that Rome possessed: her first 
accurate time-keeper in the form of a sun-dial constructed especially 
for her own latitude, which was set up at the instance of the Censor 
Marcius Phillippus. Meanwhile dials of imperfect construction had 
become common in the city; so common indeed, that as new inven- 
tions nowadays afford material for the American paragrapher, they be- 
came the happy sourceof quipsandepigrams. Thus Plautus, in what I 
admit is rather a liberal version : 





When I was young, no time-piece Rome supplied, 
jut every fellow had his own—inside ; 

A trusty horologe, that—rain or shine— 

Ne’er failed to warn him of the hour—to dine. 

Then sturdy Romans sauntered through the Forum, 

Tat, hale, content; for trouble ne’er came o’er them. 

But now these cursed dials show their faces 

All over Rome, in streets and public places ; 

And men, to know the hour, the cold stone question, 

That has no heart, no stomach, no digestion. 

They watch the creeping shadows—daily thinner— 

Shadows themselves, impatient for their dinner. 

Give me the good old time-piece, if you please, 

Confound the villain that invented these ! 


392 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


As formerly, in Greece, the clepsydra came to supply the deficiencies 
of the sun-dial, so history repeated itself in Rome. Pliny ascribes its 
introduction to Scipio Nasica in the year of Rome 595 (158 B. c.). Of 
the form of this clepsydra we have no knowledge, butit was no longer a 
mere time-check, such as was used in the Athenian courts, but a true 
time-keeper, capable of indicating continuously the hours both of day 
and night. There were many adopted for this purpose, as will pres- 
ently beshown. In Pompey’s third consulship (52 B. c.), he introduced 
the custom of apportioning the time of orators in the courts by the 
clepsydra, after the Greek fashion. The decline of Roman oratory has 
been attributed to this restriction, which, after all, seems to have left 
the speaker a fair amount of time. Pliny says: “I spoke for almost 
five hours, for to the twelve clepsydre of the largest size which I re- 
ceived, four were added.” Some read twenty in place of twelve, which 
seems to be the preferable reading, and out of it we get some idea of 
the time consumed by one discharge of the vessel. If twenty-four 
clepsydras 1s ‘almost five hours,” it appears likely that the discharge 
was at the rate of five to the hour; and this helps us to better under- 
stand Martial’s epigram to a tedious lawyer who had been permitted to 
exhaust the clepsydra seven times. It makes something less than an 
hour and a half; but the orator’s mouth was as dry as his discourse, 
and he drank copiously, whereupon the witty poet suggests that he can 
satisfy his thirst and his audience at once by drinking out of the 
clepsydra. 

In Rome at this period the use of the clepsydra, in the form both ofa 
time-check and time-keeper, was quite general,—not as the house clock 
is common to-day—but generally known, and serving to regulate the 
hours of business and pleasure. Menof means had them in their houses, 
and slaves were kept whose special duties were to watch them and re- 
port the hour. Idlers meeting in the market-place or forum accosted 
each other with “* Hora quota est,” by way of opening conversation, as 
they now comment on the weather or compare watches. Generals took 
the water-clock with them to the field and relieved the watch by it dur- 
ing the hours of night. An allusion by Cesar has been the source of a 
curious misconception, that he found this instrument in use among the 
Britons at the time of hisinvasion. Evidently referring tothe phenom- 
enon now so familiar of the Arctic night hesays some had reported that 
at Mona the night at the winter solstice lasted for a month. “ Our in- 
quiries,” he continues, ‘* did not confirm this, but by careful measure- 
ments ex aqua we saw that the nights were shorter than on the conti- 
nent.” To draw from this the conclusion that the early Britons had 
water-clocks is about as if we were to infer from the Signal Service 
observations at Point Barrow that the Eskimos of that region were 
found in possession of the thermometer. 

Greece too had by this time fallen under Roman rule, and the clep- 
sydra as a time-keeper was well known in Athens. The most eminent 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 393 


instance of it probably for all time, was in the Tower of the Winds, 
which, fifty years before our era, was erected in the market-place in that 
city. A running stream kept at a constant level the water in an upper 
vessel, the discharge from which raised a float in a lower one, like that 
in the Chinese water-clock before described. This was the public time- 
piece of Athens, and its indications could always be compared with 
those of the sun-dials on the frieze of the octagonal building by which 
it wasineclosed. At the top of the roof was a weather-vane in the form 
of a Triton, who pointed with his trident towards the prevailing wind. 
This institution served for Athens the combined purpose of a naval 
observatory and a weather bureau. 

With time-keeping so generally observed, and with a fair degree of 
accuracy secured by means of mechanical contrivances, this history 
closes, butin reciting it I have omitted or only incidentally touched 
upon the growth of the idea of dividing the day into hours and the me- 
chanical elaboration of what—in its perfected form—is properly termed 
the water-clock. These elements, in the complete history, are too im- 
portant to be omitted. 

Since we are only concerning ourselves with time-keeping in common 
life, we need not go back to Egypt or Babylon, where there is no evi- 
dence that it was known except to the initiated few. Whatever ideas 
are conveyed to us by the twelve divisions of the day known to the 
Babylonians, or by the graduated dial set up by the Hebrew king in his 
palace, it is evident that if the Greek philosophers derived from their 
Eastern contemporaries any notions of common or domestic time-keep- 
ing, these failed to take root in their soil until Greece, by her own pro- 
gress, had prepared it to receive them. 

The divisions of the day known to Homer were three: 7s, for the 
period from sunrise till noon; péoov juap, for mid-day ; and didn, for 
afternoon till sunset. These divisions were employed in Greece to the 
latest period and long after others more exact were inuse. Even with 
our nice observance of time we have similar general expressions for 
parts of the day, such as morning, mid-day, afternoon, and many others 
often having only local use. 

If the Babylonian “twelve parts” of the day were made known to 
the Greeks, as Herodotus tells us, it was a knowledge for which they 
had no use at that period. With the introduction of the gnomon they 
began to observe time more closely, but they had no names for its arbi- 
trary divisions. 

When the shadow was 6 feet long it was time to bathe; when twice 
that length it was time tosup. It is not even certain, to my mind, that 
they clearly appreciated the varying length of the day. There is no 
possibility of setting a summer and winter day side by side and com- 
paring them, and the difference between them can only be determined 
by some means of measuring time quite distinct from observation of 
the sun or shadows. The great difference between the days of winter 


394 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


and summer in our latitude, which is nearly that of Athens, seems to 
us to be plainly discernable; but if we could divest ourselves of our ac- 
quired knowledge and of our means for keeping time, and put ourselves 
in the place of the Greek of 600 B. C., we should probably fail to ob- 
serve the fact except very dimly. 

Accurate division begins with the observation of noon, and we have 
seen pretty clearly when this began in Greece. The next step in sub- 
division consists in dividing the day into quarters by dividing equally 
the periods before and after noon. This division was at least known to 
the Greeks, but I see no evidence that it was in common use; nor in 
fact does it appear that they in daily life made use of close sub-divisions, 
until Roman influences prevailed and the Roman divisions of the day 
were adopted. 

In Rome the division of both the day and night into four watches re- 
sulted naturally from the military character of her people and remained 
in use down to the latest period. These divisions of the day corre- 
sponded with what were afterwards the third, six, and ninth hours, and 
it was customary for one of the subordinate officers of the praetor to 
proclaim them. They bad also a three-part division corresponding to 
that of the Greeks. 

Artificial means of measuring time came to the Romans so much later 
than to the Greeks that great improvements had been wrought in them. 
Science had gone so far in Egypt and Sicily that sun-dials were con- 
structed for particular latitudes; but it is not clear that, as at first in- 
troduced, they were graduated. The same sub-division of the day into 
four watches that has just been noticed might obviously give the first 
suggestion of such graduation by bisecting the angle between the noon- 
mark and those of sunrise and sunset. As a closer sub-division was re- 
quired the Romans appear to have taken one already known in Egypt 
and better adapted to the latitude of Thebes and Memphis than to that 
of Italy. This was the division of the day and night into twelfths 
(which varied in their length as the seasons changed) and is commonly 
known as the Roman system. Before intimate relations began between 
Rome and Egypt, Greece had already been annexed and the same sys- 
tem was introduced there, as also in Palestine, and wherever the Roman 
eagles penetrated. This division adapted itself perfectly to the older 
one already in use in Rome and its adoption was natural. The only 
change in the sun-dial that it involved was a further sub-division of the 
spacing. Being an improvement that cost nothing and could be 
adopted without any radical changes in the habits of daily life, it was 
one to commend itself to the people, who were slow to change; and when 
a few years later, in the middle of the second century B. C., Hippar- 
chus proposed the division into equinoctial hours, the same as used 
now, the proposition met no welcome. This accurate and convenient 
system did not adapt itself to the established notions of the times, and 
the Roman hours secured a firmer and firmer grip, resulting, as I am 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 395 


inclined to believe, in one of the most remarkable instances of retarda- 
tion of invention that history records. It was not until Europe had 
emancipated herself from slavery to this most awkward of time systems 
that modern time-keeping became possible. For many centuries in- 
vention was as it were thrown off the scent by the necessity of con- 
verting the regular and uniform motions which could be given to 
mechanism into means for displaying the ever-varying hours of the Ro- 
man system. 

The word “hora,” proposed by Hipparchus to express these divisions 
of the day, was adopted in its new sense by Greeks and Romans simul- 
taneously and has ever since held its place in all the languages of 
Europe. In fact it was used in two senses; in its significance of the va- 
rying Roman hour it could not be employed to define exact intervals of 
time; when employed for that purpose itexpressed exactly what we ex- 
press by it now,—the twenty-fourth part of a civil day. The passage in 
Pliny I have quoted is not intelligible unless the word ‘ hour” is em- 
ployed in this sense. 

Enough was said in the early part of this paper to show the line in 
which the clepsydra developed, the water-clock at Canton and that in 
the Tower of the Winds at Athens being examples of it in a fairly per- 
fected state as a time-keeper. Invention had succeeded in giving to the 
rising pointer a regular motion, and adapting it well to its purpose. 
Other advances were made in it, and of these it remains to speak. 
Improvement, handicapped by the clumsy Roman hours, found in this 
fact a stimulus to ingenuity. To adapt it to indicate these hours one 
rude scheme was to reduce the capacity of the vessel from which the 
water flowed by coating it with wax in the winter time. The orifice 
remaining unchanged it emptied more quickly. The wax was gradually 
removed as the days lengthened. Of course the same instrument 
could not serve for both day and night. Less clumsy means for regu- 
lating the flow, as by adjusting the size of the orifice, were afterwards 
invented. One of these involved the passage of the water through a 
hollow cone or funnel, in which was an interior cone capable of adjust- 
ment. for each day in the year; another, invented by Ctesibius, left the 
water-flow, and consequently the rise and fall of the float—constant, 
but included an automatic device by which the graduated scale over 
which the marker travelled was changed daily. 

This difficulty in adapting the clepsydra to keep Roman time is pre- 
cisely the same that the early Dutch navigators met with on their in- 
troduction of the clock into Japan, where the division of the day is 
into ten hours of varying length. The plan they adopted is a clumsy 
one, but of the same character as that of Ctesibius, since they did not 
attempt to alter the rate of the ciock, but attached movable indications 
to the dial so that they might be changed with the season. One of 
these clocks is in the possession of the Bureauof Education, a gift from 
the Japanese Government after the Centennial Exposition of 1876, 


396 TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 


But improvements in the clepsydra such as have been described, not- 
withstanding the ingenuity and mechanical skill they displayed, are of 
little consequence to us, Since they were not towards the accomplish- 
ment of the final result but away from it. The actual steps towards 
the modern clock appear to be these: First, the employment of the or- 
dinary rack and pinion device. If we are right in attributing the in- 
vention of gear-wheels to Archimedes, this application could not have 
been made earlier than the middle of the third century B. Cc. (287 to 
212). Itis attributed to Ctesibius, who, for many reasons as I have 
said already, is placed a century later than this. <A series of teeth, 
commonly called a rack, was attached to the side of the rod, which was 
supported by the float, and had heretofore served only as an index. 
Fixed on a horizontal shaft above the vessel was a small toothed wheel, 
with which the toothed rack engaged, and which was, therefore, caused 
to turn by therise of the float. On this shaft was a pointer attached 
like the hour-hand of a clock and travelling over a similar dial. To make 
this hand complete a circuit in twelve or twenty-four hours, is obviously 
only a question of the proportion of parts. The next step forward dis- 
pensed with the rack and pinion, and really was in the line of greater 
simplicity. In place of the toothed wheel a grooved pully was used, 
over which passed a cord from the float, being kept tight by a weight 
at the other end. The hand remained on the wheel shaft as before, and 
with the gradual rise of the float, traversed the dial. 

We have reached the point where we may say “ presto, change,” and 
behold, a clock springs into view, for it is instantly apparent that with 
this structure it is no longer the water that advances the hand; water 
is not the motor now. The weight is the motor, and its fall is retarded 
by the float, which only permits its descent as fast as the rise of water 
in the vessel permits its own rise. We have an actual weight clock, 
with what we must be content to regard as a water escapement; it is 
far enough from our perfected time-piece, but in respect to its essential 
elements it differs in but one, and henceforth the problem of the clock 
is only that of escapements. But we need not expectit to be solved at 
once. It will be centuries before the actual problem will be recognized, 
so great is the obscurity with which the Roman time system has be- 
clouded the subject. 

There is a long and mournful perspective before us. The golden age 
of Roman literature is here, but she has yet to see the greatest extent 
of her empire and the summit of her own magnificence. A long line of 
Ciesars will come, base and noble alternating. Her decline will follow 
her glory; her palaces are to be plundered by barbarous northern in- 
vaders; her empire is to be shattered; out of her vast domain new 
peoples and nations and empires scarcely less mighty than her own are 
to spring, while she herself sinks to the paltry dimensions of a village. 
Her polished speech shall die from men’s lips, but the rude dialects of 
her provinces, mingling with the uncouth tongues of illiterate Franks 


TIME-KEEPING IN GREECE AND ROME. 397 


and Goths, shall develop into new languages, in time to become as per- 
fect vehicles of thought as their original. New forms of government and 
of social order shall spring from her laws and institutions and philoso- 
phies ; and from the hills of credulous and despised Judea is to burst 
a new religion, before whose bright beams the perpetual fires of Vesta 
shall pale and the whole train of Olympian gods vanish like the mist. 
But amongst these unconceived changes, and through the storms that 
shall sweep away—and the cataclysms that shall engulf—all the objects 
of her pride and glory and reverence, there shall still endure what she 
cared least for (constant in all their inconstancy), the Roman hours. 

The problem of improving the time-keeper is one with which cloistered 
scholars and mechanicians will not cease to contend, but the barrier 
that Rome has set up will continue to baffle their ingenuity; and when 
thirteen centuries shall have passed since Hipparchus in vain urged the 
advantages of the equinoctial system and Ctesibius strove to solve the 
riddle of Roman time by some practical mechanism, we shall still find 
Bernardo Monachus recording how the monks of Cluny perplexed their 
pious souls with the old, old question, and how the good sacristan must 
needs to go out into the night to learn—from the stars—if it were time 
to call the brethren to prayer. 





BOTANICAL BIOLOGY.* 


By W. T. THISELTON-DYER, F. R. S. 


It is not so very long ago, that at English universities, at least, the 
pursuit of botany was regarded rather as an elegant accomplishment 
than as a serious occupation. This is the more remarkable, because at 
every critical point in the history of botanical science, the names of our 
countrymen will be found to occupy an honorable place in the field 
of progress and discovery. In the seventeenth century, Hooke and 
Grew laid the foundation of the cell-theory, while Millington, by dis- 
covering the function of stamens, completed the theory of the flower. 
In the following century, Morison first raised ferns from spores, Lind- 
say detected the fern prothallus, Ray laid the foundations of a natural 
classification, Hales discovered root-pressure, and Priestley the absorp- 
tion of carbon dioxide and the evolution of oxygen by plants. In the 
early part of the present one, we have Knight’s discovery of the true 
cause of geotropism, Daubeny’s of the effect upon the processes of plant- 
life of rays of light of different refrangibility, and finally, the first de- 
scription of the cell-nucleus by R. Brown. i need not attempt to carry 
the list through the last half century. I have singled out these discov- 
eries as striking landmarks, the starting-points of important develop- 
ments of the subject. It is enough for my purpose to show that we 
have always had an important school of botany in England, which has 
contributed at least its share to the general development of the science. 

I think at the moment however, we have little cause for anxiety. 
The academic chairs throughout the three kingdoms are filled for the 
most part with young, enthusiastic, and well-trained men. Botany is 
everywhere conceded its due position as the twin branch with zoology— 
of biological science. We owe to the enlightened administration of 
the Oxford University Press the possession of a journal which allows 
of the prompt and adequate publication of tbe results of laboratory 
research. The excellent work which is being done in every part of the 
botanical field has received the warm sympathy of our colleagues abroad. 
I need only recall to your recollection, as a striking evidence of this, 








* Presidential address before the Biological Section of the British Association, A.S., 
at Bath, September, 1888. (Report of the British Association, vol. LV111, pp. 686-701), 
399 


400 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


‘the remarkable gathering of foreign botanists which will ever make the 
meeting of this association at Manchester a memorable event to all of 
us. The reflection rises sadly to the mind that it can never be repeated. 
Not many months, as you know, had passed before the two most prom- 
inent figures in that happy assemblage had been removed from us by 
the inexorable hand of death. 

In Asa Gray we miss a figure which we could never admit belonged 
wholly to the other side of the Atlantic. In technical botany we recog- 
nized him as altogether in harmony with the methods of work and 
standard of excellence of our own most distinguished taxonomists. But 
apart from this, he had the power of grasping large and far-reaching 
ideas, which I do not doubt would have brought him distinction in 
any branch of science. We owe to him the classical discussion of the 
facts of plant distribution in the northern hemisphere, which is one of 
the corner-stones of modern geographical botany. He was one of the 
earliest of distinguished naturalists who gave his adhesion to the theory 
of Mr. Darwin. A man of simple and sincere piety, the doctrine of de- 
scent never presented any difficulty to him. He will remain in our 
memories as a figure endowed with a sweetness and elevation of char- 
acter which may be compared even with that of Mr. Darwin himself. 

In De Bary we seem to have suffered no less a personal loss than in 
the case of Gray. Though, before last year, I do not know that he had 
ever been in England, so many of our botanists had worked under him 
that his influence was widely felt amongst us. And it may be said that 
this was almost equally so in every part of the civilized world. His po- 
sition as a teacher was in this respect probably unique, and the tradi- 
tions of his methods of work must permanently affect the progress of 
botany, and indeed have an even wider effect. This is not the occasion 
to dwell on each of his scientific achievements. It is sufficient to say 
that we owe to him the foundations of a rational vegetable pathology. 
He first grasped the true conditions of parasitism in plants, and not 
content with working out the complex phases of the life-history of the 
invading organism, he never lost sight of the conditions which permit- 
ted or inhibited its invasion. He treated the problem, whether on the 
side of the host or of the parisite, as a whole—as a biological problem 
in fact, in the widest sense. It is this thorough grasp of the conditions 
of the problem that gives such a peculiar value to his last published 
book, the ‘* Lectures on Bacteria,” an admirable translation of which we 
owe to Professor Balfour. To this I shall have again to refer. I must 
content myself with saying now, that in this and all his work there is that 
note of highest excellence which consists in lifting detail to the level of 
the widest generality. To a weak man this is a pitfall, in which a firm 
grasp of fact is lost in rash speculation. But when, as in De Bary’s 
case, a true scientific insight is inspired by something akin to genius, 
the most fruitful conceptions are the result. Yet De Bary never sacri- 
ficed exactness to brilliancy, and to the inflexible love of truth which 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 401 


pervaded both his work and his personal intercourse we may trace the 
secret of the extraordinary influence which he exerted over his pupils. 
As the head of one of the great national establishments of the country 
devoted to the cultivation of systematic botany, I need hardly apologize 
for devoting a few words to the present position of that branch of the 
science. Ofits fundamental importance I have myself no manner of 
doubt. But as my judgment may seem in such a matter not wholly free 
from bias, I may fortify myself with an opinion which can hardly be 
minimized in that way. The distinguished chemist Prof. Lothar Meyer, 
perhaps the most brilliant worker in the field of theoretical chemistry, 
finds himself, like the systematic botanist, obliged to defend the posi- 
tion of descriptive science. And he draws his strongest argument from 
biology. ‘The physiology of plants and animals,” he tells us, ‘‘requires 
systematic botany and zoology, together with the anatomy of the two 
kingdoms; each speculative science requires a rich and well-ordered 
material, if it is not to lose itself in empty and fruitless fantasies.” No 
one of course supposes that the accumulation of plant specimens in 
herbaria is the mere outcome of a passion for accumulating. But to do 
good systematic work requires high qualities of exactitude, patience, 
and judgment. As I attempted to show on another occasion, the world 
is hardly sensible of the influence which the study of the subject has 
had on its affairs. The school of Jeremy Bentham has left an indelible 
mark on the social and legislative progress of our own time. Mills 
tells us that “the proper arrangement of a code of laws depends on 
the same scientific conditions as the classifications in natural history ; 
nor could there,” he adds, ‘ be a better preparatory discipline for that 
important function than the principles of a natural arrangement, not 
only in the abstract, but in their actual application to the class of phe- 
nomena for which they were first elaborated, and which are still the 
best school for learning their use.” He further tells us that of this, 
Jeremy Bentham was perfectly aware, and that his “ Fragment on Gov- 
ernment” contains clear and just views on the meaning of a natural ar- 
rangement which reflect directly the influence of Linnweus and Jussieu. 
Mill himself possessed a competent knowledge of systematic botany, 
and therefore was well able to judge of its intellectuai value. For my 
part, I do not doubt that precisely the same qualifications of mind which 
made Jeremy Bentham a great jurist, enabled his nephew to attain the. 
eminence he reached as.a botanist. As a mere matter of mental gym- 
nastic, taxonomic. science will hold is own with. any pursuit. And of 
course what I say of botany.is no less true of other branches of natural 
history. Mr. Darwin devoted eight or nine years to the systematic 
study of the Cirripedia. ‘‘ No one,” he himself tells us, ‘has a right to 
examine the question of species who has not minutely described many.” 
And Mr. Huxley has pointed out, in the admirable memoir of Mr. Dar- 
win which he has prepared for the Royal Society, that ‘the acquire- 
ment of an intimate and practical knowledge of the process of species- 
H. Mis. 224——26. . 


402 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


making” - - - was “of no less importance to the author of the 
‘Origin of Species’ than was the bearing of the Cirripede work upon 
the principles of a natural classification.” 

At present the outlook for systematic botany is somewhat discourag- 
ing. France, Germany, and Austria, no longer possess anything likea 
school on the subject, though they still supply able and distinguished 
workers. That these are however few, may be judged from the fact 
that it is difficult to fill the place of the lamented Eichler in the diree- 
tion of the botanic garden and herbarium at Berlin. Outside our cwn 
country, Switzerland is the most important seat of general systematic 
study, to which three generations of De Candolles have devoted them- 
selves. The most active centers of work at the moment are, however, 
to be found in our own country, in the United States, and in Russia. 
And the reason is in each case no doubt the same. The enormous area 
of the earth’s surface over which each country holds sway brings to 
them a vast amount of material which peremptorily demands discus- 
sion. 

No country however affords such admirable facilities for work in 
sytematic botany as are now to be found in London. The Linnean So- 
ciety possesses the herbarium of Linneeus; the Botanical Department 
of the British Museum is rich in the collections of the older botanists ; 
while at Kew we have a constantly-increasing assemblage of material, 
either the results of travel and expeditions, or the contributions of cor- 
respondents in different parts of the Empire. A very large proportion 
of this has been worked up. But I am painfully impressed with the 
fact that the total of our available workers bears but a small proportion 
to the labor ready to their hands. 

This is the more a matter of concern, because for the few official posts 
which are open to botanists at home or abroad, a practical knowledge of 
systematic botany is really indispensable. For suitable candidates for 
these, one naturally looks to the universities. And so far, I am sorry 
to say, in great measure one looks in vain. It would be no doubt a 
great impulse to what is undoubtedly an important branch of national 
scientific work if fellowships could occasionally be given to men who 
showed some aptitude for it. But these should not be mere prizes for 
under-graduate study, but should exact some guaranty that during the 
tenure of the fellowship the holder would seriously devote himself to 
some definite piece of work. At present, undoubtedly, the younger 
generation of botanists show a disposition to turn aside to those fields 
in which more brilliant and more immediate results can be attained. 
Their neglect of systematic botany brings to some extent its own Ne- 
mesis. <A first principle of systematic botany is that a name should de- 
note a definite and ascertainable species of plant. Butin physiological 
literature you will find that the importance of this is often overlooked. 
Names are employed which are either not to be found in the books, or 
they are altogether mis-applied. But if proper precautions are taken te 





ee 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 403 


ascertain the accurate botanical name of a plant, no botanist throughout 
the civilized world is at a loss to identify it. 

But precision in nomenclature is only the necessary apparatus of the 
subject. The data of systematic botany, when properly discussed, lend 
themselves to very important generalizations. Perhaps those which 
are yielded by the study of geographical distribution are of the most 
general interest. The mantle of vegetation which covers the surface of 
the earth, if only we could rightly unravel its texture, would tell us a 
good deal about geological history. The study of geographical distri- 
bution, properly handled, affords an independent line of attack upon the 
problem of the past distribution of land and sea. It would probably 
never afford sufficient data for a complete independent solution of the 
problem; but it must always be extremely useful as a check upon other 
methods. Here however we are embarrassed by the enormous amount 
of work which has yet to be accomplished. And unforturately this is 
not of a kind which can be indefinitely postponed. The old terrestrial 
order is fast passing away before our eyes. Everywhere the primitive 
vegetation is disappearing as more and more of the earth’s surface is 
brought into cultivation, or at any rate denuded of its forests. 

A good deal, however, has been done. We owe to the indomitable 
industry of Mr. Bentham and of Sir Ferdinand Mueller a comprehen- 
sive flora of Australia, the first Jarge area of the earth’s surface of which 
the vegetation has been completely worked out. Sir Joseph Hooker, in 
his retirement, has pushed on within sight of completion the enormous 
work of describing so much of the vast Indo-Malayan flora as is com- 
prised within the British possessions. ‘To the Dutch botanists we owe 
a tolerably complete account of the Malayan flora proper. But New 
Guinea still remains botanically a terra incognita, and till within the 
last year or two the flora of China has been an absolute blank to us. 
A committee of the British Association) has, with the aid of a small 
grant of money, taken in hand the task of gathering up the scanty 
data which are available in herbaria and elsewhere. This has stim- 
ulated European residents in China to collect more material, and the 
fine collections which are now being rapidly poured in upon us, will—if 
they do not overwhelm us by their very magnitude—go a long way in 
supplying data for a tentative discussion of the relations of the Chinese 
flora to that of the rest of Asia. I do not doubt that this will in turn 
explain a good deal that is anomalous in the distribution of plants in 
India. The work of the committee has been practically limited to central 
and eastern China. From the west, in Yunnan, the French botanists 
have received even more surprising collections, and these supplement 
our own work in the most fortunate manner. I have only to add, for 
Asia, Boissier’s ‘‘ Flora Orientalis,” which practically includes the Med- 
iterranean basin. But I must not omit the invaluable report of Brigade- 
Surgeon Aitchison on the collections made by him during the Afghan 
delimitation expedition, This has given an important insight into the 


404. BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


vegetation of a region which had never previously been adequately ex- 
amined. Normust! forget the recent publication of the masterly report 
by Prof. Bayley Balfour on the plants collected by himself and Schwein- 
furth in Socotra, an island with which the ancient Egyptians traded, 
but the singularly anomalous flora of which was almost wholly unknown 
up to our time. 

The flora of Africa has been at present but imperfectly worked up, 
but the materials have been so far discussed as to afford a tolerably 
correct theory of its relations. The harvest from Mr. Johnston’s ex- 
pedition to Kilimanjaro was not as rich as might have been hoped. 
Still, it was sufficient to confirm the conclusions at which Sir Joseph 
Hooker had arrived, on very slender data, as to the relations of the high- 
level vegetation of Africa generally. The flora of Madagascar is per- 
haps, at the moment, the most interesting preblem which Africa pre- 
sents to the botanist. As the rich collections, for which we are indebted 
to Mr. Baron and others, are gradually worked out, it can hardly be 
doubted that it will be necessary to modify in some respects the views 
which are generally received as to the relation of the island to the African 
continent. My colleague, Mr. Baker, communicated to the York meet- 
ing of the association the results which, up to that time, he had arrived 
at, and these, subsequent material has not led him to modify. The flora 
as a whole presents a large proportion of endemic genera and species, 
pointing to isolation from a very ancient date. The tropical element is 
however closely allied to that of tropical Africa and of the Mascarene 
Islands, and there is a small infusion of Asiatic types which do not 
extend to Africa. The high-level flora, on the other hand, exhibits an 
even closer affinity with that temperate flora, the ruins of which are 
scattered over the mountainous regions of Central Africa, and which 
survives in its greatest concentration at the Cape. 

The American botanists at Harvard are still systematically carrying 
on the work of Torrey and Gray in the elaboration of the flora of North- 
ern America. The Russians are, on their part, continually adding to 
our knowledge of the flora of Northern and Central Asia. The whole 
flora of the north temperate zone can only be regarded substantially as 
one. The identity diminishes southwards, and increases in the case of 
the Arctic and Alpine regions. A collection of plants brought us from 
high levels in Corea, by Mr. James, might (as regards a large propor- 
tion of the species) have been gathered on one of our own Scotch hills. 

We owe to the munificence of two Englishmen of science the organ- 
ization of an extensive examination of the flora and fauna of Central 
America and the publication of the results. The work when completed 
can hardly be less expensive than that of the results of the Challenger 
voyage, which has severely taxed the liberality of the English Govern- 
ment. The problems: which geographical distribution in this region 
presents will doubtless be found to be of a singularly complicated 
nature, and it is impossible to overestimate the debt of gratitude which 


ae 


’ BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. A405 


biologists of all countries must owe to Messrs. Godman and Salvin when 
their arduous undertaking is completed. Lam happy to say that the 
botanical portion, which has been elaborated at Kew, is all but finished. 

In South America, I must content myself with referring to the great 
“Flora Brasiliensis,” commenced by Martius half a century ago, and 
still slowly progressing under the editorship of Professor Urban, at 

3erlin. Little discussion has yet been attempted of the mass of material 

which is enshrined in the mighty array of volumes already published. 
But the travels of Mr. Ball in South America have led him to the 
detection of some very interesting problems. The enormous pluvial 
denudation of the ancient portions of the continent has led to the 
gradual blending of the flora of different levels with sufficient slowness 
to permit of adaptive changes in the process. The tropical flora of 
Brazil therefore presents an admixture of modified temperate types 
which gives to the whole a peculiar character not met with to the same 
degree in the tropics of the Old World. On the other hand, the com- 
paratively recent eievation of the southern portion of the continent 
accounts in Mr. Ball’s eyes for the singular poverty of its flora, which 
we may regard indeed as still in progress of development. 

The botany of the Challenger expedition, which was also elaborated 
at Kew, brought for the first time into one view all the available facts 
as to the floras of the older oceanic islands. To this was added a dis- 
cussion of the origin of the more recent floras of the islands of the 
Western Pacific, based upon material carefully collected by Professor 
Moseley, and supplemented by the notes and specimens accumulated 
with much judgment by Dr. Guppy. For the first time we were enabled 
to get some idea how a tropical island was furnished with plants, and 
to discriminate the littoral element due to the action of oceanic currents 
from the interior forest almost wholly due to frugivorous birds. The 
recent examination of Christmas Island by the English Admiralty has 
shown the process of island flora-making in another stage. The plants 
collected by Mr. Lister prove, as might be expected, to be closely allied 
to those of Java. But the effect of isolation has begun to tell; and I 
learn from my colleague, Professor Oliver, that the plants from Christ- 
mas Island can not be for the most part exactly matched with their 
congeners from Java, but yet do not differ sufficiently to be specifically 
distinguished. We have here therefore it appears to me, a manifest 
case of nascent species. 

The central problem of systematic botany I have not as yet touched 
upon: this is to perfect a natural classification. Such a classification, 
to be perfect, must be the ultimate generalization of every scrap of 
knowledge which we can bring to bear upon the study of plant affinity. 
In the higher plants, experience ‘has shown that we can obtain results 
which are sufficiently accurate for the present, without carrying our 
structural analysis very far. Yet even here, the correct relations of the 
Gymnosperms would never have been ascertained without patient and 


406 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. | 


minute microscopic study of the reproductive processes. Upon these, 
indeed, the correct classification of the Vascular Cryptogams wholly 
depends, and generally, as we descend in the scale, external morphology 
becomes more and more insecure as a guide, and a thorough knowledge 
of the minute structure and life history of each organism becomes in- 
dispensable to anything like a correct determination of its taxonomic 
position. The marvellous theory of the true nature of lichens would 
never have been ascertained by the ordinary methods of examination 
which were held to be sufficient by lichenologists. 

The finai form of every natural classification—for I have no doubt 
that the general principles I have laid down are equally true in the 
field of zoology—must be to approximate to the order of descent. For 
the theory of descent became an irresistible induction as soon as the 
idea of a natural classification had been firmly grasped. 

In regard to flowering plants we owe, as I have said, the first step in 
a natural classification to our own great naturalist, John Ray, who 
divided them into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The celebrated 
classification of Linnzeus was avowedly purely artificial. It was a tem- 
porary expedient, the provisional character of which no one realized 
more thoroughly than himself. He in fact himself gave us one of the 
earliest outlines of a truly natural system. Such a system is based on 
affinity, and we know of no other explanation of affinity than that 
which is implied in the word,—namely, common parentage. No one 
finds any difficulty in admitting that where a number of individual 
organisms closely resemble one another, they must have been derived 
from the same stock. I allow that in cases where external form is 
widely different, the conclusion to one who is not a naturalist is by no 
means so obvious. But in such eases it rests on the profound and con- 
stant resemblance of internal points of structure. Anyone who studies 
the matter with a perfectly open mind finds it impossible to draw a 
line. If genetic relationship or heredity is admitted to be the explana- 
tion of affinity in the most obvious case, the stages are imperceptible 
when the evidence is fairly examined, by which the same conclusion is 
seen to be inevitable, even in cases where at the first glance it seems 
least likely. 

This leads me to touch on the great theory which we owe to Mr. Dar- 
win. That theory, I need hardly say, was not merely a theory of 
descent. This had suggested itself to naturalists in the way I have 
indicated,—long before. What Mr. Darwin did was to show how by 
perfectly natural causes the separation of living organisms into races 
which at once resemble and yet differ from one another so profoundly, 
came about. Heredity explains the resemblance; Mr. Darwin’s great . 
discovery was that variation worked upon by natural selection ex- 
plained the difference. That explanation seems to me to gather strength 
every day, and to continually reveal itself as a more and more efficient 
solvent of the problems which present themselves to the student of 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 407 


natural history. At the same time, Iam far from claiming for it the 
authority of a scientific creed or even the degree of certainty which is 
possessed by some of the laws of astronomy. I only affirm that as a 
theory it has proved itself a potent and invaluable instrument of re- 
search. It is an immensely valuable induction; but it has not yet 
reached such a position of certitude as has been attained by the law of 
gravitation; and I have myself, in the field of botany, felt bound to 
protest against conclusions being drawn deductively from it without 
being subjected to the test of experimental verification. This attitude 
of mine, which I believe I share with most naturalists, must not how- 
ever be mistaken for one of doubt. Of doubt as to the validity of Mr. 
Darwin’s views I have none: I[ shali continue to have none till I come 
across faets which suggest doubt. But that is a different position from 
one of absolute certitude. 

It is therefore without any dissatisfaction that I observe that many 
competent persons have—while accepting Mr. Darwin’s theory—set 
themselves to criticize various parts of it. But I must confess that I 
am disposed to share the opinion expressed by Mr. Huxley, that these 
criticisms really rest on a want of a thorough comprehension. 

Mr. Romanes has put forward a view which deserves the attention 
due to the speculations of a man of singular subtlety and dialectic skill. 
He has startled us with the paradox that Mr. Darwin did not after all, 
put forth—as I conceive it was his own impression he did—a theory 
of the origin of species, but only of adaptations. And inasmuch as Mr. 
Romanes is of opinion that specific differences are not even generally 
adaptive, while those of genera are, it follows that Mr. Darwin only 
really accounted for the origin of the latter, while for an explanation of 
the former we must look to Mr. Romanes himself. For my part how- 
ever, | am altogether unable to accept the premises, and therefore fail 
to reach the conclusion. Specific differences, as we find them in plants, 
are for the most part indubitably adaptive, while the distinctive charae- 
ters of genera and of higher groups are rarely so. Let anyone take the 
numerous species of some well characterized English genus—for exam- 
ple, Ranunculus ; he will find that one species is distinguished by having 
creeping stems, one by a tuberous root, one by floating leaves, another 
by drawn-out submerged ones, and so on. But each possesses those 
common characters which enable the botanist almost at a glance, not- 
withstanding the adaptive disguise, to refer them to the common genus 
Ranunculus. It seems to me quite easy to see, in fact, why specific 
characters should be usually adaptive, and generic not so. Species of 
any large genus must, from the nature of things, find themselves ex- 
posed to any but uniform conditions. They must acquire therefore as 
the very condition of their existence, those adaptive characters which 
the necessities of their life demand. But this rarely affects those marks 
of affinity which still indicate their original common origin. Probably 
these were themselves once adaptive, but they have long been overlaid 


408 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


by newer and more urgent modifications. Still, Nature is ever con- 
servative, and these reminiscences of a bygone history persist; signifi- 
cant to the systematic botanist as telling an unmistakable family story, 
but far removed from the stress of a struggle in which they no longer 
are called upon to bear their part. 

Another episode in the Darwinian theory is however likely to occupy 
our attention for some time to come. The biological world now looks 
to Professor Weismann as occupying the most prominent position in 
the field of speculation. His theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm 
has been put before English readers with extreme lucidity by Professor 
Moseley. That theory, I am free to confess, I do not find it easy to 
grasp Clearly in all its concrete details. At any rate, my own studies 
do not furnish me with sufficient data for criticizing them in any ad- 
equate way. It is however bound up with another theory—then non- 
inheritance of acquired characters—whicb is more open to general 
discussion. If with Weismann we accept this principle, it can not be 
doubted that the burden thrown on natural selection is enormously in- 
creased. But I do not see that the theory of natural selection itself is 
in any way impaired in consequence. 

The question however is: Are we to accept the principle? It appears 
to me that it is entirely a matter of evidence. It is proverbially diffi- 
cult to prove a negative. In the analogous case of the inheritance of 
accidental mutilations, Mr. Darwin contents himself with observing 
that we should be *‘cautious in denying it.” Still, I believe, that though 
a great deal of pains has been devoted to the matter, there is no case in 
which it has been satisfactorily proved that a character acquired by an 
organism has been transmitted to its descendants; and there is of 
course an enormous bulk of evidence the other way. 

The consideration of this point has given rise to what has been called 
the new Lamarckism. Now Lamarck accounted for the evolution of 
organic nature by two principles,—the tendency to progressive advance- 
ment and the force of external circumstances. The first of these prin- 
ciples appears to me, like Néiigeli’s internal modifying force, te be simply 
substituting a name for a thing. Lamarck, like many other people 
before him, thought that the higher organisms were derived from others 
lower in the seale, and he explained this by saying that they had a 
tendency to be so derived. This appears to me much as if we explained 
the movement of a train from London to Bath by attributing it to a 
tendency to, locomotion. Mr. Darwin lifted the whole matter out of the 
field of mere transcendental speculation by the theory of natural 
selection, a perfectly intelligible mechanism by which the result might 
be brought about. Science will always prefer a material modus operandi 
to anything so vague as the action of a tendency. 

Lamarek’s second principle deserves much more serious consideration. 
To be perfectly fair, we must strip it of the crude illustrations with which 
he hampered it. To suggest that a bird became web-footed by per- 


ee —_- | 


a 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 409 


sistently stretching the skin between its toes, or that the neck of a 
giraffe was elongated in the perpetual attempt to reach the foliage of 
trees, seems almost repugnant to common sense. But the idea that 
changes in climate and food—i. e. in the conditions of nutrition gen- 
erally—may have some slow but direct influence on the organism seems, 
on a superficial view, so plausible, that the mind is very prone to accept 
it. Mr. Darwin has himself frankly admitted that he thought he had 
not attached sufficient weight to the direct action of the environment. 
Yet it is extremely difficult to obtain satisfactory evidence of effects 
produced in this way. Hoffmann experimented with much pains on 
plants, and the results were negative. And Mr. Darwin confessed that 
Hoffmann’s paper had “ staggered” him. 

Organic evolution still seems to me therefore to be explained in the 
simplest way as the result of variation controlled by natural selection. 
Now, both these factors are perfectly intelligible things. Variation is 
a mere matter of every-day observation, and the struggle for existence, 
which is the cause of which natural selection is the effect, is equally so. 
If we state in a parallel form the Lamarckian theory, it amounts to a 
tendency controlled by external forces. It appears to me that there is 
no satisfactory basis of fact for either factor. The practical superiority 
of the Darwinian over the Lamarckian theory is (as a working hypothe- 
sis) immeasurable. 

The new Lamarckian school, if I understand their views correctly, 
seek to re-introduce Lamarck’s “ tendency.” The fact has been admitted 
by Mr. Darwin himself that variation is not illimitable. No one, in 
fact, has ever contended that any type can be reached from any point. 
For example, as Weismann puts it, ‘‘ Under the most favorable cireum- 
stances, a bird can never become transformed into a mammal.” It is 
deduneed from this that variation takes place in a fixed direction only, 
and this is assumed to be due to an innate law of development, or as 
Weismann has termed it, a “ phyletic vital force.” But the introduction 
of any such directive agency is superfluous, because the limitation of 
variability is a necessary consequence of the physical constitution of 
the varying organism. 

It is supposed however by many people that a necessary part of 
Mr. Darwin’s theory is the explanation of the phenomenon of variation 
itself. But really this is not more reasonable than to demand that it 
should explain gravitation or the source of solar energy. The investi- 
gation of any one of these phenomena is a matter of first-rate importance. 
But the cause of variation is perfectly independent of the results that 
flow from it when subordinated to natural selection. 

Though it is difficult to establish the fact that external causes pro- 
mote variation directly, it is worth considering whether they may not 
do so indirectly. Weismann, like Lamarck before him, has pointed out, 
as Others have also done, the remarkable persistence of tne plants and 
animals of Egypt; and the evidence of this is now even stronger. We, 


410 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


at Kew, owe to the kindness of Dr. Schweinfurth, a collection of speci- 
mens of plants from Egyptian tombs, which are said to be as much as 
four thousand years old. They are still perfectly identifiable, and as 
one of my predecessors in this chair has pointed out, they differ in no 
respect from their living representatives in Egypt atthis day. The ex- 
planation which Lamarck gave of this fact ‘may well,” says Sir 
Charles Lyell, ‘‘ lay claim to our admiration.” He attributed it, in effect, 
to the persistence of the physical geography, temperature, and other 
natural conditions. Theexplanationseems to me adequate. The plants 
and animals, we may fairly assume, were four thousand years ago, as 
accurately adjusted to the conditions in which they then existed, as the 
fact of their persistence in the country shows that they must be now. 
Any deviation from the type that existed then would either therefore 
be disadvantageous or indifferent. In the former case it would be 
speedily eliminated, in the Jatter it would be swamped by cross-breed- 
ing. But we know that if seeds of these plants were introduced into 
our gardens we should soon detect varieties amongst their progeny. 
Long observation upon plants under cultivation has always disposed 
me to think that a change of external conditions actually stimulated 
variation, and’so gave natural selection wider play and a better chance 
of re-establishing the adaptation of the organism to them. Weismann 
explains the remarkable fact that organisms may for thousands of years 
reproduce themselves unchanged by the principle of the persistence of 
the germ-plasm. Yet it seems hard to believe that the germ.plasm, 
while enshrined in the individual whose race it is to perpetuate, and 
nourished at its expense, can be wholly indifferent to all its fortunes. 
It may be so, but in that case it would be very unlike other living ele- 
ments of organized beings. 

I am bound however to confess that I am not wholly satisfied with 
the data for the discussion of this question which practical horticulture 
supplies. That the contents of our gardens do exhibit the results of vari- 
ation in a most astonishing degree no one will dispute. But for scien- 
tifie purposes, any exact account of the treatment under which these 
variations have occurred is unfortunately usually wanting. A great deal 
of the most striking variation is undoubtedly due to wide crossing, and 
these cases must of course be eliminated when the object is to test 
the independent variation of the germ-plasm. Hoffmann, whose ex- 
periments I have already referred to, doubts whether plants do as a 
matter of fact vary more under cultivation than in their native home 
and under natural conditious. It would be very interesting if this could 
be tested by the concerted efforts of two cultivators, say, for example, 
in Egypt and in England. Let some annual plant be selected, native 
of the former country, and let its seed be transmitted to the latter. 
Then let each cultivator select any variations that arise in regard to 
some given character; set to work, in fact, exactly as any gardener 
would who wanted to “improve” the plant, but on a preconcerted plan. 


a a ht gale ils a ie a> 


lia teae 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. All 


A comparison of the success which each obtained would be a measure 
of the effect of the change of the environment on variability. If it 
proved that as Hoffmann supposed, the change of conditions did not 
affect the what we may call the rate of variation, then, as Mr. Darwin 
remarks in writing to Professor Semper, “ the astonishing variations of 
almost all cultivated plants must be due to selection and breeding from 
the varying individuals. This idea,” he continues, ‘“‘ crossed my mind 
many years ago, but I was afraid to publish it, as I thought that people 
would say, ‘How he does exaggerate the importance of selection.” 
From an independent consideration of the subject I also find my mind 
somewhat shaken about it. YetI feel disposed to say with Mr. Darwin, 
“T still must believe that changed conditions give the impulse to varia- 
bility, but that they act in most cases in a very different manner.” 

Whatever conclusions we arrive at on these points, every one will 
agree that one result of the Darwinian theory has been to give a great 
impulse to the study of organisms, if I may say so, as “ going concerns.” 
Interesting as are the problems which the structure, the functions, the 
affinity, or the geographical distribution of a plant may afford, the living 
plant in itself is even more interesting still. 

Every organ will bear interrogation to trace the meaning and origin 
of its form and the part it plays in the plant’s economy. That there is 
here an immense field for investigation there can be no doubt. Mr. 
Darwin himself set us the example in a series of masterly investiga- 
tious. But the field is well-nigh inexhaustible. The extraordinary va- 
riety of form which plants exhibit has led to the notion that much of it 
may have arisen from indifferent variation. No doubt, as Mr. Darwin 
has pointed out, when one of a group of structures held together by 
some morphological or physiological nevus varies, the rest will vary 
correlatively. One variation then may, if advantageous, become adapt- 
ive, while the rest will be indifferent. But it appears to me that sucha 
principle should be applied with the greatest caution ; and from what I 
have myself heard fall from Mr. Darwin, I am led to believe that in 
the later years of his life he was disposed to think that every detail of 
plant structure had some adaptive significance, if only the clue could 
be found to it. As regards the forms of flowers, an enormous body of 
information has been collected, but the vegetative organs have not 
yielded their secret to anything like the same extent. My own impres- 
sion is that they will be found to be adaptive in innumerable ways which 
at present are not even suspected. At Kew we have probably a larger 
number of species assembled together than are to be found anywhere 
on the earth’s surface. Here then is ample material for observation 
and comparison.- But the adaptive significance will doubtless often be 
found by no means to lie on the surface. Who, for example, could pos- 
sibly have guessed by inspection the purpose of the glandular bodies 
on the leaves of Acacia spherocephala and on the pulvinus of Cecropia 
peltata which Belt in the one case and Fritz Miiller in the other have 


412 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


shown to serve as food for ants? So far from this explanation being 
far-fetched, Belt found that the former “ tree is actually unable to exist 
without its guard,” which it could not secure without some attraction 
in the shape of food. One fact which strongly impresses me with a be- 
lief in the adaptive significance of vegetative characters is the fact 
that in almost identical forms they are constantly adopted by plants of 
widely different affinity. If such forms were without significance one 
would expect them to be infinitely varied. If however they are really 
adaptive, it is intelligible that different plants should independently 
avail themselves of identical appliances and expedients. 

Although this country is splendidly equipped with appliances for the 
study of systematic botany, our universities and colleges fall far be- 
hind a standard which would be considered even tolerable on the Con- 
tinent, in the means of studying morphological and physiological botany, 
or of making researches in these subjects. There is not at the moment 
anywhere in London an adequate botanical laboratory, and though at 
most of the universities, matters are not quite so bad, still I am not 
aware of any one where it is possible to do more than give the rou- 
tine instruction, or to allow the students, when they have passed 
through this, to work for themselves. It is not easy to see why this 
should be, because on the animal side the accommodation and appli- 
ances for teaching comparative anatomy and physiology are always 
adequate and often palatial. Still less explicable to me is the tend- 
eney on the part of those who have charge of medical education to 
eliminate botanical study from the medical curriculum, since histori- 
cally the animal histologists owe everything to botanists. In the sev- 
enteenth century, as I have already mentioned, Hooke first brought 
the microscope to the investigation of organic structure, and the tissue 
he examined was cork. Somewhat later, Grew, in his “Anatomy of 
Plants,” gave the first germ of the cell-theory. During the eighteenth 
century the anatomists were not merely on a hopelessly wrong tack 
themselves, but they were bent on dragging botanists into it also. It 
was not until 1837, a little more than fifty years ago, that Henle saw 
that the structure of epithelium was practically the same as that of the 
parenchyma plantarum which Grew had described one hundred and fifty 
years before. Two years later Schwann published his immortal theory, 
which comprised the ultimate facts of plants and animal anatomy 
under one view. But it was to a botanist, Von Mohl, that in 1846, the 
biological world owed the first clear description of protoplasm, and to 
another botanist, Cohn (1851), the identification of this with the sar- 
code of zoologists. F 

Now the historic order in discovery is not without its significance. 
The path which the first investigators found most accessible is doubt- 
less that which beginners will also find easiest to tread. I do not my- 
self believe that any better access can be obtained to the structure 
and functions of living tissues than by the study of plants. However, 


s 





BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 413 


I am not without hopes that the serious study of botany in the lab- 
oratory will be in time better cared for. I do not hesitate to claim 
for it a position of the greatest importance in ordinary scientific edu- 
cation. All the essential phenomena of living organisms can be read- 
ily demonstrated upon plants. The necessary appliances are not so 
costly, and the work of the class room is free from many difficulties 
with which the student of the animal side of biology has to contend. 

Those however who have seriously devoted themselves to the pur. 
suit of either morphological or physiological bctany need not now be 
wholly at a loss. The splendid laboratory on Plymouth Sound, the 
erection of which we owe to the energy and enthusiasm of Prof. Ray 
Lankester, is open to botanists as well as to zoologists, and affords 
every opportunity for the investigation of marine plants, in which little 
of late years has been done in this country. At Kew we owe to private 
munificence a commodious laboratory in which much excellent work 
has already been done. And this association has made a small grant 
in aid of the establishment of a laboratory in the Royal Botanie Garden 
at Peradeniya, in Ceylon. it may be hoped that this will afford facil- 
ities for work of the same kind as has yielded Dr. Treub such a rich 
harvest of results in the Buitenzorg Botanic Garden in Java. 

Physiological botany, as I have already pointed out, is a field in 
which this country in the past has accomplished great things. It has 
not of late however obtained an amount of attention in any way pro- 
portionate to that devoted to animal physiology. In the interests of 
physiological science generally, this is much to be deplored; and I 
believe that no one was more firmly convinced of this than Mr. Dar- 
win. Only ashort time before his death, in writing to Mr. Romanes on 
a book that he had recently been reading, he said that the author had 
made “ a gigantic oversight in never considering plants; these would 
simplify the problem for him.” This goes to the root of the matter. 
There is, in my judgment, no fundamental biological problem which is 
not exhibited in a simpler form by plants than by animals. It is possi- 
ble, however, that the distaste which seems to exist amongst our biolo- 
gists for physiological botany, may be due in some measure to the ex- 
tremely physical point of view from which it has been customary to 
treat it on the Continent. It is owing in great measure to the method 
of Mr. Darwin’s own admirable researches that in this country we 
have been led to a more excellent way. The work which has been 
lately done in England seems to me full of the highest promise. Mr, 
Francis Darwin and Mr. Gardiner have each in different directions 
shown the entirely new point of view which may be obtained by treat- 
ing plant phenomena as the outcome of the functional activity of pro- 
toplasm. I have not the least doubt that by pursuing this path En- 
glish research will not merely place vegetable physiology, which has 
hitherto been too much under the influence of Lamarckism, on a more 
rational basis, but that it will also sensibly re-act, as it has done often 
before, on animal physiology. 


414 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


There is no part of the field of physiological botany which has yielded 
results of more interest and importance than that which relates to the 
action of ferments and fermentation; and I could hardly give you a 
better illustration of the purely biological method of treating it. I 
believe that these results, wonderful and fascinating as they are, afford 
but a faint indication of the range of those that are still to be accom- 
plished. The subject is one of extreme intricacy, and it is not easy to 
speak about it brielly. To begin with, it embodies two distinct groups 
of phenomena, wuich have in reality very little which is essential in 
common. 

What are usually called ferments are perhaps the most remarkable 
of all chemical bodies, for they have the power of effecting very pro- 
found changes in the chemical constitution of other substances, although 
they may be present in very minute quantity ; but—and this is their 
most singular and characteristic property—they themselves remain 
unchanged in the process. It may be said without hesitation that the 
whole nutrition of both animals and plants depends on the action of 
ferments. Organisms are incapable of using solid nutrient matter for 
the repair and extension of their tissues; this must first be brought 
into soluble form before it can be made available, and this change is 
generally brought about by the action of a ferment. Animal physi- 
ology has long been familiar with the part played by ferments, and 
it may be said that no small part of the animal economy is made up 
of organs required either for the manufacture of ferments or for the 
exposure of ingested food to their action. It may seem strange at 
first sight to speak of analogous processes taking place in plants. 
But it must be remembered that plant nutrition includes two very 
distinct stages. Certain parts of plants build up, as everyone knows, 
from external inorganic materials, substances which are available for 
the construction of new tissues. It might be supposed that these are 
used up as fast as they are formed. But it is not so; the life of the 
plant is not a continuous balance of income and expenditure. On the 
contrary, besides the general maintenance of its structure, the plant 
has to provide from time to time for enormous resources to meet such 
exhausting demands as the renewal of foliage, the production of flow- 
ers, and the subsequent maturing of fruit. 

In such cases the plant has to draw on accumulated store of solid 
food which has rapidly to be converted into the soluble form in which 
alone it is capable of passing through the tissues to the seat of con- 
sumption. And I do not doubt for my part that in such cases ferments 
are brought into play of the same kind and in the same way as in the 
animal economy. Take such a simple case as a potato-tuber. This is a 
mass of cellular tissue, the cells of which are loaded with starch. We 
may either dig up the tuber and eat the starch ourselves, or we may 
leave it in the ground, in which case it will be consumed in providing 
material for the growth of a potato-plant for next year. But the pro- 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 415 


cesses by which the insoluble starch is made available for nutrition are, 
I can not doubt, closely similar in either case. 

When we inquire further abont these mysterious and all-important 
bodies, the answer we can give is extremely inadequate. It is very 
difficult to obtain them in amount sufficient for analysis, or in a state 
of purity. We know however that they are closely allied to albumi- 
noids, and contain nitrogen in varying proportion. Papain, which is a 
vegetable ferment derived from the fruit of the papaw, and capable of 
digesting most animal albuminoids, is said to have the same ultimate 
composition as the pancreatic ferment and as peptones, bodies closely 
allied to proteids ; the properties of all three bodies are however very 
different. It seems clear nevertheless that ferments must be closely 
allied to proteids, and like these bodies, they are no doubt directly 
derived from protoplasm. 

I need not remind you that, unlike other constituents of plant tissues, 
protoplasm, asa condition of its vitality, is in a constant state of molec- 
ular activity. The maintenance of this activity involves the supply of 
energy, and this is partly derived from the waste of its own substance. 
This ‘“‘self-decom position ” of the protoplasm liberates energy, and in 
doing so gives rise to a number of more stable bodies than protoplasm. 
Some of these are used up again in nutrition; others are thrown aside, 
and are never drawn again into the inner cirele of vital processes. In 
the animalorganism, where the strictest economy of bulk is a paramount 
necessity, they are promptly got rid of by the process of excretion. In 
the vegetable economy these residual products usually remain. And itis 
for this reason, I may point out, that the study of the chemistry of plant 
nutrition appears to me of such,immense importance. The record of 
chemical change is so much more carefully preserved ; and the proba- 
bility of our being able to trace the course it has followed is conse- 
quently far more likely to be attended with success. 

This preservation in the plant of the residual by-products of proto- 
plasmic activity no doubt accounts for the circumstance which otherwise 
is extremely perplexing,—the profusion of substances which we meet 
with in the vegetable kingdom to which it is hard to attribute any use- 
ful purpose. It seems probable that ferments, in a great many cases, 
belong to the same category. I imagine that it is in some degree acci- 
dental that some of them have been made use of, and thus the plant 
has been able to temporarily lock up aceumulaitons of food to be 
drawn upon in future phases of its life with the certainty that they 
would be available. Without the ferments, the key of the storehouse 
would be lost irretrievably. 

Plants moreover are now known to possess ferments, and the num- 
ber will doubtless increase, to which it is difficult to attribute any use- 
ful function. Papain, to which I have already alluded, abounds in the 
papaw, but it is not easy to assign to it any definite function ; still less 
is it easy, on teleological grounds, to account for the rennet ferment 


416 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


contained in the fruits of an Indian plant, Withania coagulans, and ad- 
mirably investigated by Mr. Sheridan Lea. 

Having dwelt so far on the action of ferments, we may now turn to 
fermentation, and that other kind of change in organic matter called 
‘s putrefaction,” which is known to be closely allied to fermentation. 
Ferments and fermentation, as I have already remarked have very little 
to do with one another; and it would saveconfusion and emphasize the 
the fact if we ceased to speak of ferments but used some of the altern- 
ative names which have been proposed for them, such as zymases or 
enzymes. 

The classical case of fermentation, which is the root of our whole 
knowledge of the subject, is that of the conversion of sugar into alcohol. 
Its discovery has every where accompanied the first stages of civilization 
in the human race. Its details are now taught in our text books; and 
I should hardly hope to be excused for referring to it in any detail if it 
were not necessary for my purpose to draw your attention more partic- 
ularly to one or two points connected with it. 

Let us trace what happens in a fermenting liquid. It becomes turbid, 
it froths and effervesces, the temperature sensibly increases ; this is the 
first stage. After this it begins to clear, the turbidity subsides as a 
sediment; the sugar which the fluid at first contained, has in great 
part disappeared, and a new ingredient, alcohol, is found in its place. 

It is just fifty years ago that the great Dutch biologist Schwann made 
a series of investigations which incontroverctibly demonstrated that both 
fermentation and putrefaction were due to the presence of minute or- 
ganisms which live and propagate at the expense of the liquids in 
which they produce as a result these extraordinary changes. The 
labors of Pasteur have confirmed Schwanw’s results, and—what could 
not have been foreseen—have extended the possibilities of this field of 
investigation to those disturbances in the vital phenomena of living 
organisms themselves which we include under the name of “ disease,” 
and which, no one will dispute, are matters of the deepest concern to 
every one of us. 

Now, at first sight, the conversion of starch into sugar by means of 
diastase seems strikingly analogous to the conversion of sugar into 
alcohol. It is for this reason that the phenomena have been so long 
associated. But it is easy to show that they are strikingly different. 
Diastase is a chemical substance of obscure composition it is true, but 
inert and destitute of any vital properties, nor is it affected by the 
changes it induces. Yeast, on the other hand, which is the active agent 
in alcoholic fermentation, is a definite organism; it enormously increases 
during the process, and it appears to me impossible to resist the con- 
clusion that fermentation is a necessary concomitant of the peculiar con- 
ditions of its life. Let me give you a few facts which go to prove this. 
In the first place, you can not ferment a perfectly pure solution of sugar. 


The fermentable fluid must contain. saline and nitrogenous matters, 


ae i Bh ue” 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. - AIT] 


necessary for the nutrition of the yeast protoplasm. In pure sugar the 
yeast starves. Next, Schwann found that known protoplasmie poisons, 
by killing the yeast-cells, would prohibit fermentation. He found the 
same result to hold good of putrefaction, and this is the basis of the 
whole theory of antiseptics. Nor can the action of yeast be attributed 
to any ferment which the yeast secretes. It is true that pure cane- 
sugar can not be fermented, and that yeast effects the inversion of this, 
as it is called, into glucose and lwevulose. It does this by a ferment 
which can be extracted from it, and which is often present in plants. 
But you can extract nothing from yeast which will do its pecular work 
apart from itself. Helmholtz made the crucial experiment of suspend- 
ing a bladder full of boiled grape-juice in a vat of fermenting must; it 
underwent no change; and even a film of blotting: paper has been found 
a sufficient obstacle to its action. We are driven then necessarily to 
the conclusion that in the action of * ferments” or zymases we have 
to do with a chemical—i. ¢e., a purely physical process ; while in the case 
of yeast we encounter a purely physiological one. 

How then is this action to be explained? Pasteur has laid stress on 
a fact which had some time been known, that the production of aleohol 
from sugar is a result of which yeast has pot the monopoly. If ripen- 
ipg fruits—such as plums—are kept in an atinosphere free from oxygen, 
Bérard found that they too exhibit this remarkable transformation; 
their sugar is converted appreciably into alcohol. On the other hand, 
Pasteur has shown that, if yeast is abundantly supplied with oxygen, 
it feeds on the sugar of a fermentable fluid without producing alcohol. 
But under the ordinary circumstance of fermentation, its access to 
oxygen is practically cut off; the yeast then is in exactly the same 
predicament as the fruit in Bérard’s experiment. Sugar is broken up 
into carbon dioxide and alcohol in an amount far in excess of the needs 
of mere nutrition. In this dissociation it can be shown that an amount 
of energy is set free in the form of heat equal to about one-tenth of what 
would ke produced by the total combustion of an equivalent of grape- 
sugar. If the protoplasm of the yeast could, witb the aid of atmos- 
pheric oxygen, completely decompose a unit of grape sugar, it would 
get ten times as much energy in the shape of heat as it could get by 
breaking it up into alcohol and carbon dioxide. It follows then that 
to do the same amount of growth in either case, it must break up ten 
times as much sugar without a supply of oxygen as with it. And this 
throws light on what has always been one of the most remarkable facts 
about fermentation—the enormous amount of change which the yeast 
manages to effect in proportion to its own development. 

There are still two points about yeast which deserve attention before 
we dismiss it. When a fermenting liquid comes to contain about 14 per 
cent. of alcohol, the activity of the yeast ceases, quite independently of 
whether the sugar is used up or not. In other cases of fermentation 
the same inhibiting effect of the products of fermentation is met with. 


H. Mis. 22427 


418 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 


Thus lactic fermentation soon comes to an end unless calcium carbon- 
ate orsome similar substance be added, which removes the lactic acid 
from the solution as fast as it is formed. 

The other point is that in all fermentations, besides what may be 
termed the primary products of the process, other bodies are produced. 
In the case of alcoholic fermentation the primary bodies are aleohol and 
carbon dioxide; the secondary, succinic acid and glycerine. Delpino 
has suggested that these last are residual products derived from that 
portion of the fermentable matter which is directly applied to the nutri- 
tion of the protoplasm. 

Yeast, itself the organism which effects the remarkable changes on 
which I have dwelt, is somewhat of a problem. It is clear that itis a 
fungus, the germs of which must be ubiquitous in the atmosphere. It 
is difficult to believe that the simple facts, which are all we know about 
it, constitute its entire life-history. It is probably a transitory stage of 
some more complicated organism. 

I can only briefly refer to putrefaction. This is a far more complex 
process than that which I have traced in the ease of alcoholic fermenta- 
tion. In that, nitrogen is absent, while it is an essential ingredient 
in albuminoids, which are the substances that undergo putrefactive 
changes. But the general principles are the same. Here, too, we owe to 
Schwann the demonstration of the fact that the effective agents in the 
process are living organisms. If we put into aflask a putrescible liquid 
such as broth, boil it for some time, and during the process of boiling 
plug the mouth with some cotton-wool, we know that the broth will re- 
main long unchanged, while if we remove the wool putrescence soon be- 
gins. Tyndallhas shown that, if we conduct the experiment on one of 
the high glaciers of the Alps, the cotton-wool may be dispensed with. 
We may infer then that the germs of the organisms which produce put- 
refaction are abundant in the lower levels of the atmosphere and are 
absent from the higher. They are wafted about by currents of air; but 
they are not imponderable, and in still air they gradually subside. Dr. 
Lodge has shown that air is rapidly cleared of suspended dust by an 
electric discharge, and this no doubt affords a simple explanation of 
the popular belief that thunderous weather is favorable to putrefac- 
tive changes. 

Cohn believes that putrefaction is due to an organism ealled Bacter- 
zum termo, which plays in it the same part that yeast does in fermenta- 
tion. Thisis probably too simple astatement; but the general phenomena 
are nevertheless similar. There is thesame breaking down of complex 
into simpler molecules; the same evolution of gas, especially carbon 
dioxide; the same rise of temperature. Themore or less stable products 
of the process are infinitely more varied, and it is difficult, if not im- 
possible, to say, in the present state of our knowledge, whether in most 
cases they are the direct outcome of the putrefactive process, or resid- 
ual products of the protoplasmic activity of the organisms which in- 





——— 


BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. 419 


duce it. Perhaps, on the analogy of the higher plants, in which some 
of them also occur, we may attribute to the latter category certain bodies 
closeiy resembling vegetable alkaloids; these are called ptomaines, and 
are extremely poisonous. Besides such bodies, Bacteria undoubtedly 
generate true ferments and peculiar coloring-matters. But there are in 
most cases of putrefaction a profusion of other substances, which repre- 
sent the various stages of the breaking up of the complex proteid mole- 
cule, and are often themselves the outcome of subsidiary fermenta- 
tions. 

These results are of great interest from a scientific point of view. But 
their importance at the present moment in the study of certain kinds of 
disease can hardly be exaggerated. Ihave already mentioned Henle 
as having first found the true clue to animal histology in the structure 
of plants. Asearly as 1840, the same observer indicated the grounds for 
regarding contagious diseases as due to living organisms. I willstate 
his argument in the words of De Bary, whose “ Lectures on Bacteria,” 
the last work which we owe to his gifted hand, I can confidently recom- 
mend to you as a luminous but critical discussion of a vast mass of dif- 
ficult and conflicting literature. 

It was of course clear that contagion must be due to the communica- 
tion of infectious particles or contagia. These contagia, although at the 
time no one had seen them, Henle pointed out, ‘have the power, pos- 
sessed, as faras we know, by living creatures only, of growing under 
favorable conditions, and of multiplying at the expense of some other 
substance than their own, and therefore of assimilating that substance.” 
Henle enforced his view by comparison with the theory of fermentation, 
which had then been promulgated by Sehwann. But for many years his 
views found no favor. Botanists however as in so many other eases, 
struck on the right path, and from about the year 1850 steady progress, 
in which De Bary himself took a leading part, was made in showing that 
most of the diseases of plants are due to parasitic infection. The reason 
of this success was obvious; the structure of plants makes them more 
accessible to research, and the invading parasites are larger than aui- 
mal contagia. Onthe animal side all real progress dates from about 1860, 
when Pasteur, having established Schwann’s theory of fermentation on 
an impregnable basis, took up Henle’s theory of living contagia. 

The only risk now is that we may get on too fast. To put the true 
theory of any one contagious disease on as firm a basis as that of aleo- 
holic fermentation is no easy matter to accomplish. But I believe that 
this is (notwithstanding a flood of facile speculation and imperfect re- 
search) slowly being done. 

There are two tracts in the body which are obviously accessible to 
such minute organisms as Bacteria, and favorable for their develop- 
ment. These are the alimentary canal and the blood. In the ease of 
the former there is evidence that every one of us possesses quite alittle 
flora of varid forms and species. They seem for the most part, in 
health, to be comparatively innocuous; indeed it is believed that they 


420 BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. ~ aoe 


, 
are ancillary to and aid digestion. But it is easy to see that other kinds 
may be introduced, or those already present may be called into abnor- 
mal activity, and fermentative processes may be set up of a very incon- 
venient kind. These may result in mere digestive disorder, or in the 
production of some of those poisonous derivatives of proteids of which I 
have spoken, the effect of which upon the organism may be most disas- 
trous. 

The aceess of Bacteria to the biood is a far more serious matter. 
They produce phenomena the obvious analogy of which to fermentative 
processes has led to the resulting diseases being called zymotic. Take 
for example, the disease known as “ relapsing fever.” This is contagious. 
After a period of incubation, violent fever sets in, which lasts for some- 
thing less than a week, is then followed by a period of absence, to be 
again followed in succession by one or more similar attacks, which ulti- 
mately cease. Now you will observe that the analogy to a fermentative 
process is very close. The period of incubation is the necessary inter- 
val between the introduction of the germ and its vegetative multiplica- 
tion in sufficient numbers to appreciably affect the total volume of the 
blood. The rise in temperature and the limited duration of the attack 
are equally, as we have seen, characteristic of fermentative processes, 7 
_while the bodily exhaustion which always follows fever is the obvious 
result of the dissipation by the ferment organisms of nutritive matter 
destined for the repair of tissue‘waste. During the presence of this 
fever there is present in the blood an organism, Spirochete obermeiert, 
so named after its discoverer. This disappears when the fever subsides. 
It is found that if other individuals are inoculated with blood taken 
from patients during the fever attack, the disease is communicated, but 
that this is not the ease if the inoculation is made during the period of 
freedom. The evidence then seems clear that this disease is due to a 
definite organism. The interesting point however arises, why does 
the fever recur, and why eventually cease? The analogy of fermenta- 
tion leads to the hypothesis that as in the vase of yeast the products of 
its action inhibit after a time the further activity of the Spirochete. The 
inhibiting substance is no doubt eventually removed partially from the 
blood by its normal processes of depuration, and the surviving individ- 
uals of Spirochete can then continue their activity, as in lactic fermenta- 
tion. With regard to the final cessation of the disease, there are facts 
which may lead one to suppose that in this as in other cases sufficient of 
the inhibiting substance ultimately remains in the organism to protect 
it against any further outbreak of activity on the part of the Spirochwte. 

Here we have an example of a disease which, though having a well- 
marked zymotic character, is comparatively harmless. In anthrax, 
which is known to be due to Bacillus anthracis, we have one which is, 
on the contrary, extremely fatal. I need not enter into the details. It 
is sufficient to say that there is reason to believe that the Bacillus pro- 
duces, as one of those by-products of protoplasmic destruction to which 
I have already alluded, a most virulent poison. But the remarkable _ 

» 





ee 


ae 





BOTANICAL BIOLOGY. ADI 


thing is that this Bacillus, which can be cultivated externally to the 
body, if kept at a heightened temperature, can be attenuated in its viru- 
lence. It drops in fact the excretion of the poison. It is then found 
that, if injected into the blood, it does no mischief, and, what is more 
extraordinary, if the Bacillus in its most lethal form is subsequently in- 
troduced, it too has lost its power. The explanation of the immunity 
in this case is entirely different from that which was suggested by a 
consideration of the facts of relapsing fever. The researches of Met- 
schnikoff have led to the hypothesis that in the present case the white 
blood-corpusceles destroy the Bacillus. When they first come into con- 
tact with these in their virulent form, they are wnable to touch them. 
But if they have been educated by first having presented to them the 
attenuated form, they find no difficulty in grappling with the malignant. 
This isa very remarkable view. I should not have put it before you had 
there not been solid reasons for regarding the idea of the education of 
protoplasm with scientific respect. The plasmodia of the Myxomycetes, 
which consist of naked protoplasm, are known to become habituated to 
food which they at first reject, and the researches of Beyerinck on the 
disease known as “ gumming” in plants have apparently shown that 
healthy cells may be taught, as it were, to produce a ferment which 
otherwise they would not exerete. 

If Metschnikoff’s theory be true, we have a rational explanation of 
vaccination and of preventive inoculation generally. It is probably 
however not the only explanation. And the theory of the inhibitive 
action upon itself of the products of the ferment-organisim’s own activity 
is still being made the basis of experiment. In fact, the most recent 
results point to the possibility of obtaining protection by injecting into 
the blood substances artificially obtained entirely independent of the 
organisms whose development they inhibit. 

It is impossible for me to touch on these important matters at any 
greater length, but I doubtif the theory of fermentation, as applied to 
the diseases of organisms, has as yet more than opened its first page. 
It seems to me possibie, that besides the rational explanation of zymotie 
disease, it may throw light on others where owing to abnormal condi- 
tions, the organisin, as in the case of Bérard’s plums, is itself the agent 
in its own fermentative processes. 

And now I must conclude. Ihave led you, I am afraid, a too lengthy 
and varied a journey in the field of botanical study. Butto sum up my 
argument: I believe I have shown you that at the bottom of every 
great branch of biological inquiry it has never been possible to neglect 
the study of plants; nay move, that the study of plant-life has gener- 
ally given the key to the true course of investigation. Whether you 
take the problems of geographical distribution, the most obscure points 
in the theory of organic evolution, or the innermost secrets of vital 
phenomena, whether in health or disease,—not to consider plants is still, 
in the words of Mr. Darwin, “a gigantie oversight, for these would 
simplify the problem.” 





ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY.* 


By Prof. J. 8S. BURDON SANDERSON. 


The work of investigating the special functions of organs, which 
during the last two decades has yielded such splendid results, is still 
proceeding, and every year new ground is being broken and new and 
fruitful lines of experimental inquiry are being opened up; but the fur- 
ther the physiologist advances in this work of analysis and differentia- 
tion, the more frequently does he find his attention arrested by deeper 
questions relating to the essential endowments of living matter of which 
even the most highly differentiated functions of the animal or plant 
organism are the outcome. In our science the order of progress has 
been hitherto and will continue to be the reverse of the order of nature. 
Nature begins with the elementary and ends with the complex (first the 
amoeba, then the man). Our wmode of investigation has to begin at 
the end. And this not merely for the historical reason that the first 
stimulus to physiological inquiry was man’s reasonable desire to know 
himself, but because the differentiation actually involves simplification. 

Physiology therefore first studies nan and the higher animals, and 
proceeds to the higher plants, then to invertebrates and cryptogams, 
ending where development begins. -— - 

It is not difficult to see whither this ethod must eventually lead us. 
For inasmuch as funetion is more complicated than structure, the 
result of proceeding, as physiology normally does, from structure to 
function, must inevitably be to bring us face to face with funetional 
differences which have no structural difference to explaim them. Thus, 
for example, if the physiologist undertakes to explain the function of 
a highly differentiated organ like the eye, he finds that up to a certain 
point, provided that he has the requisite knowledge of dioptrices, the 
method of correlation guides him straight to his point. He can men- 

tally or actually construct an eye which will perform the functions of 
the real eye, in so far as the formation of a real image of the field of 
vision on the retina is concerned, and will be able thereby to under 
stand how the retinal picture is transferred to the organ of concious- 


*Presidential address before the Biological Section of the British Association, A. S., 
at Neweastle, September, 1889. (Report of the British Association, Vol, LIX, pp. 604- 
614.) 

423 


424 ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 


ness. Having arrived at this point he begins to correlate the known 
structure of the retina with what is required of it, and finds that the 
number of objects which he can discriminate in the fieid of vision is as 
numerous as, but not more numerous than, the parts of the retina, ¢.¢., 
the cones which are concerned in discriminating them. So far he has 
no difficulty ; but the method of correlation fails him from the moment 
that he considers that each Object point in the field of vision is colored, 
and that he is able to discriminate not merely the number and relations 
of all the object points to each other, but the color of each separately. 
He then sees at once that each cone must possess a plurality of en- 
dowments for which its structure affords no explanation. In other 
words, in the minute structure of the human retina we have a mechan- 
ism which would completely explain the picture of which I am con- 
scious, were the objects composing it colorless, 7. €., possessed of one 
objective quality only, but it leaves us without explanation of the dif- 
ferentiation of color. 

Similarly, if we are called upon to explain the function of a secreting 
gland, such, é. g., aS the liver, there is no difficulty in understanding 
that inasmuch as the whole gland consists of lobules which resemble 
each other exactly, and each lobule is likewise made up of cells which 
are all alike, each individual cell must be capable of performing all the 
functions of the whole organ. But when by exact experiment we learn 
that the liver possesses not one function but many,~when we know 
that it is a storehouse for animal starch, and that each cell possesses 
the power of separating waste coloring matter from the blood, and of 
manufacturing several kinds of crystallizable products, some of which 
it sends in one direction and others in the opposite, we find again that 
the correlation method fails us, and that all that our knowledge of the 
minute structure has done for us is to set before us a question which 
though elementary, we are quite unable to answer. 

By multiplying examples of the ‘same kind, we should in each case 
come to the same issue, namely, plurality of function with unity of 
structure, the unity being represented by a simple structural elenent— 
be it retinal cone or cell—possessed of humerous endowments. When- 
ever this point is arrived at in any investigation, structure must for the 
moment cease to be our guide, and in general two courses or alterna- 
tives are open to us. One is to fall back on that worn-out Deus ex ma- 
china—protoplasm, asif it afforded a sufficient explanation of everything 
which cannot be explained otherwise, and accordingly to defer the con- 
sideration of the functions which have no demonstrable connection with 
structure as for the present beyond the scope of investigation; the other 
is, retaining our hold of the fundamental principle of correlation, to 
take the problem in reverse, i. ¢., to use analysis of function as a guide 
to the ultra-microsecopical analysis of structure. | 

I need scarcely say that of these two courses the first is wrong, the 
second right, for in following it we still hold to the fundamental prin- 








pos ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 425 


ciple that living material acts by virtue of its structure, provided that 
we allow the term structure to be used in a sense which carries it be- 
yond the limits of anatomical investigation, 7. e., beyond the knowledge 
which can be attained either by the scalpel or the microscope. We 
thus (as I have said) proceed from function to structure, instead of the 
other way. - - - 

At present the fundamental questions in physiology,—the problems 
which most urgently demand solution, are those which relate to the 
endowments of apparently structureless living matter, and the problem 
of the future will be the analysis of these endowments. With this 
view, what we bave to do is first, to select those cases in which the vital 
process offers itself in its simplest form, and is consequently best under- 
stood; and secondly, to inquire how far in these particular instances 
we may, taking as our guide the principle I have so often mentioned as 
fundamental, viz, the correlation of structure with function, of mech- 
anism with action, proceed in drawing inferences as to the mechanism 
by which these vital processes are in these simpiest cases actually car- 
ried out. 

The most distinctive peculiarity of living matter, as compared with 
non-living, is that it is ever changing while ever the same, 7. ¢., that life 
is a state of ceaseless change. For our present purpose I must ask 
you, first, to distinguish between two kinds of change which are equally 
characteristic of living organisms, namely, those of growth and decay 
on the one hand, and those of nutrition on the other. Growth, the 
diologist calls evolution. Growth means the unfolding, 2. e., develop- 
ment of the latent potentialities of form and structure which exist in 
the germ, and which it has derived by inheritance. A growing organ- 
ism is not the same to-day as it was yesterday, and consequently not 
quite the same now as it was a minute ago, and never again will be. 
This kind of change I am going to ask you to exclude from considera- 
tion altogether at this moment, (for in truth it does not belong to 
Physiology, but rather to Merphology,) and to limit your attention to 
the other kind which includes all other vital phenomena. 1 designated 
it just now as nutrition, but this word expresses my meaning very in- 
adequately. The term which has been used for half <. century to des- 
ignate the sum or complex of the non-developmental activities of an 
organism is “exchange of material,” for which Professor Foster has 
given the very acceptable substitute metabolism. Metabolism is only 
another word for ‘‘change,” but in using it we understand it to mean 
that although an organism in respect of its development may never be 
what it has been, the phases of alternate activity and repose which 
mark the flow of its life-stream are recurrent. Life is a cyclosis in 
which the organism returns after every cycle to the same point of de- 
parture, ever changing—yet ever the same. 

It is this antithesis which constitutes the essential distinction between 
the two great branches of biology, the two opposite aspects in which 


426 ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 


the world of life presents itself to the inquiring mind of man. Seen | 
from the morphological side, the whole plant and animal kingdom con- 
stitutes the unfolding of a structural plan which was once latent in a 
form of living material of great apparent simplicity. From the phys- 
iological side this apparently simple material is seen to be capable of 
the discharge of functions of great complexity, and therefore must 
possess corresponding complexity of mechanism. It is the nature of 
this invisible mechanism that physiology thirsts to know. Although 
little progress has as yet been made, and little may as yet be possible, 
in satisfying this desire, yet, as I shall endeavor to show you, the exist- 
ing knowledge of the subject has so far taken consistent form in the 
minds of the leaders of physiological thought, that it is now possible to 
distinguish the direction in which the soberest speculation is tending. 

The non-developmental vital functions of protoplasm are the absorp- 
tion of oxygen, the discharge of carbon dioxide and water and am- 
monia, the doing of mechanical work, the production of heat, light, and 
electricity. All these, excepting the last, are known to have chemical 
actions as their inseparable concomitants. As regards electricity, we 
have no proof of the dependence of the electrical properties of plants 
and animals on chemical action. But all the other activities which 
have been mentioned are fundamentally chemical. 

Let us first consider the relation of oxygen to living matter and vital 
process. For three quarters of a century after the fundamental discov- 
eries of Lavoisier and Priestley (1772-76) the accepted doctrine was 
that the effete matter of the body was brought to the lungs by the cir- 
culation and burnt there, of which fact the carbon dioxide expired _ 
seemed an obvious proof. Then came the discovery that arterial blood 
contained more oxygen than venous blood, and consequently that oxy- 
gen must be conveyed as such, by the blood stream to do its purifying 
work in all parts of the body. 

3etween 1872 and 1876, as the result of an elaborate series of investi- 
gations of the respiratory process, the proof was given by Pfltiger* 
that the function of oxygen in the living organism is not to destroy 
effete matter either here or there, but rather to serve as a food for pro- 
toplasm, which so long as it lives is capable of charging itself with this 
gas, absorbing it with such avidity, that although its own substance 
retains its integrity, no free oxygen can exist in its neighborhood. The 
generally accepted notion of effete matter waiting to be oxidized, was 
associated with a more general one, viz, that the elaborate structure of 
the body was not permanent, but constantly undergoing decay and re- 
newal. What we have now learnt is that the material to be oxidized 
comes as much from the outside, as the oxygen which burns it, though 
the re-action between them, i. e., the oxidation, is intrinsic, 7. e., takes 
place within the living molecular frame-work. 


* Piliiger’s Archiv, 1872, vol. vi, p. 43; and 1875, vol. x, p. 251. ‘Ueber die physi- 
ologische Verbrennung in den lebendigen Organismen.” 


ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 427 


Protoplasm therefore (understanding by the term the visible and 
tangible presentation to our senses of living material) comes to consist 
of two things, namely, of frame-work and of content,—of channel and 
of stream,—of acting part which lives and is stable,—of acted-on part 
which has never lived and is labile, that is, in a state of metabolism, or 
chemical transformation. 

If such be the relation between the living frame-work and the stream 
which bathes it, we must attribute to this living, stable, acting part a 
property which is characteristic of the bodies called in physiological 
language ferments or enzymes, the property which, following Berzelius, 
we have for the last half century expressed by the word catalytic, 
which we use, without thereby claiming to understand it, to indicate a 
mode of action in which the agent which produces the change does not 
itself take part in the decompositions which it produces. 

I have brought you to this point as the outcome of what we know as 
to the essential nature of the all-important relation between oxygen 
and life. In botanical physiology the general notion of a stable cata- 
lysing frame-work, and of an interstitial labile material, which might be 
called catalyte, has been arrived at on quite other grounds. This no- 
tion is represented in plant physiology by two words, both of which 
correspond in meaning,—Micelle, the word devised by Niigeli, and the 
better word, Tagmata, substituted for it by Pfeffer. Niigeli’s word has 
been adopted by Professor Sachs as the expression of his own thought 
in relation to the ultra-microscopical structure of the protoplasm of the 
plant cell. His view is that certain well-known properties of organized 
bodies require for their explanation the admission that the simplest vis- 
ible structure is itself made up of an arrangement of units of a far in- 
ferior order of minuteness. It is these hypothetical units that Nigeli 
has called Micelle. 

Now, Nigeli*, in the first instance, confounded the micelle with mole- 
cules, conceiving that the molecule of living matter must be of enor- 
mous size. But inasmuch as we have no reason for believing that any 
form of living material is chemically homogeneous, it was soon recog- 
nized, perhaps first by Pfeffer,t but eventually also by Nigeli himself, 
that a micelle, the ultimate element of living material, is not equiva- 
lent to a molecule, however big or complex, but must rather be an 
arrangement or phalanx of molecules of different kinds. Hence the 
word Tagma, first used by Pfeffer, has come to be accepted as best ex- 
pressing the notion. And here it must be noted that each of the physi- 
iologists to whom reference has been made, regards the micelle, not as 
a mere aggregate of separate particles, but as connected together so as 
to form a system ;—a conception which is in harmony with the view I 
gave you just now from the side of animal physiology, of catalysing 
frame-work and interstitial catalysable material. 


“Niageli, ‘‘ Theorie der Giihrung,” Beitrag zur Molecular Physiologie, 1879, p. 121; 
t Pfeffer, Pflanzenphysiologie, Leipsic, 1881, p. 12. 


* v ff Pe +. 


428 ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 


To Professor Sachs, this porous constitution of protoplasm serves to 
explain the property of vital turgescence, that is, its power of charg- 
ing itself with aqueous liquid ;—a power which Sachs estimates to be 
so enormous that living protoplasm may, he believes, be able to con- 
dense water which it takes into its interstices to less than its normal 
volume. For the moment it is sufficient for us to understand that to 
the greatest botanical thinkers, as well as to the greatest animal physi- 
ologists, the ultimate mechanism by which life is carried on is not as 
Professor Sachs* puts it, “slime,” but ‘a very distensible and exceed- 
ingly fine net-work.” 

Aud now let us try to get a step further by crossing back in thought 
from plants to animals. At first sight the elementary vital processes 
of life seem more complicated in the animal than in the plant, but they 
are on the contrary simpler; for plant protoplasm, though it may be 
structurally homogeneous, is dynamically polyergic,—it has many en- 
dowments—whereas in the animal organism there are cases in which a 
structure has only one function assigned to it. Of this the best examples 
are to be found within so-called excitable tissues, viz, those which are 
differentiated for the purpose of producing (along with heat) mechanical 
work, light. or electricity. In the life of the plant these endowments, 
if enjoyed at all, are enjoyed in common with others. 

By the study therefore of muscle, of light organ and of electrical 
organ, the vital mechanism is more accessible than by any other portal. 
About light organs we as yet know little, but the little we do know is 
of value. Cf electrical organs rather more, about muscle a great deal. 

To the case of muscle, Engelmann, one of the best observers and 
thinkers on the elementary questions which we have now before us, has 
transferred the terminology of Niigeli and Pfeffer as descriptive of the 
mechanism of its contraction. Muscular protoplasm differs from those 
kinds of living matter to which I have applied the term “polyergic,” in 
possessing a molecular structure comparable with that of a erystal in 
this respect that each portion of the apparently homogeneous and trans- 
yarent material of which it consists resembles every other. 

With this ultra-microscopical structure, its structure as investigated 
by the microscope, may be correlated, the central fact being that, just 
as a muscular fiber can be divided into cylinders by Grose secneres so 
each such cylinder is made up of an indefinite number of inconceivably 
minute cylindrical parts, each of which is an epitome of the whole. 
These Engelmann, following Pfeffer, calls ino-tagmata. So long as life 
Jasts each minute phalanx has the power of keeping its axis parallel 
with those of its neighbors, and of so acting within its own sphere as 


to produce, whenever it is awakened from the state of rest to that of 


activity, a fluxion from poles to equator. In other words, muscle, like 
Be protoplasm, consists of a stable framework of living eatalysing 


sachet E: ponneniel: SEiysialogin 1865, p. . 4435 anal Seashnt on ie Physiology of 
Plants, English translation, p. 206. 





ve 
¥ 


ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 429 


substance, which governs the mechanical and chemical changes that 
occur in the interstitial catalysable material, with this difference, that 
here the ultra-microscopical structure resembles that of a uniaxial 
crystal, whereas in plant protoplasin there may be no evidence of such 
arrangement.* 

According to this scheme of muscular structure, the contraction, ¢. e., 
the change of form which, if allowed, a muscle undergoes when stimu- 
lated, has its seat not in the tagma, but in the interstitial material 
which surrounds it, and consists in the migration of that labile material 
from pole to equator, this being synchronous with explosive oxidation, 
sudden disengagement of heat, and change in electrical state of the 
living substance. Let us now see how far the scheme will help us to 
‘an understanding of this marvellous concomitance.of chemical, elec- 
trical, and mechanical change, 

It is not necessary to prove to you that the discharge of carbon diox- 
ide and the production of heat which we know to be associated with 
that awakening of. a muscle to activity which we call stimulation are 
indices of oxidation. If we take this fact in connection with the view 
that has just been given of the mechanism of contraction, it is obvious 
that there must be in the sphere of tagma an accumulation of oxygen 
and oxidizable material, and that concomitantly with or autecedently 
to the migration of liquid from pole to equator these must come into 
encounter. Let us for a moment suppose that a soluble carbe-hydrate 
is the catalysable material, that this is accumulated equatorially, and 
oxygen at the poles, and consequently that between equator and poles 
water and carbon dioxide, the only products of the explosion, are set 
free. That the process is really of this nature is the conclusion to which 
an elaborate study of the electrical phenomena which accompany it, has 
led one of the most eminent physiologists of the present time, Professor 
Bernstein.t ‘To this I wish for a moment to ask your attention. 

Professor Bernstein’s view of the molecular structure of museular 
protoplasm is in entire accordance with the theory of Pfliiger and with 
the scheme of Engelmann, with this addition, that each ino-tagma is 
electrically polarized when in a state of rest, depolarized at the moment 
of excitation or stimulation, and that the axes of the tagmata are so 
directed that they are always parallel to the surface of the fiber, and 
consequently have their positive sides exposed. In this amended form 
the theory admits of being harmonized with the fundamental facts of 
muscle-electricity, namely, that cut surfaces are negative to sound sur- 
faces, and excited parts to inactive, provided that the direction of the 
hypothetical polarization is from equator to pole, ¢.é., that in the rest- 
ing state the poles of cach tagma are charged with negative ions, the 
_ *Briicke, Vorlesungen, 2d edition, vol. U1, p. 497. 

- + Bernstein, ‘‘Neue Theorie der Erregungsvorgiinge und ciectrischen Ersheinungen 
an den Nerven- und Muskel-fasern,” Untersuchungen aus dem Physiologischen Institut, 


Halle, 1888. 


450 ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 


equators with positive, and consequently that the direction of the dis- 
charge in the catalyte at the moment that the polarization disappears, ~ 
is from pole to equator. 

Time forbids me even to attempt to explain how this theory enables 
us to express more consistently the accepted explanations of many col- 
lateral phenomena, particularly those of electrotonus. I am content to 
show you that it is not impossible to regard the three phenomena, viz, 
chemical explosion, sudden electrical change, and change of form, as 
all manifestations of one and the same process,—as products of the same 
mechanism. 

In plants, in certain organs or parts in which movement takes place 
as in muscles in response to stimulation, the physiological conditions are 
the same or similar, but the structural very different; for the effect is 
produced not by a change of form, but by a diminution of volume of the 
excited part, ana this consists not of fibers but of cells. The way in 
which the diminution of volume of the whole organ is brought aboutis 
by diminution of the volume of each cell, an effect which can obviously 
be produced by flow of liquid out of the cell. At first sight therefore 
the differences are much more striking than the resemblances. 

But it is not so in reality. For the more closely we fix our attention 
on the elementary process rather than on the external form, the stronger 
appears the analogy—the more complete the correspondence. The state 
of turgor, as it has been long called by botanical physiologists, by virtue 
of which the frame-work of the protoplasm of the plant retains its con- 
tent with a tenacity to which I have already referred, is the analogue 
of the state of polarization of Bernstein. As regards its state of aggre- 
gation, it can scarcely be doubted that inasmuch as the electrical con- 
comitants of excitation of the plant cell so closely correspond with 
those of muscle, here also the tagmata are cylindrical, and have their 
axes parallel to each other. Beyond this we ought perhaps not to allow 
speculation to carry us, but it is scarcely possible to refrain from con- 
necting this inference with the streaming motion of protoplasm, which 
in living plant cells is one of the indices of vitality. If, as must I think 
be supposed, this movement is interstitial, 7. e., due to the mechanical 
action of the moving protoplasm on itself, we can most readily under- 
stand its mechanism as consisting in rhythmically recurring phases 
of close and open order in the direction of the tagmatic axes. 

I have thus endeavored—building on two principles in physiology,— 
firstly, that of the constant correlation of mechanism and action, of 
structure and function,—and secondly, the identity of plant and animal 
life—both as regards mechanism and structure, and on two experiment- 
ally ascertained elementary relations, viz, the relation of living matter 
or protoplasm to water on the one hand and to oxygen and food on the 
other,—to present im part the outline or sketch of what might (if Thad 
time to complete it) be an adequate conception of the mechanism and 
process of life as it presents itself under the simplest conditions. 


ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 451 


To complete this outline, so far as I can to-day, I have but one other 
consideration to bring before you, one whici is connected with the last 
of my four points of departure,—that of the relation of oxygen to proto- 
plasm, a relation which springs out of the avidity with which, without 
being oxidized or even sensibly altered in chemical constitution, it seizes 
upon oxygen and stores it for its own purposes. The consideration 
which this suggests is that if the oxygen and oxidizable material are 
constantly stored, they must either constantly or at intervals be dis- 
charged; and inasmuch as we know that in every instance, without 
exception, in which heat is produced or work is done, these processes 
have discharge of water and of carbon dioxide for their concomitants, 
we are justified in regarding these discharges as the sign of expenditure, 
the charging with oxygen as the sign of restitution. In other words, a 
new characteristic of living process springs out of those we have already 
had before us, namely, that it is a constantly recurring alternation of 
opposite and complementary states, that of activity or discharge, that 
of rest or restitution. 

Is itso or is itnot? Inthe minds of most physiologists the distinetion 
between the phenomena of discharge and the phenomena of restitution 
(Prholung) is fundamental, but beyond this, unanimity ceases. One dis- 
tinguished man in Germany and one in England—Professor Hering and 
Dr. Gaskell—have taken, on independent grounds, a different view to 
the one suggested, according to which life consists not of aiternations 
between rest and activity, charge and discharge, loading and exploding, 
but between two kinds of activity, two kinds of explosion, which differ 
only in the direction in which they act, in the circumstance that they 
are antagonistic te each other. 

Now when we compare the two processes of rest, which as regards 
living matter means restitution, and discharge which means action, 
with each other, they may further be distinguished in this respect, that 
whereas restitution is autonomic, 7. é., goes on continuously like the ad- 
ministrative functions of a well-ordered community, the other is occa- 
sional, 7. e., takes place only at the suggestion of external influences ; 
that, in other words, the contrast between action and rest is (in1 elation 
to protoplasm) essentially the same as between waking and sleeping. 

It is in accordance with this analogy between the alternation of wak- 
ing and sleeping of the whole organism, and the corresponding alterna. 
tion of restitution and discharge, of every kind of living substance, that 
physiologists by common consent use the term stimulus (Reitz, Prikkeling), 
meaning thereby nothing more than that it is by external disturbing or 
interfering influence of some kind that energies stored in living material 
are (for the most part suddenly) discharged. Now, if I were to main- 
tain that restitution is not autonomic, but determined, as waking is, by 
an external stimulus,—that it differed from waking only in the direction 
of which the stimulation acts, 7. ¢., in the tendeney towards construction 
on the one hand, towards destruction on the other, | should fairly and 
as clearly as possible express the doctrine which, as I have said, the two 





A432 ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 


distinguished teachers I have mentioned, viz, Dr. Gaskell and Professor 
Hering,* have embodied in words which have now become familiar to 
every student. The woids in question, anabolism, which being inter- 
preted means winding up, and catabolism, running down, are the crea- 
tion of Dr. Gaskell. Professor Hering’s equivalents for these are assim- 
ilation, which of course means storage of oxygen and oxidizable 
material, and disassimilation, discharge of these in the altered form of 
carbon dioxide aud water. But the point of the theory which attaches 
to them lies in this, that that wonderful power which living material 
enjoys of continually building itself up out of its environment is, as I 
have already suggested, not autonomic, but just as dependent on ocea- 
sional and exterual influences or stimuli, as we know the disintegrating 
processes to be; and accordingly Hering finds it necessary to include 
under the term stimuli not only those which determine action, but to 
create a new class of stimuli which he calls Assimilations- Reize, those 
which, instead of waking living mechanism to action, provoke it to 
rest. 

It is unfortunately impossible within the compass of an address like 
the present, to place before you the wide range of experimental facts 
which have led two of the strongest intellects of our time to adopt a 
theory which, when looked at @ priori, seems so contradictory. I must 
content myself with mentioning that Hering was led to it chiefly by the 
study of one of the examples to which I referred in my introduction, 
namely, the color-discriminating functions of the retina, Dr. Gaskell by 
the study of that very instruc’ive class of phenomena which reveal to us 
that among the channels by which the brain maintains its sovereign 
power as supreme regulator of all the complicated processes which go 
on in the different parts of the animal organism, there are some which 
convey only commands to action, others commands to rest, the former 
being called by Gaskell catabolic, the latter anabolic. - - - 

I have indicated to you that although scientific thought does not, like 
speculative, oscillate from side to side, but marches forward with a con-. 
tinued and uninterrupted progress, the stages of that progress.may be 
marked by characteristic tendencies; and I have endeavored to show 
that in physiology the questions which concentrate to themselves the 
most lively interests are these which lie at the basis of the elementary 
mechanism of life. The word life is used in physiology in what, if you 
like, may be called a technical sense, and denotes only that state of 
change with permanence which I have endeavored to set forth to you. 
In this restricted sense of the word therefore, the question ‘ What is 
Life?” is one to which the answer is approachable; but I need not say 
that in a higher sense—higher because it appeals to bigher faculties in 
our nature—the word suggests something outside of mechanism, which 
may perchance be itS cause rather than its effect. 


*Hering, Zur Theorie Vorgiinge in der lebendigen Substanz, Prague, 1888, pp. 1-22. 
See also a paper by Dr. Gaskell in Ludwig’s Festschrift, Leipsic, 1888, p. 115. 
. 





ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 433 

The tendency to recognize such a relation as this, is what we mean by 
vitalism. An anti-vitalistic tendency accompanied the great advance 
of knowledge that took place at the middle of the century. But even 
at the height of this movement there was a re-action towards vitalism, 
of which Virchow,* the founder of modern pathology, was the greatest 
exponent. Now,a generation later, a tendency in the same direction is 
manifesting itself in various quarters. What does this tendency mean? 
It has to my mind the same significance now that it had then. Thirty 
years ago the discovery of the cell as the basis of vital function was 
new, and the mystery which before belonged to the organism was trans- 
ferred to the unit, which, while it served to explain everything, was 
itself unexplained. The discovery of the cell seemed to be a very close 
approach to the mechanism of life, but now we are striving to get even 
cleser, and with the same result. Our measurements are more exact, 
our methods finer; but these very methods bring us to close quarters 
with phenomena which, although within reach of exact investigation, 
are as regards their essence involved in a mystery which is the more 
profound the more it is brought into contrast with the exact knowledge 
we possess of surrounding conditions. 

If what I have said is true, there is little ground for the apprehension 
that exists in the minds of some, that the habit of scrutinizing the wech- 
anism of life tends to make men regard what can be so learned as the 
only kind of knowledge. The tendency is now certainly rather in the 
other direction. What we have to guard against is the mixing of two 
methods, and so far as we are concerned, the intrusion into our subject 
of philosophical speeulation. Let us willingly and with our hearts do 
homage to “divine philosophy,” but let that homage be rendered out- 
side the limits of our science. Let those who are so inclined, cross: the 
frontier and philosophize; but to me it appers more conducive to pro- 
gress that we should do our best to furnish professed philosophers with 
such facts relating to structure and mechanism as may serve them as 
aids in the investigation of those deeper problems which concern man’s 
relations to the past, the present, and the unknown future. 


*Virchow, ‘Alter und neuer Vitalismus,” Archiv fiir path. Anat. 1856, vol. 1x, p. 1. 
See also Rindfleisch, Aertzliche Philosophie, Wiirzburg, 1888, pp. 10-13, 
H, Mis. 224——28 





ON BOSCOVICH’S THEORY.* 


By Sir WILLIAM THOMPSON. 


Without accepting Boscovich’s fundamental doctrine that the ulti- 
mate atoms of matter are points endowed each with inertia and with 
mutual attractions or repulsions dependent on mutual distances, and 
that all the properties of matter are due to equilibrium of these forces, 
and to motions, or changes of motion produced by them when they are 
not balanced, we can learn something towards an understanding of the 
real molecular structure of matter, and of some of its thermo-dynamie 
properties, by consideration of the static and kinetic problems which 
it suggests. Hooke’s exhibition of the forms of erystals by piles of 
globes, Naviers’ and Poisson’s theory of the elasticity of solids, Max- 
well’s and Clausius’ work in the kinetic theory of gases, and Tait’s 
more recent work on the same subject—all developments of Boscovich’s 
theory pure and simple—amply justify this statement. 

Boscovich made it an essential in his theory that at the smallest dis- 
tances there is repulsion, and at greater distances attraction; ending 
with infinite repulsion at infinitely small distance, and with attraction 
according to Newtonian law for all distances for which this law has 
been proved. He suggested numerous transitions from attraction to 
repulsion, whieh he illustrated graphically by a curve—the celebrated 
Boscovich curve—to explain cohesion, mutual pressure between bodies 
in contact, chemical affinity, and all possible properties of matter—ex- 
cept heat, which he regarded as a sulphureous essence or virtue. It 
seems now wonderful that after so clearly stating his fundamental pos- 
tulate which included inertia, he did not see inter-molecular motion as 
a necessary consequence of it, and so discover the kinetic theory of heat 
for solids, liquids, and gases; and that he only wsed his inertia of the 
atoms to explain the known phenomena of the inertia of palpable masses, 
or assemblages of very large numbers of atoms. 

*“A communication to Section A of the British Association A. S., at Neweastle, Sep- 
tember 13, 1889. (Report of the British Association, vol. LIX, pp. 494-496. Also, Na- 
ture, October 3, 1889, vol. xL, pp. 545-547.) 

435 


436 ON BOSCOVICH’S THEORY. 


It is also wonderful how much towards explaining the crystallogra- 
phy and elasticity of solids, and the thermo-elastic properties of solids, 
liquids, and gases, we find without assuming more than one transition 
from attraction to repulsion. Suppose for instance the mutual force 
between two atoms to be repulsive when the distance between them is < 
Z; zero when it is= Z; and attractive when it is > Z; and consider 
the equilibrium of groups of atoms under these conditions. 

A group of two would be in equilibrium at distance Z, and only at 
this distance. This equilibrium is stable. 

A group of three would be in stable equilibrium at the corners of an 
equilateral triangle, of sides Z; and only in this configuration, There 
is no other configuration of equilibrium except with the three in one 
line. There is one, and there may be more than one, configuration of 
unstable equilibrium, of the three atoms in one line. 

The only configuration of stable equilibrium of four atoms is at the 
corners of an equilateral tetrahedron of edges Z. There is one, and 
there may be more than one configuration of unstable equilibrium of 
each of the following descriptions: 

(1) Three atoms at the corners of an equilateral triangle, and one at 
its center. 

(2) The four atoms at the corners of a square. 

(3) The four atoms in one line. 

There is no other configuration of equilibrium of four atoms, subject 
to the conditions stated above as to mutual force. 

In the oral communication to Section A, important questions as to 
the equilibrium of groups of five, six, or greater finite numbers of 
atoms were suggested. They are considered in a communication by the 
author to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of July 15, to be published 
in the Proceedings before the end of the year. The Boscovichian foun- 
dation for the elasticity of solids with no inter-molecular vibrations was 
slightly sketched, in the communication to Section A, as follows: 

Every infinite homogeneous assemblage* of Boscovich atoms is in 
equilibrium. So therefore is every finite homogeneous assemblage, pro- 
vided that extraneous forces be applied to all within influential dis- 
tance of the frontier, equal to the forces which a homogeneous continu- 
ation of the assemblage through influential distance beyond the frontier 
would exert on them. The investigation of these extraneous forces for 
any given homogeneous assemblage of single atoms, or of groups of 
atoms, as explained below, constitutes the Boscovich equilibrium-theory 
of elastic solids. 

To investigate the equilibriam of a homogeneous assemblage of two 


** Homogeneous assemblage of points, or of jroupeernee or of hae or of elon of 
bodies,” is an expression which needs no definition, because it speaks for itself un- 
ambiguously. The geometrical subject of homogeneous assemblages is treated with 
perfect simplicity and generality by Bravais, in the Journal de UV Ecole Polytechnique, 
cahier xix, pp. 1-128. (Paris, 1850.) 





ON BOSCOVICH’S THEORY. 437 


or more atoms, imagine in a homogeneous assemblage of gronps of é 
atoms, all the atoms except one held fixed. This one experiences zero 
resultant force from all the points corresponding to it in the whole as- 
semblage, since it and they constitute a homogeneous assemblage of 
single points. Hence it experiences zero resultant force also from all 
the other i—1 assemblages of single points. This condition, fulfilled 
for each one of the atoms of the compound molecule, clearly suffices for 
the equilibrium of the assemblage, whether the constituent atoms of the 
compound molecule are similar or dissimilar. 

When all the atoms are similar—that is to say, when the mutual force 
is the same for the same distance between every pair—it might be sup- 
posed that a homogeneous assemblage, to be in equilibrium, must be of 
single points; but this is not true, as we see synthetically, without ref- 
erence to the question of stability, by the following examples, of homo- 
geneous assemblages of symmetrical groups of points, with the condition 
of equilibrium for each when the mutual forces act. 


Preliminary.—Consider an equilateral* homogeneous assemblage of 
single points, O, O’, ete. Bisect every line between nearest neighbors 
by a plane perpendicular to it. These planes divide space into rhombic 
dodekahedrons. Let A,OA;, A,OA,, A;,OA,;, A,OAs, be the diagonals 
through the eight trihedral angles of the dodekahedron inclosing O, and 
let 2a be the length of each. Place atoms Q,, Q;, Q., Q6, Qs, Q7, Qu. Qs, 
on these lines, at equal distances, r, from O; and do likewise for every 
other point, O’, O”, ete., of the infinite homogeneous assemblage. We 
thus have, aronnd each point A, four atoms, Q, Q’, Q”, Q’”, contributed 
by the four dodekahedrons of which trihedral are are contiguous in 
A, and fill the space around A. The distance of each of these atoms 
from A is a—?. 

Suppose, now, r to be very small. Mutual repulsions of the atoms of 
the groups of eight around the points O will preponderate. But sup- 
pose a—r to be very small: mutual repulsions of the atoms of the 
groups of four around the points A will preponderate. Hence for some 
value of 7 between O and a, there will be equilibrium. There may (ac- 
cording to the law of force) be more than one value of r between O and 
a giving equilibrium; but whatever be the law of force, there is one 
value of r giving stable equilibrium, supposing the atoms to be con- 
strained to the lines OA, and the distances r to be constrainedly equal. 
It is clear from the symmetries around O and around A, that neither of 
these constraints is necessary for mere equilibrium ; fue without them, 
the equilibrium might be unstable. Thus we have found a homogene- 
ous equilateral distribution of eight-atom groups, in equilibrium. Simi- 
larly, by placing atoms on the three diagonals, B,OB,, B,OB;, B,OB, 


*This means such an eisiiars as Guat of ie centers of equal s lobes male sd ame 
geneously, as in the ordinary triangular-based, or square-based, or oblong-rectangle- 
based pyramids of round shot or of billiard balls. 


438 ON BOSCOVICH’S THEORY. 


through the six tetrahedral angles of the dodekahedron around O, we 
find a homogeneous equilateral distribution of six-atom groups, in equi- 
librium. 

Place now an atom at each point O. The equilibrium will be dis- 
turbed in each case, but there will be equilibrium with a different 
value of y (still between o and a). Thus we have nine-atom groups and 
seven-atom groups. 

Thus in all, we have found homogeneous distributions of six-atom, of 
seven-atom, of eight-atom, and of nine-atom groups, each in equilibrium, 
Without stopping to look for more complex groups, or for five-atom, or 
four-atom groups, we find a homogeneous distribution of three-atom 
groups in equilibrium by placing an atom at every point O, and at each 
of the eight points A,, A;, A», Ag, As, A;, Ay, As. Thus we see by ob- 
serving that each of these eight A’s is common to four tetrahedrons of 
A’s, and is in the center of a tetrahedron of O’s; because it is a common 
trihedral corner point of four contiguous dodekahedrons. 

Lastly, choosing A», As, Ay, so that the angles A,OA:, A,JOA;, A;OA,, 
areeach obtuse,* we makea homogeneous assemblage of two-atom groups 
in equilibrium by placing atoms at O, Ay, As, A3, Ay. There are four 
obvious ways of seeing this as an assemblage of di-atomic groups, one 
of which is as follows: Choose A; and O as one pair. Through A», A;, 
A, draw lines same-wards parallel to A,O, and each equal to A,O. 
Their ends lie at the centers of neighboring dodekahedr oo which pair 
with A,, A3, Ay, respectively. 

For the Boscovich theory of the elasticity of solids, the consideration 
of this homogeneous assemblage of double atoms is very important. 
Remark that every O is at the center of an equilateral tetrahedron of 
four A’s; and every A is at the center of an equal and similar, and 
same-ways oriented, tetrahedron of O’s. The corners of each of these 
tetrahedrons are respectively A and three of its twelve nearest A neigh- 
bors; and O and three of its twelve nearest O neighbors. 

[By aid of an illustrative model showing four of the one set of tetra- 
hedrons with their corner atoms painted blue, and one tetrahedron of 
atoms in their centers, painted red, the mathematical theory which the 
author had bommtinented to the Raval Society of Edinburgh, was illus: 
trated to section A.| 

In this theory it is shown that in an elastic solid constituted by a 
single homogeneous assemblage of Boscovich atoms, there are in gen- 
eral two different rigidities, n, ,, and one bulk-modulus, k ; between 
which there is essentially the relation 5k=3n + 2, whatever be the 
law of force. The law of force may be so adjusted as to make n, =n ; 
and in this case we have 3k = dn, which is Poisson’s relation. But no 
such relation is obligatory when the elastic solid consists of a homoge- 





% This nie SAO re OAs 3, As ae ae Mok ae obtuse. Each of these six obtuse 
angles is equal to 180 — cos -!(4). 


ON BOSCOVICH’S THEORY. 439 


neous assemblage of double, or triple or multiple Boscovich atoms. On 
the contrary, any arbitrarily chosen values may be given to the bulk- 
modulus and to the rigidity, by proper adjustment of the law of force, 
even though we take nothing more complex than the homogeneous 
assemblage of double Boscovich atoms above described. 

The most interesting and important part of the subject, the kinetie, 
was, for want. of time, but slightly touched in the communication to 
Section A. The author hopes to enter on it more fully in a future 
communication to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 





: wal) he ts = 7 eae ; ae Al ere ee = 
J — ; coe = Sey: = of ne ik - rye eee ; 






7% . 
¢ 
7 ‘ 
+ 
2 + ed = 
= , * 7 . c | 
oe - — 


; : . 7 : = i is j an hd os, aT é aes a a 
; can ier ~~ OA) pais 





THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT.* 


3v Prof. OLIVER J. LODGE. 


To persons occupied in other branches of learning, and not directly 
engaged in the study of physical science, some rumor must probably 
have travelled of the stir and activity manifest at the present time among 
the votaries of that department of knowledge. 

It may serve a useful purpose if I try and explain to outsiders what 
this stir is mainly about and why it exists. There is a proximate and 
there is an ultimate cause. The proximate cause is certain experiments 
exhibiting in a marked and easily recognizable way the already theoret- 
ically predicted connection between electricity and ight. The ultimate 
cause is that we begin to feel inklings and foretastes of theories, wider 
than that of gravitation, more fundamental than any theories which 
have yet been advanced; theories which, if successfully worked out, 
will carry the banner of physical science far into the dark continent of 
metaphysics, and will iluminate with a clear philosophy much that at 
present is only dimly guessed. More explicitly, we begin to perceive 
chinks of insight into the natures of electricity, of «ether, of elasticity, 
and even of matter itself. We begin to have a kinetic theory of the 
physical universe. 

We are living, not in a Newtonian, but at the beginning of a perhaps 
still greater, Thomsonian era. Greater not because any one man is 
probably greater than Newton,t but because of the stupendonsness of 
the problems now waiting to be solved. There are a dozen men of 
great magnitude, either now living or but recently deceased, to whom 
what we now know towards these generalizations is in some measure 
due, and the epoch of complete development may hardly be seen by 
those now alive. It is proverbially rash to attempt prediction, but it 
seems to me that it may well take a period of fifty years for these great 
strides to be fully accomplished. If it does, and if progress goes on at 
* Being the general substance of a lecture to the Ashmolean Society in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford, on Monday, June 3, 1889. (University College Magazine, Liverpool, 
July, 1889, vol. Iv, pp. 90-99.) 

+Though indeed a century hence it may be premature to offer an opinion on such 
2 point. 


441 


442 THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 


anything like its present rate, the aspect of physical science bequeathed 
to the latter half of the twentieth century will indeed excite admiration, 
and when the populace are sufficiently educated to appreciate it, will 
form a worthy theme for poetry, for oratorios, and for great works of 
art. 

To attempt to give any idea of the drift. of progress in all the direc- 
tions which I have hastily mentioned, to attempt to explain the begin- 
nings of the theories of elasticity and of matter, would take too long, and 
might only result in confusion. I will limit myself chiefly to giving 
some notion of what we have gained in knowledge concerning electric- 
ity, ether, and light. Even that is far too much; I find I must con- 
fine myself principally to light, and only treat of the others as incidental 
to that. 

For now well-nigh a century we have had a wave theory of light; and 
a wave theory of light is quite certainly true. It is directly demonstra- 
ble that light consists of waves of some kind or other, and that these 
waves travel at a certain well-known velocity, seven times the circum- 
ference of the earth per second, taking eight minutes on the journey 
from the sun to the earth. This propagation in time of an undulatory 
disturbance necessarily involves a medium. If waves setting out from 
the sun exist in space eight minutes before striking our eyes, there 
must necessarily be in space some medium in which they exist and 
which conveys them. Waves we can not have unless they be wavesin 
something. 

No ordinary medium is competent to transmit waves at anything like 
the speed of light, hence the luminiferous medium must be a special 
kind of substance, and it is called the ether. The lwminiferous cether it 
used to be called, because the conveyance of light was all it was then 
known to be capable of; but now that it is known to do a variety of 
other things also, the qualifying adjective nay be dropped. 

Wave motion in «ther, light certainly is; but what does one mean by 
the term wave? The popular notion is, 1 suppose, of something heav- 
ing up and down, or perhaps of something breaking on the shore in 
which it is possible to bathe. But if you ask a mathematician what he 
means by a wave, he will probably reply that the simplest wave is 


y= a sin (pt—n2) 


and he might possibly refuse to give any other answer. 

And in refusing to give any other answer than this, or its equivalent 
in ordinary words, he is entirely justified ; that is what is meant by the 
term wave, and nothing less general would be all-inclusive. . 

Translated into ordinary English the phrase signifies “ a disturbance 
periodic both in space.and time.” Anything thus douoly periodic is a 
wave; and all waves, whether in air as sound waves, or in ether as light 
waves, or on the surface of water as ocean waves, are comprehended in 
the definition. 


teeth nieteas 


THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 443 


What properties are essential to a medium capable of transmitting 
wave motion? Roughly we may say two: elasticity and inertia. EKlas- 
ticity in some form, or some equivalent of it, in order to be able to store 
up energy and effect recoil; inertia, in order to enable the disturbed 
substance to over-shoot the mark and osciilate beyond its place of equi- 
librium to and fro. Any medium possessing these two properties can 
transmit waves, and unless a medium possesses these properties in some 
form or other, or some equivalent for them, it may be said with moder- 
ate security to be incompetent to transmit waves. But if we make this 
latter statement one must be prepared to extend to the terms elasticity 
and inertia their very largest and broadest signification, so as to include 
any possible kind of restoring force, and any Eee kind of persist- 
ence of motion respectively. 

These matters may be illustrated in many ways, but perhaps a sim- 
ple loaded lath or spring in a vise will serve well enough. Pull aside 
one end, and its elasticity tends to make it recoil; let it go and its in- 
ertia causes it to over-shoot its normal position; both causes together 
cause it to swing to and fro till its energy is exhausted. A regular 
series of such springs at equal intervals in space, set going at regular 
intervals of time one after the other, gives you at once a wave motion 
and appearance which the most casual observer must recognize as such. 
A series of pendulums will do just as well. Any wave-transmitting 
medium must similarly possess some form of elasticity and of inertia. 

But now proceed to ask what is this «ether which in the case of light 
is thus vibrating? Whatcorresponds to the elastic displacment and re- 
coil of the spring or pendulum? What corresponds to the inertia 
whereby it over-shoots its mark? Do we know these properties in the 
wether in any other way ? 

The answer, given first by Clerk Maxwell, and now reiterated and 
insisted on by experiments performed in every important laboratory in 
the world, is: 

The elastic displacement corresponds to electro-static charge 
(roughly speaking, to electricity). 
The inertia corresponds to magnetism. 
This is the basis of the modern electro-inagnetic theory of light. Now 
let me illustrate electrically how this can be. 

The old and familiar operation of charging a Leyden jar—the storing 
up of energy in a strained di-electric—any electro- static charging what- 
ever—is quite analogous to the drawing aside of our flexible spring. 
It is making use of the elasticity of the wether to produce a tendency to 
recoil. Letting go the spring is analogous to permitting a discharge of 
the jar—permitting the strained di-electric to recover itself—the elee- 
tro-static disturbance to subside. 

In nearly all the experiments of electro-staties «etherial elasticity is 
manifest. 

Next consider inertia. How would one illustrate the fact that water, 


444 THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 


for instance, possesses inertia—the power of persisting in motion against 
obstacles—the power of possessing kinetic energy? The most direct 
way would be, to take a stream of water and try suddenly to stop it. 
Open a water tap freely and then suddenly shut it. The impetus or 
momentum ofthe stopped water makes itself manifest by a violent shock 
to the pipe, with which everybody must be familiar. This momentum 
of water is utilized by engineers in the “ water-ram.” 

A precisely analogous experiment in electricity is what Faraday 
called “the extra current.” Senda current through a coil of wire round 
a piece of iron, or take any other arrangement for developing powerful 
magnetism, and then suddenly stop the current by breaking the circuit. 
A violent flash occurs if the stoppage is sudden enough, a flash which 
means the bursting of the insulating air partition by the accumulated 
electro magnetic momentum. 

Briefly we may say that nearly all electro-magnetic experiments illus- 
trate the fact of etherial inertia. 

Now return to consider what happens when a charged conductor (say 
a Leyden jar) is discharged. The recoil of the strained di-electric causes 
a current, the inertia of this current causes it to over-shoot the mark, 
and for an instant the charge of the jar is reversed; the current now 
flows backwards and charges the jar up as at first; back again flows 
the current, and so on, charging and reversing the charge with rapid 
oscillations until the energy is all dissipated into heat. The operation 
is precisely analogous to the release of a strained spring, or to the pluck- 
ing of a stretched string. 

But the discharging body thus thrown into strong electrical vibration 
is embedded in the all-pervading ether, and we have just seen that the 
wether possesses the two properties requisite for the generation and trans- 
mission of waves, viz, elasticity, and inertia or density ; hence just as 
a tuning-fork vibrating in air excites aerial waves or sound, so a dis- 
charging Leyden jar in «ether excites «etherial waves or light. 

AXtherial waves can therefore be actually produced by direct electri- 
cal means. I discharge here a jar, and the room is for an instant filled 
with light. With light, I say, though you can see nothing. You can 
see and hear the spark indeed (but that is a mere secondary disturb- 
ance we can for the present ignore), I donot mean any secondary dis- 
turbance. I mean the true «therial waves emitted by the electric oscil- 
lation going on in the neighborhood of this recoiling di-electric. You 
pull aside the prong of a tuning-fork and let it go: vibration follows 
and sound is produced. You charge a Leyden jar and let it discharge: 
vibration follows and light is excited. 

It is light, just as good as any other light. It travels at the same 
pace, it is reflected and refracted according to the same laws; every 
experiment known to optics can be performed with this «therial radia- 
tion electrically produced, and yet you cannot see it. Why not? For 
no fault of the light, the fault (if there be a fault), is in the eye. The 


THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 445 


retina is incompetent to respond to these vibrations—they are too slow. 
The vibrations set up when this large jar is discharged are from a hun- 
dred thousand to a million per second, but that is too slow for the retina. 
It responds only to vibrations between 400 billion and 800 billion 
per second. The vibrations are too quick for the ear, which responds 
only to vibrations between 40 and 40,000 per second. Between the 
highest audible and the lowest visible vibrations there has been hither- 
to a great gap, which these electric oscillations go far to fillup. There 
has been a great gap simply because we have no intermediate sense 
organ to detect rates of vibration between 40,000 and 400,000,000,- 
000,000 per second. It was therefore an unexplored territory. Waves 
have been there all the time in any quantity, but we have not thought 
,about them nor attended to them. 

It happens that I have myself succeeded in getting electric oscilla- 
tions so slow as to be audibie, the lowest [ have got at present are 125 
per second, and for some way above this the sparks emit a musical 
note; but no one has yet succeeded in directly making electric oscilla- 
tions that are visible,—though indirectly every one does it when he 
lights a candle. 

Here however is an electric oscillator which vibrates 300 million 
times a second, and emits «etherial waves a yard long. The whole range 
of vibrations between musical tones and some thousand million per 
second, is now filled up. 

These electro-magnetic waves have long been known on the side of 
theory, but interest in them has been immensely quickened by the dis- 
covery of a receiver or detector for them. The great though simple 
discovery by Hertz of an “electric eye,” as Sir W. Thomson calls it, 
makes experiments on these waves for the first time easy or even pos- 
sible. We have now a sort of artificial sense organ for their apprecia- 
tion,—an electric arrangement which can virtually ‘‘ see” these inter- 
mediate rates of vibration. 

The Hertz receiver is the simplest thing in the world; nothing but a 
bit of wire or a pair of bits of wire adjusted so that when immersed in 
strong electric radiation they give minute sparks across a microscopic 
air gap. 

The receiver I have here is adapted for the yard-long waves emitted 
from this small oscillator; but for the far longer waves emitted by : 
discharging Leyden jar an excellent receiver is a, gilt wall-paper or 
other interrupted metallic surface. The waves falling upon the metallic 
surface are reflected, and in the act of reflexion excite electric currents, 
which cause sparks. Similarly, gigantic solar waves may produce 
aurore ; and minute waves from a candle do electrically disturb the 
retina. 

The smaller waves are however far the most interesting and the 
most tractable to ordinary optical experiments. From a small oscilla- 
tor, which may be a couple of small cylinders kept sparking into each 


446 THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 


other end to end by an induction coil, waves are emitted on which all 
manner of optical experiments can be performed. 

They can be reflected by plain sheets of metal, concentrated by para- 
bolic reflectors, refracted by piisms, concentrated by lenses. I have at 
the college a large lens of pitch, weighing over three hundred- weight, 
for concentrating them to a focus. They can be made to show the phe- 
nomenon of interference, and thus have their wave-length accurately 
measured. They are stopped by all conductors and transmitted by all 
insulators. Metals are opaque, but even imperfect insulators such as 
wood or stone are strikingly transparent, and waves may be received 
in one room from a source in another, the door between the two being 
shut. 

The real nature of metallic opacity and of transparency has long 
been clear in Maxwell’s theory of light, and these electrically produced 
waves only illustrate and bring home the well known facts. The ex- 
periments of Hertz are in fact the apotheosis of that theory. 

Thus then in every way, Maxwell’s 1865 brilliant perception of the real 
nature of light is abundantly. justified; and for the first time we have 
a true theory of light, no longer based upon analogy with sound, nor 
upon a hypothetical jelly or elastic solid. 

Light is an electro-magnetic disturbance of the ether. Optics is a 
branch of electricity. Outstanding problems in optics are being rap- 
idly solved, now that we have tbe means of definitely exciting light 
with a full perception of what we are doing and of the precise mode 
of its vibration. 

It remains to find out how to shorten down the waves—to hurry up 
the vibration until the light becomes visible. Nothing is wanted but 
quicker modes of vibration. Smaller oscillaters must be used—very 
much smaller—oscillators not much bigger than molecules. In all prob- 
ability (one may almost say certainly) ordinary light is the result of 
electric oscillation in the molecules of hot bodies, or sometimes of bodies 
not hot, as in the phenomenon of phosphorescence. 

The direct generation of visible light by electric means, So soon as we 
have learnt how to attain the necessary frequency of vibration, will have 
most important practical consequences. 

Speaking in this university it is happily quite unnecessary for me to 
bespeak interest in a subject by any reference to possible practical ap- 
plications. But any practical application of what I have dealt with this 
evening is apparently so far distant as to be free from any sordid gloss 
of competition and Company promotion, and is interesting in itself as a 
matter of pure science. 

For consider our present methods of making artificial light; they are 
both wasteful and ineffective. 
~ We want a certain range of oscillation, between 800 and 400 billion 
vibrations per second; no other is useful to us, because no other has any 
effect on our retina; but we do not know how to produce vibrations of 


—a 


THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT. 447 


this rate. We can produce a definite vibration of one or two hundred 
or thousand per second; in other words, we can excite a pure tone of 
definite pitch, and we can command any desired range of such tones con- 
tinuously by means of bellows and a keyboard. We ean also (though 
the fact is less well known) excite momentarily definite cetherial vibra- 
tions of some million per second, as [ have explained at length; but we 
do not at present seem to know how to maintain this rate quite continu- 
ously. To get much faster rates of vibration than this we have to fall 
back upon atoms. We know how to make atoms vibrate; it is done by 
what we call “ heating” the substance, and if we could deal with indi- 
vidual atoms unhampered by others, it is possible that we might get a 
pure and simple mode of vibration from them. It is possible, but 
unlikely ; for atoms, even when isolated, have a multitude of modes of 
vibration special to themselves, of which only a few are of practical use 
to us, and we do not know how to excite some without also the others. 
However, we do not at present even deal with individual atoms; we 
treat them crowded together in a compact mass, so that their modes of 
vibration are really infinite. 

We take a lump of matter, say a carbon filament or a piece of quick- 
lime, and by raising its temperature we impress upon its atoms higher 
and higher modes of vibration, not trausmuting the lower into the 
higher, but superposing the higher upon the lower, until at length we 
get such rates of vibration as our retina is construeted for, and we are 
satisfied. But how wasteful and indirect and empirical is the process. 
We want a small range of rapid vibrations, and we know no better than 
to make the whole series leading up to them. It is as though, in order 
to sound some little shrill octave of pipes in an organ, we were obliged 
to depress every key and every pedal, and to blow a young hurricane, 

I have purposely selected as examples the most perfect methods of 
obtaining artificial light, wherein the waste radiation is only useless, 
and not noxious. But the old-fashioned plan was cruder even than this ; 
it consisted simply in setting something burning, whereby not the fuel 
but the air was consumed, whereby also a most powerful radiation was 
produced, in the waste waves of which we were content to sit stewing, 
for the sake of the minute, almost infinitesimal, fraction of it which 
enabled us to see. 

Everyone knows now however, that combustion is not a pleasant or 
healthy mode of obtaining light; but everybody does not realize that 
neither is incandescence a satisfactory and unwasteful method which is 
likely to be praticed for more than a few decades, or perhaps a century. 

Look at the furnaces and boilers of a great steam-engine driving a 
group of dynamos and estimate the energy expended, and then look at 
the incandescent filaments of the lamps excited by them, and estimate 
how much of their radiated energy is of real service to the eye. It will 
be as the energy of a pitch-pipe to an entire orchestra. 

It is not too much to say that a boy turning a handle could, if bis 


448 THE MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT... 


- energy were properly directed, produce quite as much reallight asis 
produced by all this mass of mechanism and consumption of material. 
There might perhaps be something contrary to the laws of nature in 
thus hoping to get and utilize some specific kind of radiation without 
the rest, but Lord Rayleigh has shown in ashort communication to the 
British Association at York that it is not so, and that therefore we have 
a right to try to do it. 
We do not yet know how, it is true, butit is one of the things we have 
got to learn. 
Any one looking at a common glow-worm must be struck with the 
fact that not by ordinary combustion, nor yet on the steam-engine and 
dynamo principle, is that easy light produced. Very little waste radia- 
tion is there from phosphorescent things in general. Light of the kind 
able to affect the retina is directly emitted ; and for this, for even a 
large supply of this, a modicum of energy suffices. 
Solar radiation consists of waves of all sizes, it is true; but then solar 
radiation has innumerable things to do besides making things visible. 
The whole of its energy is useful. In artificial lighting nothing but light 
is desired ; when heat is wanted it is best obtained separately, by com- | 
bustion. And so soon as we clearly recognize that light is an electrical 
vibration, so soon shall we begin to beat about for some mode of exciting 
and maintaining an electrical vibration of any required degree of rapidity. 
When this has been accomplished, the problem of artificial lighting will 
have been solved. | 





MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT.* 


By JosernH LovrerinG, President. 


For many generations it was assumed that no sensible time was 
taken by light in moving over the largest distances. The velocity of 
sound was found by noting the time which elapsed between seeing the 
flash and hearing the report of an explosion. It was only in the vast 
spaces of astronomy that distances existed large enough to unmask the 
finite velocity of light, and, in extreme cases, to make it seem even to 
loiter on its way. 

The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo in 1610 ; and the 
eclipses of these satellites by the shadow of Jupiter became an inter- 
esting subject of observation. It was soon noticed that the interval 
between successive eclipses of the same satellite was shorter when the 
earth was approaching Jupiter, and longer when the earth was receding 
from Jupiter. The change of pitch in the whistle of a locomotive, 
under similar motions, would suggest to the modern inind an easy ex- 
planation. A Danish astronomer, Rémer, without the help of this 
analogy, deciphered the problem in astronomy. ‘The eclipse was tele- 
graphed to the observer by aray of light, and the news was hastened 
or delayed in proportion to the distance from which itcame. In this way 
it was discovered that light took about eighteen minutes to run over 
the diameter of the earth’s orbit. This discovery was published by 
Romer in the Memoirs of the French Academy in 1675. The mathe- 
matical astronomer Delambre, from a discussion of one thousand of 
these eclipses observed between 1662 and 1802, found for the velocity 
of light 193,350 miles a second. 

: Meanwhile Rémer’s method, after fifty years of waiting, had been 
substantially confirmed in an unexpected quarter. Dr. Bradley, of the 
Greenwich Observatory, the greatest astronomical observer of his day, 
was perplexed by certain periodical fluctuations, of small amount, in 
the position of the stars. Suddenly the explanation was flashed upon 
him by something he observed while yachting on the River Thames. 
He noticed that, whenever the boat turned about, the direction of the 


*An address delivered before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, at the 
meeting of April 10, 1885, whenthe Rumford medals were presented to Prof, A. A. 
MICHELSON. (From the Proceedings of the American Academy; vol, XXIV (n. 8. XVI), 
pp. 380-401.) 

i, Mis, 224———29 449 





450 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


vane altered. He asked the sailors, Why? All they could say was, 
that it always did. Reflecting upon the matter, Bradley concluded 
that the motion of the boat was compounded with the velocity of the 
wind, and that the vane represented the resultant direction. He was 
not slow in seeing the application of this homely illustration of the 
parallelogram of motion to his astronomical puzzle. The velocity of light 
was compounded with the velocity of the earth in its orbit, so that its 
apparent direction differed by a small angle from its true direction, and 
the difference was called aberration. In spearing a fish or shooting a 
bird, the sportsman does not aim at them, but ahead of them. This 
inclination from the true direction is similiar, in angular measure, to 
what the astronomer calls aberration. Struve’s measurement of aber- 
ration combined with the velocity of the earth in its orbit gave for the 
velocity of light 191,513 miles a second. Both of the two methods de- 
scribed for obtaining the velocity ot light depend for their accuracy 
upon the assumed distance of the earth from the sun. The distance 
adopted was the one found by the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, 
viz. 95,360,000 miles. 

During the last forty years, the opinion has been gaining ground 
among astronomers that the distance of the sun, as deduced from the 
transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, was too large by 3 per cent. Ex- 
peditions have been sent to remote parts of the earth for observing 
the planet Mars in opposition. The ablest mathematical astronomers, 
as Laplace, Pontecoulant, Leverrier, Hansen, Lubbock, Airy, and 
Delaunay, have applied profound mathematical analysis to the numer- 
ous perturbations in planetary motions, and proved that tae sun’s dis- 
tance must be diminished about 2,000,000 miles in order to reconcile ob- 
servations with the law of gravitation. Airy reduced the distance of 
the sun by more than 2,000,000 miles, to satisfy the observations on 
the transit of Venus in 1874. Glasenapp derived from observed eclipses 
of Jupiter’s satellites a distance for the sun of only 92,500,000 miles. 
From these and similar data, Delaunay concluded that the velocity of 
light is about 186,420 miles a second. 

These triumphs of astronomical theory recall the witty remark of 
Fontenelle, that Newton, without getting out of his arm chair, calcu- 
lated the figure of the earth more accurately than others had done by 
travelling and measuring to the ends of it. And Laplace, in contem- 
plation of similar mathematical achievements, says: “ It is wonderful 
that an astronomer, without going out of his observatory, should be 
able to determine exactly the size and figure of the earth, and its dis- 
tance from the sun and moon, simply,by comparing his observations 
with analysis; the knowledge of which formerly demanded long and 
laborious voyages into both hemispheres.” 

The ancients supposed that light came instantaneously from the 
Stars ; a consolation for those who believed that the heavens revolved 
around the earth in twenty-four hours. Galileo and the academicians 
of Florence obtained eyen negative results, 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 451 


While the number of physical sciences has received numerous addi- 
tions during the last half-century, new affiliations and a more intimate 
correlation have been manifested. In this mutual helpfulness light has 
played an important part. The optical method of studying sound, and 
the many varieties of flame apparatus, have made acoustics as intelli- 
gible through the eye as through the ear. 

Velocity being expressed by space divided by time, it is evident that 
in measuring au immense velocity we must have at our command an 
enormous distance, such as we find only in astronomy, or else possess 
the means of measuring fractions of time as small as one-millionth of 
asecond. The first successful attempt to measure such a velocity was 
made by Wheatstone in 1834. Discharges from a Leyden jar were sent 
through a wire, having two breaks in it one-fourth of a mile apart. The 
wire was in the form of a loop, so as to bring the breaks into the same 
vertical line. The sparks seen at these breaks were reflected by a mir- 
ror at the distance of 10 feet, and revolving eight hundred times per 
second, The images of the two sparks were relatively displaced in a 
horizontal direction. As the displacement did not exceed one-half of 
an inch, the time taken by electricity to go from one break to the other 
was less thin a millionth of a second. Since the distance was one- 
quarter of a mile, the electricity travelled in that case at the rate of 
288,000 miles a second. If this experiment is interpreted to mean that 
electricity would go over 288,000 miles of similar wire in one second, as 
it probably often was at that time, the conclusion is fallacious. The 
velocity of electricity, unlike that of sound or light, diminishes when 
the length of wire increases. 

In 1838, Wheatstone suggested a method for measuring the velocity 
of light, which he thought was adequate for giving not only the abso- 
lute velocity but the difference of velocity in different media. 

In that year Arago communicated to the French Academy the details 
of an experiment which he thought would give the velocity of light in 
air or avacuum. As his own health was broken down (he died in 1853) 
he appealed to two young French physicists to undertake the experi- 
ment. On July 23, 1849, Fizeau, by a method wholly his own, made a 
successful experiment. <A disk cut at its circumference into 720 teeth and 
intervals, and made by Breguet, was rapidly rotated by a train of wheels 
and weights. A concentrated beam of light was sent out through one 
of the intervals between two teeth of the disk, which was mounted in a 
house in Suresne, near Paris, and was sent back by a mirror placed on 
Montmartre, at a distance of about 5 miles. The light, on its return, 
was cut off from the eye or entered it, according as it encountered a 
tooth or an interval of the disk. If the disk turned 12.6 times in asee- 
ond the light encountered the tooth adjacent to the interval through 
which the light went out. With twice as many rotations in the disk 
the light could enter the eye through the adjacent interval. With 
three times the original velocity, it was cut off by the next tooth but 


452 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


one, and soon. From the number of teeth and the number of rotations 
in a second the time taken by the light in going and returning was 
easily calculated. In this way the velocity of light was found to be 
195,741 miles per second. In 1856, the Institute of France awarded to 
Fizeau the Imperial prize of 30,000 franes in recognition of this capital 
experiment. 

In 1862, Foucault succeeded in measuring the velocity of light by a 
wholly different method, all parts of the apparatus for it being embraced 
within the limits of his laboratory. The light emanated from a fine 
reticule, ruled on glass and strongly illuminated. by the sun. It then 
felt upon a plane mirror revolving four hundred times a second, by 
which it was reflected successively to five other mirrors, the last of 
which was plane, and returned it back by the same path to the revolv- 
ing mirror and reticule. The total distance traveled was only about 
66 feet. As the revolving mirror had moved while the light was mak- 
ing this short journey, the image of the reticule was displaced in refer- 
ence to the reticule itself; and this displacement was the subject of 
measurement. Although the time involved was only about one fifteen- 
millionth of a second, this brief interval was translated by the method 
of the experiment into a measurable space, and gave 185,177 miles per 
second for the velocity of light, differing from the best results of astro- 
nomical methods by only 1,243 miles. Foucault was prompted to this 
experiment by Leverrier, director of the observatory. Arago was the 
first to propose the experiment. To obtain greater accuracy he placed 
the moving mirror in a vacuum, but without any advantage. He said, 
** Le mieux est Pennemi du bien.” His modest claim was that he had 
suggested to Foucault the problem and indieated certain means of re- 
solving it. Babinet thought that the experiment admitted of ten times 
greater accuracy. With three times only it might correct Struve’s 
value of aberration. 

In 1873, Cornu, another French physicist, repeated the experiments 
of Fizeau with a toothed wheel, the work extending over three years. 
The observer was stationed atthe Ecole Polytechnique. The reflecting 
mirror and collimating telescope were placed on Mont Valerian, at a 
distance of about 33,816 feet. Three different wheels were tried, hav- 
ing 104, 116, and 140 teeth respectively, and rotating between seven and 
eight hundred times a second, the velocity being registered by electric- 
ity. Cornu used at times all the eclipses from the first to the seventh 
order. Calcium and petroleum light were tried, as well as sunlight. A 
chronograph with three pens recorded automatically seconds, the rota- 
tions of the toothed wheel, and the time of the eclipse. More than a 
thousand experiments were made, six hundred of which were reduced. 
The velocity of light as published by Cornu in 1873, was 185,425.6 miles 
per second. The probable error was 1 per cent. In 1874, Cornu gave 
the result of a new set of experiments made by him in conjunction with 
Fizeau over a distance of more than 14 miles between the Observatory 


> 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 453 


and Montlhéry. The experiments were repeated more than five nundred 
times, mostly at night with the limelight. The light was sent through 
a 12 inch telescope and returned through a 7-inch telescope. The 
toothed wheel which produced the eclipse was capable of rotating six- 
teen hundred times a second. From these experiments the velocity of 
light was placed at 186,618 miles. The probable error did not exceed 
187 miles. The time was recorded accurately within a thousandth of a 
second. 

I come now to that which most interests us to-night, viz, the part 
taken in this country for the measurement of these great velocities. 
About 1854, Dr. Bache, chief of the U.S. Coast Survey, appropriated 
$1,000 for the construc tion of apparatus to be used in repeating Wheat- 
stone’s experiment on the velocity of electricity. But those who were 
expected to take part in the investigation were called to other duties, 
and the money was never drawn. 

In 1867, Professor Newcomb recommended a repetition of Foucault's 
experiment, in the interest of astronomy, to confirm or correct the re- 
ceived value of the solar parallax. In August, 1879, Mr. Albert A- 
Michelson, then a master in the United States Navy, presented a paper 
to the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, on the measurement of the velocity of light. This paper at- 
tracted great attention. Mr. Michelson adopted Foucault’s method with 
important modifications. In Foueault’s experiment the deflection of 
the light produced by the revolving mirror was too small for the most 
accurate measurement. Mr. Michelson placed the revolving mirror 500 
feet from the slit (which was ten times the distance in Foucault’s experi- 
ment) and obtained a deflection twenty times as great, although the mir 
ror made only one hundred and twenty-eight turns in a second. With 
apparatus comparatively crude, he obtained for the velocity of light 
186,500, with a probable error of 300 miles. This preliminary experi- 
ment, made in the laboratory of the Naval Academy in May, 1878, in- 
dicated the directions in which improvements must be made in order 
to insure greater accuracy. The distance from the slit to the revolving 
mirror must be increased, the mirror must revolve at least two hun- 
dred and fifty times a second, and the lens for economizing the light 
must have a large surface and a focal length of about 150 feet. With 
the aid of $2,000 from a private source Mr. Michelson was able to carry 
out his ideas on a liberal scale. 

His new experiments were made in the summer of 1879. The revolv- 
ing mirror, made by Alvan Clark & Sons, was moved by a turbine wheel. 
Its rapidity of revolution was measured by optical comparison with an 
electric fork which made about one hundred and twenty-eight vibrations 
a second, the precise value being accurately measured by reference to 
one of Konig’s standard forks. The velocity generally given to the 
mirror was about two hundred and fifty-six turns a second. The dis- 
tance between the revolving and the fixed mirror was 1,986.26 feet. 


454 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


The light from the moving mirror was concentrated on the fixed mir- 
ror by a lens 8 inches in diameter, with a focal length of 150 feet. These 
improvements on Foucault’s arrangement were so advantageous that 
Mr. Michelson obtained, even with a smaller speed in the revolving 
mirror, an angle of separation between the outgoing and returning rays 
of light so great that the inclined plate of glass in front of the microm- 
eter was not necessary; the head of the observer not shutting off the 
light. The mean result of one hundred observations taken on eighteen 
different days made the velocity of light 186,313 miles per second, with 
a probable error of 30 miles. 

In 1882, at the request of Professor Newcomb, Mr. Michelson made a re- 
determination of the velocity of light at the Case Institute, in Cleveland, 
Ohio, by the method already described, with some modifications. The 
space traversed by the light in going and returning between the two 
mirrors was 4,099 feet. Twoslight errors in the reduction of his former 
work were corrected in this. The velocity deduced from five hundred 
and sixty-three new observations was 186,278 miles, with a probable 
error of 37 miles. 

In March, 1879, Congress had voted an appropriation of $5,000 for 
experiments on the velocity of light, to be made under the direction of 
Professor Newcomb. All the delicacy of instrumental construction, all 
the skill of scientific observation, and all the resources of mathematical 
discussion were enlisted in this service. The method adopted was that 
of the revolving mirror. The movable mirror was mounted at Fort 
Myer. Two different locations were selected for the fixed mirror, viz, 
the Naval Observatory and the Washington Monument. In one case 
the distance was 2,550.95 meters, or about 8,367.12 feet; in the second 
case, 3,721 meters, or about 12,205.57 feet. Mr. Michelson assisted in 
the observations until his removal to Cleveland, in the autumn of 1880. 
The observations began in the summer of 1880, and were continued into 
the autumn of 1882, the most favorable days in spring, summer, and 
autumn, being selected. In all five hundred and four sets of measure- 
ments were made, viz, two hundred and seventy-six by Professor New- 
comb, one hundred and forty by Professor Michelson, and eighty-eight 
by Mr. Holeombe. After a full discussion of all the observations and 
the possible sources of error, Professor Neweomb decided to rest the 
final result on the one hundred and thirty-two sets of observations made 
in 1882 over the long distance between Fort Myer and the Washington 
Monument. The velocity then obtained was 186,282 miles. The ve- 
locity deduced from the three sets of observations was 186,251 miles. 
The probable error of the first result was about 19 miles. 

For some future attack upon this problem Professor Neweomb sug- 
gested a prism for the reflector with a pentagonal section, and placed 
at such a distance that it could revolve through an are of 36° while the 
light was going and returning; five hundred turns a second and a dis- 
tance of 19 miles would fulfill this condition. In the Rocky Mountains, 


si ps “palace Dadian 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 455 


or the Sierra Nevada, stations from 20 to 30 miles distant could be 
found, and with no greater loss of light from absorption than is pro- 
duced by 2 or 3 miles of common air. 

The first experiments made in Great Britain for the measurement of 
the velocity of light were published by James Young and Prof. G. 
Forbes in the Philosophical Transactions of 1882. They adopted the 
method of Fizeau. In 1878, between six and seven hundred observa- 
tions were made; but the number of teeth in the rotating wheel was 
insufficient. New experiments were made in 188081 across the river 
Clyde. Two reflectors were used at unequal distances, and -the time 
was noted when an electric light after the two reflections was at its 
maximum. The corrected distances for the two mirrors were 18,212.2 
and 16,835 feet. After an elaborate mathematical discussion of the 
theory of this method, the velocity cf light was placed at 187,221 miles. 
This value exceeded those obtained by Cornu or Michelson; but this 
might be explained by the color of the light used in the different ex- 
periments. Mr. Young and Professor Forbes made some experiments 
with lights of different colors, in confirmation of this view. But Profes- 
sor Michelson compared his three hundred and eighteen observations 
with sunlight and two hundred and sixty-seven observations with 
electric light, and found that the difference was in the opposite direc- 
tion; and in a differential experiment, when half the slit was covered 
with red glass, he found no displacement. Young and Forbes were 
attracted to their experiments on the velocity of light by Maxwell’s 
speculations on the electro-magnetic theory of light, and also as promis- 
ing the most accurate method of obtaining the parallax and distance of 
the sun. Their velocity of light combined with Struve’s constant of 
aberration made the sun’s parallax 20.445, and its distance 93,223,000 
miles. 

When Arago, in 1838, suggested to the French Academy an experi- 
ment on the velocity of light, and explained his method of making it, 
which was essentially the one afterwards adopted by Foucault, he had 
in view the settlement of the long controversy between the advocates 
of the corpuscular and undulatory theories. Almost all of the different 
classes of phenomena in geometrical optics can be explained by either 
one of these theories, though even here the undulatory has the advan- 
tage of greater simplicity. But in one respect the two theories are an- 
tagonistic. According to the corpuscular theory, light should move 
faster in glass or water than in air, forexample. The undulatory theory 
reversed this proposition. Here was an exrperimentum crucis. In 1850, 
Fizeau and Foucault made the experiment, each in his own way, and in 
both experiments the result was in favor of the theory of undulations. 
It has been shown that in the case of air alone lengths of many thou- 
sand feet are practicable. But the absorbing power of water prevents 
the use of greater lengths than about 10 feet. Light would pass through 
10 feet of air in less time than one eighteen-thousandth of a second; 


AD6 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


and the difference of time for air and water would be only a fraction of 
that small fraction. Hence the exceeding delicacy of the experiment. 

In 1883, Mr. Michelson, at the request of Professor Newcomb, re- 
peated Foucault’s experiments for finding the difference of velocity of 
light in air and water. Foucault did not aspire to quantitative precis- 
ion in his results. The experiments of Michelson proved that the ratio 
of the velocities was inversely as the indices of refraction. The velocity 
with sunlight was a little greater than with the electric light; which 
opposes the conclusion of Young and Forbes. When Mr. Michelson 
covered half of the slit with red glass, the two halves of the image were 
exactly in line. Experiments were also made on the velocity of light 
in carbon disulphide, which led to the inference that its index of refrac- 
tion was 1.77, and that orange-red light traveled from one to two per 
cent. faster than greenish blue light. Mr. Michelson was enabled to 
make this investigation by a grant from the trustees of the Bache Fund. 

Various other methods of measuring the velocity of light have been 
proposed. About 1850, Laborde suggested, in a letter to Arago, a me- 
chanical method of measuring the velocity of light. He supposes two 
disks, with many holes at the outside, connected by a very long axis 
and rotating rapidly. The light which was sent out through a hole in 
one wheel would be transmitted or arrested by the second wheel, behind 
which an observer was stationed. The distance between the wheels, 
the time of rotation, and the order of the eclipse, would be sufficient for 
calculating the velocity of light. Laborde imagined an enormous axis 
more than 200,000 miles long. Moigno recommended the substitution 
of a mirror for the observer and the second. wheel, which would double 
the distance travelled by the light. A distance of 1,640 feet, a disk 25 
feet in radius, with 1,000 holes, and turning 360 times a second, would 
be more than sufficient to surprise the reflected ray and stop it. 

In 1874, Burgue suggested a new way of finding the velocity of light 
by experiment. Ifa white disk, with a black radius, is rotated rapidly, 
and at each turn is illuminated by an instantaneous flash, this radius 
will appear immovable. If this flash is reflected on the disk from a 
distant mirror, the black radius will be displaced. No details of the 
arrangement of apparatus and no experiments were published. 

In 1885, Wolf proposed the following arrangements: Two mirrors 
were placed 5 meters apart and facing each other. The radius of curv- 
ature of each mirror was 5 meters. The first mirror was 0.20 of a meter 
in diameter; the other, 0.05 meter, revolved rapidly (two hundred turns 
a second). A slit was made in the center of the large mirror through 
which light was sent to the small mirror, forming an image on the sur- 
face of the large mirror; this image became an object for the small 
mirror, forming another image on the larger mirror, at a distance from 
the first mirror depending on the velocity of rotation. These images 
coula be sent out laterally by an inclined plate of thin glass, and their 
distance measured by a micrometer. Wolf expected advantages from 


=e 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 457 


the proximity of the two mirrors which would more than balance those 
of the long distances used by Foucault and Michelson. 

The greatest difficulty which the undulatory theory of light has en- 
countered is found in the attempted reconciliation between the require- 
ments of the refraction of light and the aberration of light. To explain 
refraction, the density of the luminiferous cether must be greater when 
the index of refraction is greater. If a body moves, it must carry its 
inclosed iether with it, as its refractive power does not change. On the 
other hand, to explain the aberration of light, it must be supposed that 
the «ther in the telescope does not move with the telescope; that the 
wether sifts through the telescope, the wther in front taking the place of 
the wether left behind; or, as Young expressed it, that the «ther flows 
through the air and solid earth as easily as the wind blows through the 
trees of a forest. 

The difficulty can be eluded by supposing that a refracting body car- 
ries along with it as much of the «ther as it possesses in excess of what 
would exist in a vacuuin of the same bulk. This, added to what is al- 
ways sifting through it, would maintain its «ether at a constant density. 
What this fraction is which must travel with the body was calculated 
by Fresnel. But while the refracting power has been protected, how 
is it with aberration? That wonld be increased to a small extent. But 
as the aberration is very small, only about 204” at its maximum, the 
required change in its value might be masked by ordinary errors of ob- 
servation. Boscovich suggested to Lalande, in 1766, that a telescope 
filled with water instead of air would test the theory; but he made no 
experiment. Wilson, of Glasgow, also proposed a water telescope in 
1782. In the course of time it appeared that not only was the effect of 
the earth’s motion on refraction and aberration under trial, but also the 
solar parallax, the motion of the solar system, and that of other stars. 

The case is clearly stated by Lodge in this way: Sound travels quicker 
with the wind than against it. Is it the same with light? Does light 
travel quicker with the wind? Well, that depends altogether on whether 
the ether is blowing along as wellas the air. If itis, then its motion must 
help the light on a little; but if the «ther is at rest, no motion of the 
air, or of matter of any kind, can make any difference. According to 
Fresnel, the free «ther is at rest, the bound is in motion. Therefore 
the speed of light will be changed by the motion of the medium; but 
only by a fraction, depending on its index of refraction,—infinitesimal 
for air, but sensible for water. 

At an early day Arago investigated the effeet which a change in the 
velocity of light would produce on aberration and refraction. He saw 
that a change of 5 per cent. in the velocity of light would alter the aber- 
ration by only one second, whereas the refraction in a prism of 45° would 
be affected to the extent of two minutes. He observed the zenith dis- 
tances of stars with and without the prism; and also the deviation of 
stars which passed the meridian at 6 A.M. and6Pp.M. The observa- 


458 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


tions were made with a mural circle and a repeating circle. Arago ex- 
pected to find a difference of ten or fifteen seconds, but found none. He 
thought that a difference no greater than one ten-thousandth would 
have been manifested by his observations had it existed. Arago at- 
tempted to explain his negative results by assumptions based upon the 
corpuscular theory of light. But Lloyd thought that the change in the 
length of the wave would balance the change in the direction of the ray. 
Arago’s observations were communicated to the Institute on December 
10, 1816, and excited great interest. They were quoted by Laplace and 
Biot. But the manuscript was mislaid and not found until 1853, when 
it was published. Mascart thinks that this experiment of Arago owes 
its reputation to Fresnel’s explanation of it by his fraction. 

In regard to the wave-motion involved in the transmission of light, 
Maxwell says: ‘ It may be a displacement, or a rotation, or an electri- 
cal disturbance, or indeed any physical quantity which is capable o 
assuming negative as well as positive values. But the ether is loosely 
connected with the particles of gross matter; otherwise they would 
reflect more light.” Then he asks the question, “ Does the ether pass 
through bodies as water through the meshes of a net which is towed by 
a boat?” Itis difficult to obtain the relative motion of the earth and 
cether by experiment, as the light must move forward and then back 
again. One way is to compare the velocities of light obtained from the 
eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites when Jupiter is in opposite points of the 
ecliptic. Cornu referred, in 1883, to the difficulty of observing these 
eclipses, especially when Jupiter is in conjunction with the sun. On 
account of this difficulty observations have been neglected for the last 
fifty years. Observations must be made near quadratures. Cornu sug- 
gests a proper arrangement for this purpose. 

At various times between 1864 and 1868, Maxwell repeated Arago’s 
experiment in a more perfect form. A spectroscope was used, having 
three prisms of 60° each. A plane miror was substituted for the slit of 
the collimator. The cross-wires of the observing telescope were illumi- 
nated by light reflected bya plate of thin glass placed at an angle of 45°. 
Light went to the mirror and was sent back to the wires from which it 
started after passing through six prisms. The experiment was tried 
when the light started in the direction of the earth’s motion, and when 
in the opposite ; also, at different seasons of the year. In all cases the 
image of the wires coalesced with the wires. 

Lodge states the case clearly thus: ‘If all the ether were free there 
would have been a displacement of the image of the wires. If all the 
wether were bound to the glass there would have been a difference on 
the other side. But, according to Fresnel’s ry pothesis there should be 
no difference either way. According to his hypothesis, the free ther, 
which is the portion in relative motion, has nothing to do with the re- 
fraction. It is the addition of the bound ether which causes the refrac- 
tion, and this part is stationary relatively to the glass, and is not stream- 


See 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. A459 


ing through it at all. Henee the refraction is the same whether the 
prism be at rest orin motion throngh space.” Maxwell is more guarded 
in his own statement of the case. He says: ‘* We can not conelude 
certainly that the «ther moves with the earth, for Stokes has shown 
from Fresnel’s hypothesis that the relative velocities of the ether inthe 
prism and that outside are inversely as the square of the index of re- 
fraction, and the deviation in this case would not be sensibly altered, 
the velocity of the earth being only one ten-thousandth of the velceity 
of light.” 

In 1879, Maxwell wrote to Prof. D. P. Todd, then at the Nautical 
Almanae Office in Washington, asking him if he had observed an appar- 
ent retardation of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites depending on the 
geocentric position of the planet. Such observations, he thought, would 
furnish the only method he knew of finding the direction and velocity 
of the sun’s motion throngh the surrounding medium. In terrestrial 
methods of measuring the velocity of light, it returns on its path, and 
the velocity of the earth in relation to the ether would alter the whole 
time of passage by a quantity depending on the square of the ratio of 

the velocities of the earth and light, and this is quite too small to be 
~ observed. 

In 1839, Babinet made a very delicate experiment on the relation of 
the luminiferous ether to the motion of the earth. He found that when 
two pieces of glass of equal thickness were placed across two beams of 
light which interfered so as to produce fringes, one of them moving in 
the direction of the earth’s motion and the other contrary to it, the 
fringes were not displaced. The experiment was made three times by 
Babinet, with new apparatus each time. He concludes that here is a 
new condition to be fulfilled by all theories in regard to the propaga- 
tion of light in refracting media. According to all the theories admit- 
ted or proposed, the displacement of the fringes should have been equal 
to many lengths of a fringe—thatis, many millimeters—whileby obser- 
vation it was nothing. Stokes has calculated the result according to 
Fresnel’s theory, or his own modification of it, and found that the retar- 
dation expressed in time was the same as if the earth were at rest. 
Fizeau has pointed out a compensation in the effect of Babinet’s exper- 
iment. Hesays: ‘ When two rays have a certain difference of march, 
this difference is altered by the reflection from the turning mirror.” By 
calculating the two effects in Babinet’s experiment, Fizeau finds that 
they have sensibly equal values, and of opposite sign. 

In 1860, Angstrém communicated to the Royal Society of Upsala a 
method of determining the motion of the solar system by observations 
on the bands of interference produced by a glass grating. In 1863, he 
publisbed the results which he had obtained. After allowing for Bab- 
inet’s correction on account of the motion of the grating, Angstrom 
finds that a difference in the direction of the observing telescope with 
reference to the earth’s motion might produce a displacement of the 


460 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


fringes amounting to 49.8. Selecting the line D in the fourth spee- 
trum, he thought that the influence of the earth’s annual motion was 
verified, but that of the motion of the solar system was less decided. 
The observations were more consistent with the assumption that the 
solar system moved with a velocity equal to one-third of that in its 
orbit, than with an equal velocity, or none at all. In 186263, Babinet 
presented to the Academy of Paris a paper on the influence of the mo- 
tion of the earth on the phenomena produced by gratings, which depend 
not on reflection, refraction, or diffraction, but on interference. His 
principal object was a study of the motion of the solar system. He 
calculated the effects to be expected, but published no observations. 
In 1867, Van der Willigen measured the length of waves of light by 
means of a grating. When a slit was used, no effect was produced by 
the motion of the earth, the slit partaking of that motion. With astar, 
a movement of the earth in the direction of the light had an effect. 
This is the theoretical result, and agrees with Babinet’s experiment, 
but is not applicable to solar light when reflected by a mirror. That 
behaves as light from a terrestrial source. In 1873, he rejects the 
proposition that the refraction of light is modified by the motion of its 
source or of the prism. In 1874, he seems to doubt the reality of the 
effect produced on diffraction. 

In 1867, Klinkerfues used a transit instrument having a focal length 
of 18 inches. In the tube was a column of water 8 inches long, and a 
prism. He observed transits of the sun and of certain stars whose 
north polar distance was equal to the sun’s, and which passed the 
meridian at midnight. The difference of right ascension is affected by 
double the coefficient of aberration. He computed that the column of 
water and the prism would increase the aberration by 8”. The amount 
observed was 7.1. In 1568~69, Hoek of Amsterdam discussed the in- 
fluence of the earth’s motion on aberration. Delambre had caleulated 
from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites that light must take 493s.2 in 
coming from the sun. Hence the aberration must be 20.255. Struve’s 
observed aberration made the time 497°.8. Hoek decided in favor of 
Struve; but he thought that it was desirable that a new set of obser- 
vations should be made on the eclipses. Klinkerfues espoused the side 
of Delambre. Hoek said that,if the earth’s motion was taken into 
account, according to Fresnel’s fraction, different results would be 
harmonized. In 1868, he made experiments on a divided beam of light, 
the two parts going in opposite directions through tubes filled with 
water. There was no interference attributable to the effect of the 
earth’s motion. As to any influence to be expected from the motion of 
the solar system, he thinks that motion must be insignificant compared 
with the initial motion of the comets, and with the cometary orbits, 
which are parabolas with few hyperbolas. 

In 1872, and on several previous occasions, one of the grand prizes 
of the Academy of Paris was offered for an investigation of the effeet 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 461 


produced by the motion of the luminary or of the observer. This 
prize, consisting of a gold medal or 3,000 franes, was awarded in 1874 
to Maseart. He maintained that in Arago’s experiment the change in 
refraction produced by the fraction of the earth’s motion was compen- 
sated by the displacement of the observing telescope. Mascart re- 
peated Babinet’s experiment with gratings, where the effects of the 
motion of the telescope and of the grating would be additive, and found 
the sum small compared with Babinet’s calculation. He thinks that 
the change in the length of the wave caused by the motion is compen- 
sated by the displacement of the measuring apparatus. THe concludes 
that reflection, diffraction, double refraction, and cireular polarization 
are powerless tp show the motion of the earth, ny ‘rv with solar light 
or that from a terrestrial source. 

In 1871, Airy used a vertical telescope, and measured the meridional 
zenith distance of y Draconis, the star by which Bradley discovered 
aberration. It is about 100” north of the zenith. The tube of the 
telescope, which was 35.3 inches long, was filled with water. The days 
of observation included the seasons of the equinoxes, when the star is 
most affected in opposite directions by aberration. The observations 
were repeated in the spring and autumn of 1872. No increase was 
produced in the aberration by the water in the telescope. 

In 1873, Ketteler, in the preface to the “ Laws of the Aberration of 
Light,” enumerates thirty-nine persons who have investigated the effect 
of motion on the phenomena of sound and light. From his own analy- 
sis he concludes: (1) that a motion of the prism and telescope perpen- 
dicular to the direction of a star produces no effect on the refraction; (2) 
that when the motion is in the direction of the star, the velocity of the 
light is changed according to I'resnel’s fraction of that motion; and (3) 
that for any intermediate direction it is changed to the extent of that 
fractional part of the motion multiplied by the cosine of the angle be- 
tween the direction of the motion and the direction of the star. 

In 1859, Fizeau proposed an experiment for ascertaining if the azi- 
muth of the plane of polarization of a refracted ray is influenced by the 
motion of the refracting medium. Whenaray of polarized light passes 
through an inclined plate of glass, the plane of polarization is changed, 
according to certain laws investigated by Malus, Biot, and Brewster. 
The degree of change depends upon the inclination of the ray, the 
azimuth of the plane of primitive polarization, and the index of refrac- 
tion of the glass. The incidence and azimuth being constant, this rota- 
tion of the plane of polarization increases with the index of refraction. 
This index being inversely as the velocity of light, the rotation is 
smaller the greater this velocity. Fizeau used two bundles of glass, 
four plates in each, and slightly prismatic, inclined to one another. 
One bundle was made of common glass; the other of flint glass. The 
angle of incidence for the ray was 58° 49’,. When the azimuth of the 
primitive plane of polarization was 20°, the rotation of the plane of 


462 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


polarization was 18° 40/ and 24° 58’ for the two bundles. By Fresnel’s 
hypothesis the change in the velocity of light from the motion of the 





medium is + (= ye The greatest available velocity for the medium 
pe 


is that of the earth in its orbit, viz, 101,708 feet per second (31,000 
meters). At the time of the solstices this motion is horizontal, and from 
east to west at noon. If the incident light comes from the west, the 
velocity of light is diminished by Fresnel’s fraction of the velocity of 
the earth. If the light comes from the east, its velocity is increased by 


the same amount. The change in the index of refraction (oro! ) is 


1 f a 
sta: Measure- 


equal to "eV; this for an index of 1.513 amounts to; 
ments show that in glass, the index increasing by a certain fraction, 
the rotation increases by a fraction four and one-half times greaer and 
the consequent change in the plane of polarization would be 5,45. The 
total change on reversing the direction from which the light came would 
be z5:>. If the incidence is 70°, and allowance is made for the change 
of direction inside of the glass, the fraction becomes ;.55. Whenaray 
of light falls on a single plate of glass at an angle of 70°, if its plane of 
prinitive polarization makes an angle of 20° with the plane of refrac- 
tion, this plane is changed by 6° 40’. This multiplied by ;5, gives 
sixteen seconds for the probable effect of the earth’s motion. With 
forty such plates the effect would be increased to ten and two-third 
minutes. Two mirrors were used, one to the east and the other to the 
west, and light could be sent by a heliostat upon either one. The ap-. 
paratus was easily turned through 180° so as to receive successively 
the light which travelled with or against the earth’s motion. 

With a single pile of plates highly inclined and a second pile less 
inclined, of more highly tempered giass and in the opposite azimuth, a 
rotation of 50° could be produced, while the tendencies to elliptical 
polarization were exactly balanced. The motion of the earth could 
modify this result to the extent of only two minutes; which is too small 
for accurate observation. Fizeau then resorted to a device already in- 
dicated by Botzenhart for amplifying this effect. A small variation in 
the primitive plane of polarization produces a greater effect the smaller 
the azimuth of this plane. If the original azimuth is only 5°, a small 
change in the azimuth trebles the value of the rotation. A large rota- 
tion is first produced on a ray whose azimuth is large, and then this 
rotation is largely changed by another pile so placed that the ray enters 
it under a small azimuth. More than two thousand measurements were 
made under various conditions. Tor noon observations at the time of 
solstice the rotation was always greater when the light came from the 
west, and was less at other times of day. The excess in the value of 
the rotation when the light came from the west varied between 30/ and 

150’, according to the different ways in which the piles of plates were 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 463 


combined. The difference in the values of the rotation according as 
the light came from the west or east was consistent with a change in 
the index of refraction corresponding to Fresnel’s hypothesis. Fizeau 
indicated his intention of renewing the research with improved appa- 
ratus, but no further publication on the subject by him can be found. 

Faye has criticised this investigation of Fizeau, on the ground that 
he has taken no account of the motion of the solar system towards the 
constellation Hercules. This motion, recognized by astronomers on 
substantial evidence, amounts to 25,889 feet per second (7,894 meters) 
at its maximum. Its influence is almost zero at noon of the solstices, 
But it increases after noonday. Faye examines Fizeaws observations 
at 4 P.M., and finds discrepancies of 12/ or 15’ between the results of 
theory and observation. By neglecting the term which corresponds to 
the motion of the solar system, Fizeau’s observations accord better at 
all hours of the day. Must the inference be, Faye asks, that the solar 
system does not move? Tessan, in reply to Faye, says that the sun, 
from which Fizeau derived the light used in his experiments, moves 
with the rest of the solar system; and that therefore Fizeau was justi- 
fied in neglecting the term which expresses this motion, as of no effect on 
his calculations. Fizeau’s theory depends only on the relative velocity 
between the source of light and the body which receives it; that is, the 
velocity of revolution and rotation of the earth. 

In 1881, Professor Michelson published the results of his investigation 
on this delicate problem. He first calculates the probable difference of 
time taken by the light in going and returning over a given distance, 
according as that distance lies in the direction of the earth’s motion or 
at right angles to it. Ifthe distance were 1,200 millimeters, the differ- 
ence of time translated into space would be equal to one-twenty-fifth of 
a wave-length of yellow light. The apparatus was ingeniously devised 
so as to bring about fringes of interference between the two rays which 
have travelled on rectangular paths. The whole apparatus was then 
turned round bodily through 90°, so as to exchange the conditions of 
the two interfering rays. Special apparatus was made for this experi- 
ment by Schmidt and Haensch of Berlin, and was mounted on a stone 
pier at the Physical Institute of Berlin. It wasso sensitive to aceident- 
al vibrations that it could not be used in the day-time, nor indeed earlier 
than midnight. To secure greater stability the apparatus was moved 
to the Astrophysikalisches Observatorium in Potsdam, in charge of Pro- 
fessor Vogel. But even here the stone piers did not give sufficient pro- 
tection against vibration. The apparatus was then placed in the cellar, 
the walls of which formed the foundation for an equatorial. But stamp- 
ing with the feet, though at a distance of 100 meters, made the fringes 
disappear. 

The experiments were made in April, 1881. At this time of the year, the 
earth’s motion in its orbit coincides roughly with the motion of the solar 
system, viz, towards the constellation Hercules, This direction is in- 


A64 MICIIELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


clined about 26° to the plane of the earth’s equator, and a tangent to 
the earth’s motion in its orbit makes an angle of 235° with the plane 
of the equator. The resultant would be within 25° from the equator. 
The nearer the components are in magnitude, the more nearly would 
the resultant coincide with the equator. I=f the apparatus is placed so 
that the arms point north and east at noon, the eastern arm would coin- 
cide with the resultant motion of the earth, and the northern arm would. 
be at aright angle to it. The displacement produced by revolving the 
whole through 90° should amount to one-twenty-fifth of the interval be- 
tween two fringes. If the proper motion of the solar system is small 
compared with the velocity of the earth in its orbit, the displacement 
would be less. Mr. Michelson drew from these experiments the conelu- 
sion that there was not a sufficient displacement of the fringes to support 
the theory of aberration, which supposes the wether to move with a cer- 
tain fraction of the earth’s velocity. The displacement however was 
so small that it easily might have been masked by errors of experiment. 
Mr. A. Graham Bell supplied Mr. Michelson with the money required 
for this investigation, 

In 1886, Mr. Michelson and Mr, Morley published a paper on the in- 
fluence of the motion of the medium traversed by the light on its ve- 
locity. Fizeau had made similar experiments. In both cases the in- 
terfering rays were changed in velocity in opposite ways by flowing air 
or water through which they were transmitted. With air having a ve- 
locity of about 52 feet (25 meters) a second, the effect was so small that 
it might easily be covered up by errors of experiment; but with water 
it was measurable, and the result corresponded with the assumption of 
Fresnel, that the «ther in a moving body is stationary, except the por- 
tions which are condensed around its particles. In this sense, it may 
be said that the «ther is not affeeted by the motion of the medium which 
it permeates. For this investigation, which was made possible by a 
grant from the Bache Fund of the National Academy, Mr. Michelson 
and Mr. Morley devised a new instrument, called the refractometer. 
Cornu writes of Michelson’s experiments on moving media: “ Leur tra- 
vail congu dans Vesprit le plus élevé éxecuté avec ces puissant moyens 
Waction que les savants des Etats-Unis aimant a déployer dans les 
grandes questions scientifiques fait le plus grand honneur a leurs au- 
teurs.” 

In 1887, Professor Michelson published another investigation of the 
question whether the motion of the earth in its orbit carried its ether 
with it. In his previous experiment his apparatus was sensitive to the 
smallest jars, and it was difficult to revolve it without producing distor- 
tion of the fringes, and an effect amounting to only one-twentieth of 
the distance between the fringes might easily be hidden by accidental 
errors of experiment, Inthe new experiment the apparatus was placed 
on a massive rock, which rested on a wooden base, which floated upon 
mercury, The stone was 1.5 meters square and 0.3 of a meter thick, 


/ 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 465 


At each corner four mirrors were placed, by reflection from which the 
length of path traversed by the light was increased to ten times its 
former value. The width of the fringes of interference, which were 
the subject of observation, measured from forty to sixty divisions of 
the observing micrometer. The light came from an Argand burner sent 
through a lens. Tv prevent jars from stopping and starting, the float 
was kept constantly in slow circulation, revolving once in six minutes. 
Sixteen equidistant marks were made on the stationary frame-work 
within which the foat moved. Observations were taken on the fringes 
whenever any one of these marks came in the range of the micrometer. 
The observations were made near noon and at 6 P.M. The noon and 
evening observations were plotted on separate curves. One division 
of the micrometer measured one. fiftieth of a wave-length. Mr. Michel- 
son was confident that there was no displacement of the fringes exceed- 
ing one-hundredth of a wave length. Itshould have been from twenty 
to forty times greater than this. Mr. Michelson concludes that this 
result is in opposition to Fresnel’s theory of aberration. 

As late as 1872, Le Verrier thought that a new measurement of the 
velocity of light by Fizeau very important in the interest of astronomy ; 
and in 1871, Cornu wrote that the parallax of the sun, and hence the 
size of the earth’s orbit, were not yet known with the desirable precis- 
ion. In 1875, Villarceau made a communication to the Paris Academy 
on the theory of aberration. He says that the parallax of the sun by 
astronomical measurement is 8.86. Foucault’s velocity of light com- 
bined with Struve’s aberration makes the sun’s parallax $7.86. Cornu’s 
velocity of light gives the same result only when it is combined with 
Bradley’s aberration, which differs from that of Struve by 0.20. Vil- 
larcean thinks that there is an uncertainty about the value of aberra- 
tion on account of the motion of the solar system. In 1883, M. O. Struve 
discussed seven series of observations made by his father, Nyrén, and 
others, with various instruments and by different methods, at the Ob- 
servatory of Pulkowa. He was certain that the mean result for the 
value of aberration was 20.492, with a probable error of less than 7}, 
of a second. This aberration, conbined with the velocity of light as 
deduced from the experiments of Cornu and Michelson, made the paral- 
lax of the sun 8.784; differing from the most exact results of the geo- 
metric method by only a few hundredths of a second. Villarceau pro- 
posed to get the solar motion by aberration; selecting two places on 
the earth in latitude 35° 16’ north and south, and after the example of 
Struve, observing the zenith distances of stars near the zenith. The 
tangents of these latitudes are +- <5 so that they contain the best sta- 
tions for obtaining the constant of aberration, and the three components 
of the motion of translation of the solar system. In 1887, Ubaghs, a 
Belgian astronomer, published his results on the determination of the 


H. Mis, 224——30. 


466 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


direction and velocity of the movement of the solar system through 
space. For finding the direction he used the method of Folie. For 
calculating the velocity he combined the observations on three groups 
of stars, the brightest belonging probably to the solar nebula. The 
resulting velocity was only about 10,000,000 miles a year. Homann, 
working on the spectroscopic observations at Greenwich, had obtained 
a velocity of 527,000,000 of miles. As late as 1887, Fizeau studied the 
nature of the phenomena when light was reflected from a mirror mov- 
ing with a great velocity, and inferred that aberration was the same in 
this case as when the light was taken directly from a star. 


The solar parallax, calculated from Cornu’s last experiment on the velocity 
of light and Delambre’s equation of light (493’’.2 being the time for pass- 


ing over the radius of the earth’siorbit)- 22.2 2- salve cee lem toes = eee setae = &''.878 
From ‘Struve’s observed aberration’: 2 icc. seiesje no sei eine sleet eeeeleen Bee o7 
From) Bradley’s/observed aberration eecm see alse osiree= ciaeieiaeiate aisiste te ser 8’. 881 
From Foucault’s velocity with Struve’s aberration..............---..----. 8’’.860 
From Le Verrier’s latitudes of Venus by transits ..........---.----.--. --2- 8/853 
From meridian observations of Venus during 106 years.........-..---..--- 8/’.859 
From oceultations of Aquarius im 1l6s2 isco aes sae e neea ieee 8!’ 866 


Glasenapp calculated the time taken by the light in travelling the 
mean distance of the earth’s orbit as equal to 500°.85 4+ 1.02. This 
time combined with Micheison’s velocity of light makes the solar paral- 
lax 8.76. Struve’s constant of aberration with Micbelson’s velocity 
gives a parallax of 8.81. From Gill’s mean of the nine best modern 
determinations of aberration (=20.496) the parallax comes out equal 
to 8.78. If we regard the solar parallax as known, the eclipses give 
nearly the same velocity as aberration, though the former is a group- 
velocity and the latter a wave-velocity. Gill’s parallax from observations 
of Mars (8.78) agrees with Michelson’s velocity of light and the mean 
constant of aberration. 

In 1877—78, Lord Rayleigh, in his profound treatise on the Theory of 
Sound, discussed the distinction between wave-velocity and group. 
velocity. In 1881, he recognized the same difference in the case of 
luminous waves. In the experiments of Young and Forbes, the wave- 
velocity might be nearly three per cent. less than the group-velocity. 
With toothed wheels and the revolving mirror, group-velocity was the 
subject of observation. Aberration gave wave-velocity; Jupiter’s sat- 
ellites, group-velocity; experiment however showed but little differ- 
ence. Lord Rayleigh found formule for the relation between these two 
kinds of velocity, which involved the wave-length and the idex of re- 
fraction, and J. Willard Gibbs has compared them, and other formule 
proposed by Schuster and Gouy, with the experimental velocities of 
light. Michelson’s experiment on the index of refraction of carbon 
disulphide agrees with the assumption that he was dealing with the 
group-velocity. 

Although there is not a complete accordance between the resuits of 


eta i Ee 


MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 467 


different methods of investigation, astronomers and physicists will be 
slow to abandon the theory of undulations, and take up again the cor- 
puscular theory of light. The latter theory has received fatal blows 
from which it cannot recover. The undulatory theory, which started 
with Huyghens more than two hundred years ago, and was elaborated 
by Fresnel sixty years ago, has survived many crises in its history, and 
is supported by a wonderful array of experiments. Some of the experi- 
ments of Mr. Michelson may require a modification in Fresnel’s inter- 
pretation. Stokes and Challis have worked for many years upon it, 
and established it on mathematical principles differing from Fresnel’s 
and from each other. Ketteler in his Theoretische Optik, published in 
1885, builds upon the Sellmeier hypothesis, that ponderable particles 
are excited by the cetberial vibrations and then re act upon them. There 
remains Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory of light, which has been 
elaborated by Glazebrook and Fitzgerald, and is supported, to say the 
least of it, by remarkable numerical coincidences. 

Discrepancies between theory and experiment are always to be wel- 
comed, as they contain the germs of future discoveries. We have 
learned in astronomy not to be alarmed by them. More than once the 
law of gravitation has been put on trial, resulting in a new discovery 
or in improved mathematical analysis. We may not expect in light 
such a brilliant discovery as that of the planet Neptune. The luminif- 
erous «ether is a mysterious substance, enough of a fluid for the planets 
to pass easily through it, but at the same time enough of a solid to adinit 
of transverse vibrations. Stokes suggests water with a little glue dis- 
solved in it as a coarse representation of what is required of the «ether. 

Mr. G. A. Hirn has written recently on the constitution of celestial 
space. He decides against the existence of an ali-pervading medium. 
He thinks that matter exists in space only in the condition of distinet 
bodies, such as stars, planets, satellites, and meteorites. In nebule it 
is in a state of extreme diffusion; but elsewhere space is empty. But 
how would it be after the correction is applied for the equation of light? 
Humboldt said that the light of distant stars reaches us as a voice from 
the past. The astronomer is not seeing for the most part contempo- 
raneous events. He is reading history; and often ancient history, and 
of very different dates. Stellar photography reveals millions of stars 
which cannot be seen in the largest telescopes, and new harvests of 
these blossoms of heaven (as they have been called) spring up like the 
grass in the night. Numbers fail to express their probable distances 
and the time taken by their light in coming to the earth. In the 
theogony of Hesiod, the brazen anvil took only nine days in falling 
from heaven to earth. On the other hand, the reduction of the sun’s 
distance by three per cent. not only affects its mass and heat, but it 
changes the unit of measure for the universe. Such are the remote 
results of any change in the estimated velocity of light, 


468 MICHELSON’S RECENT RESEARCHES ON LIGHT. 


We may thank Professor Michelson not only for what he has estab- 
lished, but also for what he has unsettled. In his various researches, 
which I have hastily sketched, but which require diagrams or models 
to be clearly understood, he has displayed high intelligence, great ex- 
perimental skill and ingenuity, and unflagging perseverance. With a 
full appreciation of his work, the Rumford Committee recommended, 
and the Academy voted, that the Rumford Premium be awarded to him. 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY.* 


3y KR. RADA. 
Translated by AARON N. SKINNER, U. S. Naval Observatory. 


To obtain the greatest result with the least effort, is not this the 
whole problem of modern industry, a problem whieh determines gradu- 
ally the development of implements and machines? The engines which 
he invents permit man to infinitely multiply the efficiency of his organs, 
to extend their fitness, and to relieve them from the demands of exces- 
sive efforts; they assist him, free him, more and more from the harsh 
servitude of material labor. Confining himself henceforth to oversee- 
ing the apparatus which labors for him, in proportion as he fatigues 
himself less, he produces more and at much better advantage. There 
is no comparison between the fabrication of a thousand needles from a 
manufactory, and the work of an artisan who undertakes fashioning 
them one by one by his own unaided efforts. 

It is a progress of the same order which realizes to-day the detinitive 
introduction of photography in astronomical observations: It is to 
deliver the astronomer from a labor, thankless, painful, irksome, and 
fatal for the eyes. When ten years ago I spoke in this journal of the 
great prospects of celestial photography t I dared searcely to hope that 
routine and prejudice would be disarmed so speedily. Indeed the 
first attempts in astronomical photography go as far back as 1840, and 
during nearly half a century frequent attempts, unhappily always iso- 
lated, have shown that the difficulties of the problem lave not been 
insoluble; but on account of tenacious prejudices, a blind adherence to 
the past proscribed the paraphernalia of photography from the sanctu- 
aries or kept up. the traditions of Cassini and of Bradley. It is in 
these later years that finally this spontaneous enthusiasm appeared, this 
grand movement which has found its expression in the “Astro-photo- 
graphic Congress,” convened in Paris in the month of April, 1887, and 
which promises to begin a work of the highest importance for future 
ages, the photographie execution of a general chart of the sky. 

*From the Revue des Deux Mondes: April 1, 1889, vol. xcu, pp. 626-649. I.—K., 
Mouchez, ‘Astronomical Photography at the Paris Observatory and the chart of the 
sky,” Paris, 1887. II.-—Bulletin of the Permanent International Committee for the 
execution of the photographic chart of the sky, 1888, 1889, 

t Revue des Dewx Mondes of February 15, 1878. 





469 


470 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


i 


This application of photography is however so reasonable, its role was 
so clearly indicated and so well foreseen, that it seems an equal prog- 
ress ought to have been obtained indeed from the first. There was 
one problem whose solution was perfectly circumscribed ; it was truly no 
more than a question of time and money. The history of photography, 
since its origin, is like the logical development of a thought which 
is realized in a continuous manner before our eyes. The gropings by 
which we discover substances more and more sensitive, or the means of 
retaining, of fixing, more and more permanently, the fugitive traces of 
phenomena, all these ought to be, most certainly, hastened and matured 
more speedily in the fact of having a prize to gain; and here appear 
clearlythe conditions always more tyrannical than expense in the scien- 
tific enterprises of our epoch. 

Chemistry and the mechanical arts have singularly multiplied the re- 
sources of astronomers of the close of this century. Is there any occa- 
sion to recall the progress accomplished in the manufacture and grind- 
ing of optical glass, in the mounting of great telescopes, in silvered mir- 
rors, in electric chronographs, in the spectroscope and in spectral analy- 
sis, Whose entry on the scene, so brilliant and so unexpected, probably 
diverted for some time the attention of astronomers from the develop- 
ment of photographie processes? Unhappily this instrument, so pow- 
erful, this new apparatus which has extended the domain of observa- 
tion, is very costly. In order to bring it into service, great efforts of 
eloquence are almost always necessary, because the scientific budget, 
as is well known, is one whose endowment is generally measured with 
the greatest parsimony. It is insuch a situation as this that the assem- 
bly of a congress, with its solemn publicity, its persuasive programmes, 
and its imperious desires, offers always the best means of overcoming 
an opposition which is inspired by an ill-conceived economy. 

The congress which held its sessions at the Paris Observatory, two 
years since, and which was called by Admiral Mouchez, under the 
auspices of the Academy of Sciences, had in view, primarily, the exe- 
cution of a chart of the sky. It comprised fifty astronomers, who came 
from all parts of the globe, some already familiarized for a long time 
with the pratique of celestial photography. 

It would be irksome to enumerate here even once, all the attempts 
which have been made, since Daguerre, to bring photography into the 
service of descriptive astronomy and the astronomy of precision. KRe-- 
calling only that the most difficult part of the problem, the photographie 
re-production of stars, had been entered upon with some success in 
America by G. P. Bond (soon after the introduction of the collodion 
process permitted the shortening of the time of exposure), about 1857, 
the photography of stars to the sixth or seventh magnitude had been at- 
tained. These trials were repeated some years later in England by 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. ATi 


Warren de La Rue, and later in America, with a success continually in- 
creasing, by Mr. Rutherfurd and by Mr. B. A. Gould, charged with the 
direction of the Cordoba Observatory under the fine sky of the Argen- 
tine Republic. Gould began his work in this line about 1875 and sue 
ceeded in gathering, in a few years, a collection of more than a thousand 
stellar photographs of the highest interest. After having tested, him- 
self, the slowness of the wet collodion process, he was able at a later 
date to utilize bromide of silver gelatine dry plates, the invention of 
which marked a new phase in celestial photography.* It is necessary, 
finally, to mention here the attempts in stellar photography of Henry 
Draper, of Ainslie Common, and Isaac Roberts, who have studied the 
respective advantages of refractors and reflectors with silvered mirrors ; 
of Pickering, who has constructed for the Harvard College observatory 
at Cambridge, United States of America, a photographic equatorial 
specially designed for the rapid execution of celestial charts on a mod- 
erate scaie; of David Gill, the eminent director of the observatory of 
the Cape ot Good Hope, who commenced in 1835 a photographic revis- 
ion of the southern sky, comprising the stars to the ninth or tenth 
magnitudes, similar to the catalogue prepared by Argelander for the 
northern sky. 

At the Paris Observatory like labors have been also pursued for some 
years with most marked success. Paul and Prosper Henry had under. 
taken, in 1871, to continue the “ ecliptic chart” commenced by Chacor- 
nace who had been able to executeit only in part. This chart, extremely 
useful in searching for small planets, which was to contain all stars to 
the thirteenth and fourteenth magnitudes, extended along the ecliptic 
in a zone five degrees in breadth. Now ata certain point the Henry 
brothers found themselves arrested in this work by the manifest im- 
possibility of constructing, by old processes, the sections of the charts 
where the swarming of the stars announces the approach of the Milky 
Way. It was then that they decided to resort to photography. They 
were, says Admiral Mouchez, admirably prepared to conquer these dif- 
ficulties. ‘ Foilowing the traditions to-day too much forsaken, of great 
astronomers of former times who employed their own hands in the con- 
struction of their instruments, they devoted for a long time, in their 
modest work-shop of Montrouge, all the moments of liberty which were 
left them from their very active service at the Paris observatory, in the 
study of the grinding and polishing of optical glass. An extensive ac- 
quaintance with the questions for solution, the harmony of fitness some. 
what different and very happily associated in two brothers, an ener- 
getic will and a persevering labor, which no distraction ever chanced 
to trouble, could not fail in assuring for them a well-merited success. 
They became, in a few years, the most skillful artists of France, and 
their fame was no less great among foreigners.” After having con- 


*Rayet: ‘‘Notes on the history of astronomical photography.” (Bulletin astronomique 
t. IV, p. 318.) 


A472 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


structed, by way of trial, an objective of 0.16™, which gave very good 
results, the Henry brothers undertook to execute the optical part of a 
definitive apparatus of 0.33™ in aperture, for which Mr. Gautier was to 
furnish the mechanical part. The new instrument was mounted at the 
observatory in 1885 and has not ceased since then to be in active use. 
The sensitiveness of the plates is such that the image of a star of the 
first magnitude is obtained in less than a hundredth of a second; that 
of a star of the sixth magnitude in a half second; for the tenth magni- 
tude the length of exposure is about twenty seconds; for the fifteenth 
about thirty-three minutes; for the sixteenth one hour and twenty min- 
utes is necessary.* The stars of the sixteenth magnitude! Here we 
are already far beyond the limits of visibility for the best telescopes under 
the sky of Paris! ‘Says Mouchez, even stars of the seventeenth magni- 
tude have been certainly obtained, which without doubt have never 
before been seen.” Finally the Paris plates have revealed the exist- 
ence of nebule hitherto unknown in the regions which had been often 
explored with the aid of the most powerful instruments; such is the 
nebula of Maia, in the Pleiades, whose presence has been since di- 
rectly verified. 

After such success we understand that the director of the observa- 
tory has not hesitated in taking the initiative in an international agree- 
ment on the subject of the execution of the complete chart of the sky, 
by the means of photography. The possibility of this considerable 
work being to-day fully demonstrated, he has said to astronomers, we 
have assumed, for the science of the future, the trust of going about it 
without delay; whatever may be the value of the works in course of 
execution in the various observatories, they will never have, for the 
astronomers of future ages, an importance comparable with that of this 
general inventory which we shall be able to bequeath to them. It is 
besides, indispensable for us to concert together and distribute the labor 
and conclude upon a plan of work, in order to avoid the waste of force, 
the gaps, and the useless repetitions, and the result will be a work 
truly homogeneous. In regard to the expense which the enterprise . 
will involve, it will be without doubt large enough necessarily, but 
very inconsiderable relatively to the importance of the result. 

The astro-photographic congress convened in Paris, as we have said, 
in the month of April, 1887; sixteen nations were there represented. 
At the commencement certain technical questions were settled; the 
employment of reflecting telescopes, in spite of the advantages which 
they offer in some connections, has been rejected for the execution of 
the chart of the sky, and a unanimous vote recommended refracting 
telescopes; they will be constructed similar to the photographic tele- 


* We take this information from the notice of Admiral Mouchez, which dates from 
1887, but these times of exposure are already much shortened by employing more 
sensitive plates, such as the American plates which Pickering uses, and which the 
Henrys have tested in their turn. 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY 473 


scope of the Paris observatory. In regard to the limit of the magni- 

tudes of the stars to be photographed there was some difficulty in conm- 
ing to an agreement. Taking into consideration the notable difference 
in the length of exposure necessary for bright stars and very faint 
stars, it was finally decided to make two classes of plates designed for 
two different uses. 

For the double series of plates devoted to the picture of the sky, 
which is to comprise the stars to the fourteenth magnitude, the length 
of the exposure will be (in the climate of Paris at least) in the vicinity 
of twelve minutes.* For the supplementary series of plates comprising 
the stars to the eleventh magnitude only, and which must, on the one 
hand, secure an extreme precision in the micrometrical measurement of 
the stars of reference, and ou the other hand, furnish the elements for 
a catalogue, the length of exposure will be much shorter (about thirty- 
five to forty seconds). This catalogue will probably contain one and 
one-half million stars,—more than double the number that are cer- 
tainly known to-day. In regard to the number of stars which will be 
found represented upon the chart properly so called, it may be esti- 
mated to be from ten to fifteen millions. The two series of plates which 
will serve for constructing the chart will be arranged in such a way 
that the image of a star, situated in the corner of one plate of the first 
series, will be found as near as possible in the center of a plate of the 
second series; it is hoped that this will suffice for eliminating false 
stars and remove the inconvenience of unsensitized points which must 
exist on the plates. 

In adopting for the chart an exposure of thirty minutes, it would be 
possible to reach the fifteenth magnitude and obtain a double or triple 
number of stars, perhaps thirty or forty millions, and possibly more. 
This was what several members of the congress desired, whocould only 
with reluctance decide to curtail thus the common work of the astron- 
omers of the nineteenth century. Mouchez, notably, has made the re- 
mark that the limit to which we are confined is very near that of the 
asteroids which are discovered every day ; to obtain appreciable traces 
of these small stars, the exposure of twelve minutes runs the risk of 
being insufficient. Those who have combated the extension of the sur- 
vey beyond the fourteenth magnitude have pleaded, in the first place, 
the length of time which the completion of the char t, under these con- 
‘litions, would demand. In reply to them it may be said that in fixing 
at 14,000+ the total number of plates necessary for the execution of the 
chart, and in supposing that the work will be distributed among fifteen 
or twenty observatories each observatory will have only 1,000 plates 
to furnish; in counting twelve minutes to each plate, the work would 


Eels be eae in one or two years 3 four years would suffice, in 


“Perhaps: also much less w nih ihe more sensitive i ites. 
t In counting 6 square degrees to a plate, 7,000 will be needed to cover the sky, and 
14,000 with the duplicates. 


A%4 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


adopting a length of exposure of thirty minutes in order to reach the 
fifteenth magnitude. 

Another objection, perhaps more serious, is drawn from the impossi- 
bility of utilizing such a super-abundance of material. What will you 
do, said David Gill, with the images of so many millions of stars when 
once you have obtained them? Where will you find enough astrono- 
mers tomake use of them? Weare notin the floating island of Laputa, 
where all men are exclusively occupied with mathematics so that it is 
always necessary to strike them on the head with a bag containing dry 
peas to awaken them. ‘These remarks under their playful form are very 
just. The answer to this was that the future would devise, without 
doubt, processes of study more rapid than ours, and that it would not 
be necessary to deprive our successors of treasures which cost us so 
little to bequeath to them. In any case, Mouchez said, we would always 
consider these plates as documents to consult, without being compelled 
to study them in their smallest details, in the same manner as we pos- 
sess a library or encyclopedia, not for the reading of all their volumes 
from one end to the other, but for searching there in a given juncture 
for the needed information. 

However, if we wish to compute the amount of labor which would be 
necessary to utilize the data which the enterprise will furnish, limited 
as it is by the resolutions of the congress, it will be found perhaps that 
there was wisdom in not wishing to comprehend too much. There is 
nothing evidently to prevent the enlargement of the scale of the enter- 
prise at a later date, in ten or twenty years; up to that time it may be 
said that in limiting it the chances of success will be particularly in- 
creased. 

The congress of 1857, before adjournment, constituted a permanent 
committee charged with securing the execution of its decisions, of cen- 
tralizing the accounts, and of maintaining the associated observatories 
in continued correspondence. This committee, in its turn, has formed a 
bureau of nine members,* which has already commenced the publication 
of a special bulletin, designed to keep astronomers constantly advised 
of the state of advancement of the preparatory labors, the necessity of 
which the congress had recognized. The committee will meet in Paris 
the 15th of next September. 

The number of observatories which have promised to take part in the 
making of a chart of the sky, and who have already ordered their pho- 
tographic telescope, is at present sixteen. These are, outside of the 
French observatories (Paris, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Algiers), those of the 
Cape of Good Hope (Africa), Potsdam (Germany), Oxford and Green- 
wich (England), Melbourne and Sydney (Australia), Helsingfors (Rus- 
sia), San Fernando (Spain), Santiago (Chili), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 
Tacubaya (Mexico), La Plata (Argentine Republic). The Royal Society 





* President, Mouchez; members, Christie, Duner, Janssen, Struve; secretaries, Gill, 
Loewy, Vogel. 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. A%5 


of London contemplates establishing an observatory in New Zealand ; 
others, as those of Harvard College, Meudon, Poulkova, and Leyden, 
will contribute actively in special researches for the advancement of the 
common work. These relate to the following: The preparation of reti- 
cules whose image impressed on the plate can furnish the standard for 
micrometrical measures, and permit to recognize deformations of the 
Sensitive film ; it is necessary to make a preliminary study of the scale 
of photographic magnitudes of stars; to consider the means of determin- 
ing the optical distortion of the field of the telescope; to study the 
method of measuring and reducing the plates, ete. It is of mueh im- 
portance to thus clear up the ground before commencing the execution 
of the chart, in order not to be retarded afterwards by unforeseen ob- 
stacles. We can now attempt to gain an idea of the expense which the 
projected enterprise will involve. The cost of the construction of a 
photographie refracting telescope is estimated at from 50,000 to 60,000 
franes; the fifteen or sixteen telescopes which will be needed will cost, 
then, nearly 1,000,000 francs. 

In adding to this sum the price of the plates, and for each observa- 
tory, the appointment of at least two operators during two years, we 
arrive at a total in the neighborhood of 1,560,000 franes. It is true that 
the instruments remain the property of the establishments which or- 
dered their construction and that the work could be contined to the ex- 
isting personnel. But the execution of the photographs is not the 
most costly part of the enterprise. David Gill, in a memoir inserted 
in the first fascicule of the Bulletin of the International Permanent Com- 
mittee, has elaborated a detailed plan of organization of the office work 
which ought to be accom plished in view of the publication of the results, 
and which will consist, before al), in the measure and reduction of the 
plates designed for the formation of catalogue. This work, of a nature 
so special, says Mr. Gill, requires so perfect an experience and so skill- 
ful an organization, in order to be conducted to a suecesstul termination 
without too much cost, that it will be most necessarily in charge of a 
central bureau. Under these conditions this will be an outlay to be 
provided for. 

Mr. Gill supposes that the plates of the catalogue will be made, as 
those of the chart, in duplicate, and that each plate will cover four de- 
grees square, so that the total number of plates will amount to about 
twenty thousand. The labor of measuring and reducing must be done 
under the direction of an energetic and skillful chief, by young persons 
of both sexes of average intelligence; not less than thirty will be 
needed, and the entire completion of the work will demand from seven- 
teen to twenty-five years. The publication of the catalogue will keep 
up with the calculations. For the chart of the sky, so called, it will 
suffice to issue to subscribers, namely, to observatories, societies, or na- 
tions who have relations with the bureau, positives on glass, obtained 
by means of the original negatives. These copies will be executed 


A476 PHOTOGRAPHY IN TRE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


by a photographer assisted by two aids. After detailed estimate of 
the outlay, which will result from this organization, Mr. Gill thinks 
that the budget of the central bureau ought to be fixed at a mini- - 
mum of 200,000 franes a year, but probably it will be necessary to put 
it at 250,000 franes. The total outlay will thus rise to a little more 
than 6,000,000 franes. This is the sum which appears necessary to se- 
cure the publication of the catalogue of all the stars to the eleventh 
magnitude, and that of the photographie re-production of all the stars 
to the fourteenth magnitude, beside the cost of the telescopes, the sal- 
aries of the astronomers, ete., expenses which we have already esti- 
mated in the lump at 1,500,000 franes. It would be reasonable to sub- 
tract from this the return from the sale of copies of the chart, which 
will yield, after Mr. Gill, about 1,000,000 franes in twenty-five years, or 
enough to pay for the telescopes. 

Is this amount of 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 franes, to which we have thus 
definitely arrived, exorbitant if we take into account the importance of 
the results which we are concerned in obtaining? It appears, on the 
contrary, a trifling price in comparison with what it would be necessary 
to expend in order to arrive at the same results by the old processes. 
In the present state of astronomy the formation of a catalogue com- 
prising all the stars to the eleventh magnitude (which is the practical 
limit of comparison stars in current observations, with the ordinary 
observatory instruments) must be considered as an absolute necessity. 
Now we know by experience, says Mr. Gill, that the cost of a single 
exact meridian observation of a star (comprising the cost of reduction 
and publication) is never less than 10 franes, and often surpasses this 
figure. The catalogue which it is proposed to form with the aid of pho- 
tography will comprise nearly two millions of stars, each of which will 
have been determined two times in turn. To obtain the same number 
of independent positions from meridian observations (supposing that 
sufficiently powerful meridian instruments are found to furnish them) 
it would be necessary evidently to spend about 50,000,000 franes. This 
is eight times more than the cost of the photographic catalogue and 
the general chart of the sky. In regard to the precision of the photo- 
graphic positions, it will be superior to that of direct observations. It 
suffices in this regard to mention: the remarkable results which Mr. 
Thiele, director of the Copenhagen observatory, has obtained by micro- 
metric measures exccuted upon three plates of a star cluster which had 
been communicated to him by Messrs. Henry. 

It is necessary to say here a few words on the appearance which the 
photographic images of stars present. These images, upon the plates, 
have the form of small black disks, of a diameter nearly proportional 
to the stellar magnitude, such as is figured upon celestial charts; their 
dimensions inerease gradually according as we prolong the exposure, 
Which it may be said in passing is a somewhat serious obstacle in 
photometric researches, for the experiments of Mr. Scheiner have shown 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 4U7 


that the augmentation does not follow a simple law. Under the mi- 
croscope * these round black spots are resolved into a multitude of 
black points, very crowded at the center, for the stars of the first ten 
magnitudes, more and more thinly distributed for the fainter stars, 
down to the doubtful traces which mark the extreme limit of chemical 
sensitiveness. At present this limit is much further removed than 
that of the penetration of the eye armed witha telescope. ‘The dotted 
character of the images proceeds evidently from the action of light 
upon the molecules of the salt of silver incorporated in the sensitive 
film. These photographic stars resemble thus clusters of stars, or 
nebulw more or less resolvable. 

This aspect is so characteristic that there is little risk of confounding 
very small stars with accidental spots, as was feared at first, and it fol- 
lows that a duplication of exposures may often be dispensed with. 
Messrs. Henry, to avoid all confusion, have confined themselves to re- 
peating three times the exposures on the same plate, by displacing the 
telescope each time in such a way as to form with each star a small 
equilateral triangle of 3 to 4 seconds on a side. This triangular appear- 
ance is not at all perceptible except with a lens; the paper prints give 
images which appear perfectly round, <A subsidiary advantage of this 
mode of operating is that it thus becomes possible to remove farther yet 
the limit of visibility of the stars; thus may be established very easily 
in this manner the presence of an unknown planet, whose proper mo- 
tion would deform the microscopic triangle. But it is clear that the 
triple exposure involves a great loss of time. The congress has pre- 
ferred for the execution of the chart of the sky, as we have seen, two 
parallel and independent series of plates. 

The plates will not acquaint us with the absolute positions of the stars; 
they will only permit us to determine their relative situations. It is also 
necessary, in order to obtain these with the desired precision, to pro- 
vide a system of standards. These standards will be procured by the 
re-production of the reticules Mr. Vogel prepares for this object, and 
which are traced with a steel point on plates of silvered glass; placed 
upon the sensitive plate, the reticule leaves there a latent image, which 
developed later appears under the form of a system of very definite lines 
of reference. These standard reticules are not only of great assistance 
in micrometrical measures of stellar positions, but they will serve to 
control the deformation of the gelatine film. We know that for collo- 
dion the shrinkage and the deformation of the image which it entails: 
can attain an amount very sensible; if is no greater with gelatine, 
which adheres very strongly to the glass. This is less according to the 
micrometric comparisons of an original reticule and several photo- 
‘graphic copies, which Mr. Scheiner has recently undertaken; but we 
cannot answer for the EN aT of the pee in each particular case 


*Tn the Buscaee a alensa Siete card Sa Ww fae a small hole which is held be- 
fore the eye may be used to examine these images; it is a primitive lens. 


478 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


without a special verification ; it is particularly necessary to look out 
for deformations when the copies have been executed with a pencil of 
“slightly convergent light. 


Il. 


The truly invaluable advantage of this intervention of photo-chem- 
istry in the processes of practical astronomy, is that in transporting 
(so to speak) aa authentic image of the firmament into the study of the 
astronomer, it frees him from obstacles without number which have so 
long a time trammeled researches the most delicate; the cost of crea- 
tion and maintenance of an observatory, the difficult handling of great 
instruments, fatiguing nightly vigils, fogs, and clouds which so often 
put a stop to observations, the necessity of changing one’s hemisphere in 
order to study certain constellations, ete. Armed with a simple microm- 
eter, he can henceforward explore collections of photographic plates, 
taken with some years of interval, and make, in his chimney-corner, dis- 
coveries which otherwise would demand long struggles, continued dur- 
ing several generations, against the capricious inclemency of the sky. 

Indeed celebrated labors come to our mind which have cost in former 
times long efforts which we shall have no more to renew. These are, 


firstly, the gauges of the number of stars which William Herschel ° 


undertook, a century ago, with the 20-foot telescope after a plan traced 
by Wright. We know that, setting out with the hypothesis of a nearly 
uniform distribution of the stars, he admitted for a long time that the 
relative richness of a region indicated the depth of the heavens in the 
direction considered, which must conduct to attributing to the visible 
universe a structure tolerably improbable. Later he changed his 
method, and occupied himself with sounding the celestial spaces with 
telescopes more and more powerful, in taking henceforth for a criterion 
of distances the resolvability of clusters or groups of stars. The two 
methods are incorrect, in confounding, with the effects of perspective, 


the inequalities of constitution of different stellar regions, indications | 


of which indeed make us suspect the reality. But however in reserv- 
ing the conclusions which may be drawn from the gauges or soundings 
of the sidereal system, it will be necessary sooner or later to return to 
this grand statistical work, and the photographie chart will singularly 
tend to facilitate the task of astronomers who will be charged with it. 
Shall we speak of catalogues of stars? The most ancient, those of 
Hipparchus, Ulugh Beigh, Tycho-Brahé, containing a thousand stars; 
they were made without a telescope. The catalogue, so precious, which 
Bessel has derived from the observations of Bradley (made at Green- 
wich about the middie of the last century), and which has, so to speak, 
inaugurated the astronomy of precision, contained only a little more 
than 3,000. That which is founded upon the observations of Lalande, 
executed towards the close of the century at the observatory of the mil- 
itary school, and published, in 1801, in the French Histoire Celeste (the 


Se 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. AT9 


catalogue was not published till 1847), comprises more than 47,000 stars. 
The Paris observatory has devoted itself, for a long time, to determin- 
ing them anew with the greatest care, for the purpose of forming a 
new catalogue, which is being gradually accomplished under the skill- 
ful direction of Mr. Gaillot. The first two volumes, comprising 7,245 
stars, appeared in 1887, and this brings to view the astonishing precision 
to which Lalande and his co-workers attained with instruments on the 
whole very defective. 

The catalogue which Weisse has deduced from the ‘“‘zones” of Bessel 
contains about 62,000 stars. That of Argelander, founded on the 
“northern zones” observed at Bonn, contain 324,000, to which Mr. 
Schoenfeld, the successor of Argelander, has recently added more than 
133,000 stars, derived from his ‘‘southern zones.” » The Bonn zones fur- 
nish positions, rapidly determined, of stars of the northern sky and of 
a part of the southern sky, to the ninth or tenth magnitude. We have 
already said that Mr. Gill has undertaken, at the Cape of Good Hope, 
to complete this inventory for the remainder of the southern sky, by 
the means of photography; we have besides also now, for this part of 
the sky, the zones which Mr. Gould observed at Cordoba (Argentine 
Republic). To this must be added that in 1867, the International Astro- 
nomical Society has taken the initiative in a general revision of the Boun 
zones Which was distributed among fifteen observatories, and which 
will furnish the material for a new catalogue. The matters concerned 
here are careful summaries which do not admit of a very great precision 
in the observed places; for the stars more brilliant, which do not sur- 
pass the eighth magnitude and which are less numerous, we possess a 
series of catalogues prepared with more rigor and founded upon the 
mean of frequently repeated observations. It is from these astronomers 
derive the fundamental stars, stars of reference to which others are 
referred in order to correct their absolute positions. These vast works, 
which have cost so much effort and employed so many human lives, is 
it necessary to believe that they will !ose their value when the great 
photographic chart shall be completed? We do not think thus. Not 
only the catalogues of high precision, founded upon meridian observa- 
tions, will remain indispensable for the exact determination of absolute 
positions; but the zone catalogues will serve to control the relative 
positions of the stars determined by photography. 

The comparison of plates taken at two different epochs will permit 
the undertaking upon a vast scale of the research of proper motions, 
which at present can be entered upon only for some thousands of stars. 
These small progressive displacements which, in the mean, do not 
exceed one-tenth of a second in the space of a year (in some cases it 
attains to seven or eight seconds a year) proceed only in part from real 
movements of the stars, which are thus seen to change in position. 
These are, in a certain degree, apparent displacements which have for 


480 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


a cause the movement of translation of the solar system, and which per- 
mit the determination of its velocity and direction.* 

Sometimes the progression, instead of being uniform and continuous, 
is found to be affected with periodic inequalities which reveal the ex- 
istence of an annual parallax, that is to say, a sensible effect produced 
by the change of position of the observer when the earth passes from 
one extremity to the other of its orbit; the oscillation in the apparent 
place of a star, which results from it permits the calculation of the dis- 
tance which separates it from our system. Or indeed the inequality 
presents a longer period, and the successive positions of the star per- 
mit the discovery of an orbit which it describes arvund a neighboring 
center of attraction. We deal here with a physical couple; optical 
couples, where the nearness of position is only the effect of perspective, 
present independent proper motions. \ 

Researches of this sort will without doubt be facilitated by the 
application of photography, for the determination of the relative posi- 
tions upon the negative will be infinitely more convenient than in the 
field of the telescope, especially when a comparison is desirable between 
stars of very different brilliancy. In certain cases, indeed, photography 
offers the only means of obtaining precise measures; how would we at- 
tempt directly the measurement of the distances and position angles in 
a mass of stars such as the cluster in Hercules? Upon the negative 
this cluster forms a small diffuse spot 2 to 5 millimeters in size; on ex- 
amining it with a lens we distingush several hundred stars dispersed 
around a nucleus of a pulverulent appearance, which we may proceed to 
without doubt resolve in its turn into a multitude of luminous points. 
We have never attempted to design these groupings, still less to make 
direct micrometrie measures, the eye being dazzled, says Mr. Mouchez, 
by what appears in the eye-piece as a mass of innumerable and brilliant 
erains of dust; but the negative placed under the microscope will per- 
mit us to draw without difficulty the exact chart of this wonderful corner 
inthesky.- In transmitting it to posterity we will give to our descendants 
the means of verifying the evolutions, which without doubt are slowly 
accomplished in the bosom of this agglomeration of suns. 

The research of the annual parallax, which permits us to measure the 
distance of the stars by taking for a base of operations the diameter 
of the terrestrial orbit constitutes one of the most delicate problems of 
modern astronomy, for the displacements, which it concerns us to verify, 
never surpass a few tenths of a second, and are oftener masked errors 
of observation, whence the irritating discordance of suecessive «de- 
terminations of the same parallax effected by astronomers equally skillful 
with the most perfect instruments. Will photography be more fortu- 
nate? Mr. Pritchard at Oxford has attempted to utilize 61 Cygni in the 
first place for the verification of the parallax of a double star very often 


*See in the Revue des Deux Mondes of October 1, 1875, ‘‘ The Progress of Stellar As- 
tronomy.” 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. A481 


observed. According to Bessel and Peters, this parallax scarcely sur- 
passes a third of a second; according to Otte Struve and Anwers, it 
attains a lalf second (0.52). Mr. Pritchard has photographed the 
double star in question, during the year with four comparison stars 
disposed symmetrically,—two in the direction of the components and 
two in the perpendicular direction. The micrometric measures have 
given him for each of the two components a parallax of 0.43, which 
indicates a distance equal to abont 500,000 times that of the sun, a 
distance over which light leaps in seven and one-half years. It has been 
necessary, however, to reject some negatives on account of accidental 
deformations of the sensitive film occurring during development. In 
order to free ones’ self from this source of error, it is only necessary to 
employ plates impressed with a reticule of reference, in accordance with 
the advice of Mr. Lohse. Since last year Mr. Pritchard has simplified 
his process of research in confining himself to observing each star dur- 
ing five nights in each of the four periods of the year indicated by the 
parallactic ellipse, which the star seems to describe in the sky ; in this 
way he hopes to be able to determine the parallaxes of ten to fifteen 
stars a year. He has commenced the work on several stars of the con- 
stellations Cassiopea and Cygnus, whose parallaxes appear to be com- 
prised between 0.04 and 0.19. For Polaris Mr. Pritchard has found 
0.07; that is to say, that Polaris is three millions times more distant 
from us than the sun. 

It is admitted generally that the most brilliant stars are also the 
nearest tous; however, among the parallaxes which are known to be 
sensible up to the present time many belong to stars relatively faint, 
and nothing prevents supposing that in the number of stars which have 
not been examined and which will soon be catalogued by photography 
there will be found those which are even much nearer to our solar sys- 
tem. However, they could not delay being disclosed, since the simple 
microscopic inspection of the same group photographed at six months’ 
interval would suffice to reveal sensible parallactic displacements how- 
ever small. . 

The direct micrometric measures of groups of stars reveal to us only 
displacements in the direction perpendicular to the visual ray; the spec- 
troscope alone can make us acquainted with movements which take place 
in a direction the same as the visual ray. For the color of light which 
comes to us from a star, is slightly modified by the velocity with which 
the star approaches or removes itself from us, and it follows that rays 
of the spectrum are deviated a little towards the right or towards the 
left. (It is for the same reason that the locomotive-whistle seems to us 
sharper in pitch when the train is approaching than when it is receding.) 
It is possible by this means to estimate the velocity of translation of a 
certain number of bright stars whose spectra are not too difficult to 
observe. However, the eye is fatigued in comparing with the motion- 
less rays of an artificial spectrum the always trembling lines of the stellar 

H. Mis, 224—-—31 


, 


482 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


spectra, and the deviations thus established rest most frequently upon 
impressions fading and very uncertain. Mr. Vogel has succeeded in 
freeing himself from this difficulty, caused by the scintillations, by 
photographing the stellar spectra at the same time with the spectrum 
of a gas; the plates which he has published show with a surprising 
sharpness the deviation of a ray common to several stellar spectra, and 
which corresponds to the violet ray of hydrogen. Itis established thus 
for example that a certain star of the constellation of Orion recedes 
from the observer with the velocity of 86 kilometers per second, a ve- 
locity which is reduced to 61 kilometers if it is referred to the sun. 

At Greenwich, where the spectroscopic study of the velocity of trans- 
lation of stars has been pursued for fifteen years by the process of prim- 
itive observation, contradictory results appear, which proceed without 
doubt from the small amount of fixity of the images of stellar spectra.* 
There is reason to hope that the photographie method, in causing this 
source of error to disappear, will permit the making use of data of this 
character on the same ground as the proper motions, perpendicular to 
the visual ray, which modify the apparent positions of the stars. The 
attempt has already been made to deduce from them the direction and 
the velocity of the movement of translation of the solar system, and the 
results agree very well with those which have been obtained by other 
methodst. Finally, these are the only data for the present which we 
can make use of in arriving at a more complete knowledge of the orbits 
of double stars, for the usual observations reveal to us only the appar- 
ent orbits in the way they are projected on the celestial sphere. These 
projections are ellipses, and it is more than probable that the real orbits 
which we see foreshortened are equally ellipses; butitis not rigorously 
demonstrated that the principal star occupies one of the foci. 

it follows that it can not yet be affirmed in an absolute manner that 
the law of Newton, the law of universal gravitation, presides also over 
the motions of double stars, although the generality of this law is ex- 
tremely probable.t 

The photographie study of stellar spectra is also of a high interest 
from other points of view, and above all for the comprehension of the 
constitution of the universe. This is entered upon with ardor in 
America. At the Cambridge Observatory, where is arranged a generous 
fonndation which the widow of Henry Draper made some years since 
in memory of her husband, two refractors and two reflectors are devoted 





* The changes in the direction of the velocity of Sirius, if they are real, can be ex- 
plained by an orbital movement. 

tIn taking the mean of numerous determinations, taken since W. Herschel, the 
point towards which the sun is moving is found to be 267° in right ascension, and 
31° of north declination. In respect to the velocity of this motion it has been esti- 
mated at 25 to 30 kilometers per second; this is a little less than the velocity of the 
earth in its orbit. 

t Tisserand, ‘‘ Treatise on celestial mechanics,” t, 1, p, 42, 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE S#RVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 483 


to this class of researches. Mr. Pickering,* whose energy knows no 
obstacles, has undertaken a veritable spectroscopic revision of the sky. 
In the first place a catalogue of the spectra of the stars visible to the 
naked eye has been commenced. <A second catalogue will contain 
numerous spectra of faint stars, to the eighth magnitude. It is proposed 
besides to make a detailed study of the spectra of the brightest stars, 
of variable stars, and in general of all spectra which offer remark- 
able peculiarities. A first list of 10,875 spectra is finished. This 
autumn an expedition will be sent to the southern hemisphere, probably 
Peru, to complete the work to the south pole. 

Mr. Pickering hopes also to draw toa successful termination a series 
of photometric researches which have for an aim the comparison of 
stellar magnitudes, furnished on the one side by, photography and on 
the other by direct observation by the means of various photometers in 
use. These researches reach a thousand stars near the pole, an equal 
number taken in the neighborhood of the equator, and the stars visible 
in the constellation of the Pleiades, the one of the best known in the 
northern sky, and which offers the advantage of containing scarcely any 
but white stars. It is also this constellation that Mr. J. Scheiner has 
selected for photometric experiments, the results of which he is about 
to publish. 

These classes of researches will give the means of reducing the dif- 
ferent scales to a common measure. We know already that the photo- 
graphic scale is established by the diameters of the stellar disks. For 
a given time of exposure the differences of the diameters will, in gen- 
eral, be proportional to the differences of magnitude, such as result 
from direct photometric comparisons. With a little acquaintance the 
estimation of the magnitudes could be without doubt reached during 
the micrometric measures of the negatives, as astronomers estimate 
them during the observation of transits. For a more precise determi- 
nation all the stars on a negative could be referred to three or four 
among them, of which the magnitudes could be measured by pho- 
tometry. 

The processes in use permit in general the fixing of the magnitude t 
of a star to about one-tenth, at least, for the first nine or ten magnitudes; 
this is shown by the agreement of the published determinations by dif- 
ferent observers. This is not so when exceptionally bright stars which 
range above the first magnitude are concerned, or very faint stars below 
the tenth, and the designations of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth 
magnitudes do not have a precise meaning, only by virtue of definition, 
by such and such an observer. We can, as is done at Paris, define them 
by the length of exposure necessary to make the images appear, for this 
time varies in the proportion of 1 to 10,000 from the sixth magnitude 








*E. C., Pickering, annual reports of the photographic study of stellar spectra. 
tFrom one magnitude to another the relative brightness diminishes (in the mean) 
$n the proportion of 1 ; 0.42, 


484 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


to the extreme limit of visibility, and furnishes a scale the most ex- 
tended. But itis necessary to take account of the variable sensitive- 
ness of the plates; finally it is clear that the process founded upon the 
estimation of the time of exposure is not favored in present applications 
as much as the method which consists in the comparison of the disks 
taken on the same negative. It is then the latter method which is 
sought to be perfected, for it does not suffer from difficulties when stars 
gradually fainter are dealt with. The images, then, in forming have 
dimensions already very appreciable, which inerease only very little in 
the first moments; tiie comparison of diameters can conduct to errone- 
ous results if it is taken toosoon. The progressive increase of the disks 
has for a cause the irradiation which results from the interior illumina- 
tion of the translucent gelatine at the point where the image is formed. 


Il. 


The measurers of double stars are subject to a maltitude of errors 
which regard the difference of magnitude of the components, the ineli- 
nation of the line of the stars, ete., and which render the results ob- 
tained by different observers comparable with difficulty. We meet 
difficulties of the same nature in micrometric measures of satellites, and 
it is in all these cases that the intervention of photography promises to 
increase greatly the accuracy and security of the results. The negatives 
obtained by Messrs. Henry permit the pointings to be made with extra- 
ordinary precision. The sensitive plate is not like the eye, dazzled by 
the vicinage of a bright star; it remains attentive to the faintest 
gleams. The satellite of Neptune, always visible with difficulty at 
Paris, can be photographed in all parts of its orbit, even when it is 
found at only 8 seconds from the planet. 

Satellites of new planets, hitherto unknown, will reveal their exist- 
ence by the trace of their course in the midst of fixed stars. The ap- 
parent displacement of a small planet about the epoch of opposition, 
that is to say at the moment when it approaches nearest to the earth, 
is in the mean one minute of are in two hours, or 0.5 per hour; upon 
the negatives of the Paris observatory a trace is produced, in one hour 
of exposure, of one-half of a millimeter. For the planet Pallas, which 
is the eighth magnitude, this trace is found easily recognizable; but 
Messrs. Henry think that it would still be appreciable for a planet of 
the fourteenth or fifteenth magnitude, with a relative brightness four 
or five hundred times fainter. 

The number of asteroids known has increased by several each year; 
it reaches already 285. Thanks for the intervention of photography, 
the search, hitherto very laborious, for these little bodies will become 
so easy that we shall see them multiply too rapidly for the liking of the 
calewlators, and there will not be time enough to select their names. 
In spite of the insignificuuce of their masses these humble supernumer- 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. AR). 


aries of the solar cortege interest astronomers in more than one connec- 
tion; indeed they are watched after almost for the purpose of avoiding 
losing them after having discovered and inscribed them upon the reg- 
ister of the planetary system. This happens however from time to 
time, when the first observations have not been sufficiently numerous 
to fix very securely the elements of the orbit; there are at present a 
score of these bodies which are wanting at roll-call. 

The great diversity in the form and situation of their orbits opens 
to young astronomers a field for mathematical exercise, and raises at 
times arduous problems. In order to arrive at a determination of their 
feeble masses, which we have been able to estimate only from their 
brightness, it is necessary to be able to establish, for example, the mu- 
tual perturbations of two asteroids passing very near one another, so 
that their reciprocal attraction becomes sensible aside from that of the 
sun. It is a matter of interest then to predict the coming near to each 
other or physical conjunctions of the asteroids; but the proximities 
worthy of being noted are rather rare, or at least they occur only be- 
tween the orbits and not between the planets.* Perhaps some day the 
passing of a comet through the belt of asteroids will offer us other means 
of estimating the power of the attraction of these p'gmies. In return, 
the perturbations which they experience themselves on the part of Ju- 
piter are sometimes very sensible, and they have already served (nota- 
bly those of Themis and Amphitrite) in verifying the value of the mass 
of this planet, which represents a little less than a thousandth of the 
mass of the Sun. The one of the three planets discovered in the month 
of last October, by Mr. Palisa (it has received the number 279, and the 
name Thulé), is particularly interesting in this regard, for its mean dis- 
tance (4.3) surpasses that of all the known asteroids, and permits it to 
approach near enough to Jupiter to be very strongly disturbed in its 
course. These are some of the reasons which make us think that pho- 
tography, in facilitating much the search for small planets, will not 
serve solely for swelling the statistics of the solar system. 

A discovery infinitely more interesting would be, however, that of the 
trans-Neptunian planet, which has not ceased to haunt the imagination 
of astronomers. For nothing proves that Neptune must be the last 
term of the series of planets which gravitate around the sun. We know 
that Le Verrier, in 1846, had reached a determination of the position of 
this star by the aid of the errors or residuals of the Tables of Uranus, 
which amounted to 20’, and which he attributed with reason to the 
perturbations produced by an unknown planet. The day when he 
was able to announce to the Academy of Sciences that Mr. Galle had 
come Reon this planet in indicated place, he added: ‘ This success 





*The shortest distance between ane oui of Thetis ae Baliga is / estimated at 
30,000 kilometers; for Clytia and Nemesis, this distance is 115,000 kilometers, and the 
two planets are found at 950,000 kilometers apart in the month of August, 1889; this 
is twice and a half the distance of the moon from the earth. 


A86 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


ought to permit us to hope that after thirty or forty years of observa- 
tions of the new planet, it may be possible to empley them in their 
turn in the discovery of that which follows it in order of distance from 
the sun.”* 

He continues thus: ‘ We will unhappily soon fall upon stars invisi- 
ble, on account of their immense distance from the sun, but whose orbits 
will be completed in the course of centuries, by being traced with great 
exactness, by means of the theory of secular inequalities.” More than 
forty years have elapsed since the discovery of Neptune without real- 
izing the hope of Le Verrier. The fact is that his formule represent 
always with precision not only the observations of Neptune made since 
1846, but also some observations much more ancient (Lalande had come 
upon the planet twice, in 1795, and had entered it in his catalogue as a 
star of the eighth magnitude). We do not know then on what to rest, 
to renew the prodigious discovery of Le Verrier, which already itself 
had been possible only on account of a happy concourse of circumstances. 
It is this which we can not prevent ourselves from remembering in read- 
ing the masterly exposition which Mr. Tisserand has made in the his- 
tory of the discovery of Neptune in the first tome of his “ Treatise on 
Celestial Mechanics” which appeared a few months since. 

The trans-Neptunian planet, if it exists, will be found perhaps at a 
distance very great, surpassing more than one hundred times the radius 
of the terrestrial orbit, or else its mass is relatively small, and the action 
which it exercises will not make accusation against it till after a long 
period. Let us not forget that Neptune has scarcely traversed one quar- 
ter of his orbit since the epoch of discovery. It may be possible even 
that the action of a mass relatively large may remain for a long time 
hidden from us, in being confounded with that of the other planets. 

There are then few chances for discovering the hypothetical star by 
virtue alone of the law of Newton. It is necessary rather to count on 
the happy chance of recognizing it among stars of the twelfth or thir- 
teenth magnitude, among which it may be lost. All these things did 
not prevent Mr. David P. Todd from constituting himself the prophet 
of the trans-Neptunian planet, for which he entered upon a search 
since 1874 by the systematic exploration of certain regions of the sky.t 
During the winter of 187778 he employed in this exploration the great 
refractor of the Washington observatory. He closed in placing his hope 
in photography, which appears called to render this class of researches 
much more easy. Mr. Todd founds his conviction of the existence of 
the planet upon the examination of the last residuals of the Tables of 
Uranus, to which he has applied a very simple graphical process indi- 


— 





* Galle having proposed for the new planet the name of Janus, Le Verrier replied 
to him: ‘* The name of Janus would indicate that this planet is the last of the solar 
system, which there is no reason to believe.” 

+“Account of a speculative and practical search for a trans-Neptunian planet,” 
1880. (Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences, 1880-86. ) 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 487 


_ cated by Sir John Herschel in reference to the perturbations of Uranus 
due to Neptune. That which has fortified him in this conviction is 
the very probable accidental agreement of his result with that te which 
Mr. G. Forbes has been conducted by the consideration of a tendency 
to grouping of the aphelia of periodic comets, whose distances from the 
sun coincide more or less exactly with the mean distances of the larger 
planets. Having found indeed seven comets whose aphelion distances 
approach 100, and six whose aphelion distances approach 300 (the unit 
being always the radius of the terrestrial orbit), Mr. Forbes concluded 
from this that it is possible that there are two trans-Neptunian planets 
situated respectively at the distances 100 and 300, and whose powerful 
attraction has acquired these comets for the solar system. The comets 
thus captured would be able then to inform us of the actual position of 
the planet to which we owe them, and which has in times past found 
itself in proximity to their aphelia. But having taken little from the 
value of these premises, the numerical data upon which the calculations 
of Mr. Forbes rest do not bear scrutiny. The agreement of the results of 
Mr. Forbes and Mr. Todd signifies nothing when it is seen how these 
results have been established. In spite of everything the trans-Nep- 
tunian planet may indeed appear some day before our astonished gaze 
upon one of the negatives which will serve to prepare the general chart 
of the sky. 

Physical astronomy also sees new horizons to open out before if. I 
will not speak here at length of the photographs of the sun and moon. 
For along time we have been able to see those which have great 
beauty. We know with what success Mr. Janssen, at Meudon, pursues 
the application of photography to the study of solar phenomena. —Ke- 
searches of the same kind aremadeat Potsdam, and Mr. Wilsing, depend- 
ing on a hundred plates for the positionsof groups of faculie, has arrived 
at this unexpected conclusion, that (contrary to that which takes place 
with the spots) the velocity of rotation of the facule is the same for all 
the parailels, and equal to that of the equator. The retardation of the 
motion of the spots explains indeed why those which originate at the 
foot of a facula proceed graduaily in the direction of its parallel as if 
sown upon its course. It is probable that the unequal velocity which 
the spots possess is limited by a rather thinlayer of the solar envelope, 
while the great mass turns solidly with the constant velocity of the 
faculie. 

We know the stereoscopic effects which are obtained with photo- 
graphs of the moon, taken at two epochs suitably selected. Perfected 
from time to time, these photographs will be of service in studying 
more exactly the libration ; they will also cause the discovery of changes 
which are occurring, perhaps, on the surface of our satellite, and which, 
affirmed by some, contested by others, remain up to the present time 
very doubtful. On the contrary, the reality of modifications, sometimes 
rather sudden, appears to-day well verified for some planets. It suf- 


488 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY.- 


fices to recall the mysterious rectilinear canals which Messrs. Schiapa- 
relli and Perrotin have pointed out on the surface of Mars. In refer- 
ence to sketches sent from Nice, Mr. Janssen has made the statement 
that he was urgently seeking to obtain, with the aid of our great in- 
strument, photographic images sufficiently perfect to replace these de- 
signs. ‘I know,” says he, ‘that when phenomena are concerned, as 
delicate as those which have been discovered at Milan and at Nice, 
photography unhappily can no longer strive with sight; but it is nec- 
essary to enter resolutely into this path, to prepare for the future.” If 
in place of designs, we could have photographic images even less de- 
tailed, we would already derive from them, in regard to the changes 
which have occurred on the surface of Mars, notions incomparably 
more certain than those with which we are obliged to content ourselves. 

In order to judge of the difficulty which is experienced in confronting 
designs of a diverse origin, we have only to pass in review the long 
series of sketches of the nebula of Orion, made through two centuries 
by observers such as Huyghens, Mairan, Messier, De Vico, Lamont, 
J. Herschel, Lassell, O. Struve, the two Bonds, Lord Rosse, Father 
Secchi. In 1882, Mr. Holden devoted to this nebula a monograph where 
he gives the results of his own observations, at the same time also 
copies of the more celebrated drawings of this famous object. These 
copies, notwithstanding they are very imperfect, cause no less the 
growth of the conviction that it would be rash to invoke unbiased tes- 
timony to prove whether it is true that the appearance varies thus from 
one sketch to another. Mr. Holden has also reproduced a photograph 
of the nebula, obtained by H. Draper in 1882. It has been since photo- 
graphed by Mr. Common, by Mr. Roberts, and by other astronomers. 
Messrs. Holden and Struve think that the contour of the nebula of 
Orion has not changed since it has been observed with care, but that 
the brightness of certain portions has undergone variations which con- 
tinue to re-produce themselves before our eyes. Photography alone 
will be able, some day, to give us in this regard a complete certainty, 
as it permits us already to watch rapid changes in comets, in outlines 
so variable. 

Meanwhile, it has already called up from the bosom of the darkness 
unknown nebule which the human eye had not perceived. Upon a 
plate of the Pleiades, which Messrs. Henry had obtained November 16, 
1885, the star Maia was shown accompanied with a small cometary tail, 
very brilliant; it was discovered that this was anebulosity. It has been 
found that it also impressed itself upon a negative of Mr. Pickering, 
which dated November 3; but in America it had been taken for an ac- 
cidental spot. Once informed, astronomers in possession of very power- 
ful telescopes have been able to verify directly its existence ; it has 
been observed successively at Pulkova, Nice, Vienna, Washington, 
Geneva, and other places with more or less facility. Since then, Messrs. 
Henry have continued to perfect their processes, and they repeat each 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. A889 


year the negative of the Pleiades, which is well worth the trouble. The 
impressions of 1888, obtained with very sensitive plates and an expo- 
sure of four hours, have revealed with surprising clearness the diffuse 
mass of cosmical matter which envelopes this constellation, and of 
which the nebule of Maia and of Merope are only the most luminous 
parts. A curious and very unexpected peculiarity is a rectilinear fila- 
ment of nebulous matter which proceeds from the principal mass, over 
a length of 40’ of are and a breadth of 3” to 4” only; it encoun- 
ters on its course seven stars which it unites together as beads of 
a chaplet. A second line, similar but shorter, exists in the midst of 
the nebulous mass. This new negative contains besides twice as many 
stars as the first, about 2,000. The chart of the Pleiades of Mr. C. 
Wolf, which consumed several years of labor, contains only 671. 

Mr. Pickering has entered into the same path, and very recently his 
plates have revealed the existence of five or six new nebule in different 
regions of the sky. Finally, some months since, Mr. Roberts commn- 
nicated to the Astronomical Society in London photographs of the ellip-. 
tical nebula of Andromeda, which are indeed arevelation. That which 
seemed an unformed mass of cosmical matter, traversed by irregular 
fissures, appeared now as a solar system in embryo; rings are dis- 
tinguished in it, which are detached from the central mass, as is re- 
quired by the hypothesis of Laplace, and two satellites in course of 
formation, whose relative positions must have undergone some changes 
since the epoch of the observations of Bond. Photography renders 
thus intelligible a structure which sketches are inclined to conceal. 

The success obtained in this field can depend, in a certain measure, 
upon a particular photogenic power of nebule; but it is explained 
especially by this fact, that the sensitive plate is not dazzled by the 
vicinage of more brilliant objects, The nebula which surrounds the 
variable star Eta Argus, was invisible when: this star appeared to be 
the first magnitude, and was discovered only when the star which 
eclipses if caused it to descend to the fourth order (it is now the seventh 
magnitude). 

There is found to be an advantage of the same order in the applica- 
tion of photography in the registering of phenomena instantaneous or 
of very short duration, like eclipses, occultations, meridian transits, 
where the cool-headed sensitive plate shields us from the trouble, and 
from errors inseparable from a precipitate observation. A great num- 
ber of total solar eclipses, also the two transits of Venus, 1874 and 18s2, 
have already been observed by thismeans. The measures of numerous 
negatives taken by the French expeditions have been confided to a per- 
sonnel of the gentler sex, under the direction of Mr. Bouquet de La 
Grye; they are completed, and the calculations are in a very advanced 
State. 

We will limit here this rapid review of the services which photog- 
raphy has rendered to astronomy, or which it is to render to 1t after a 


490 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE SERVICE OF ASTRONOMY. 


delay which is foreseen, and which is: already in some degree dis- 
counted. So great result, and so unexpected, acquired in so short a 
time—is not this the most brilliant guaranty of the future? At the 
same time telescopes are perfected and attain colossal dimensions. 
The greatest at the present time is the refractor of 0.90™ in aperture 
which is to be installed on the summit of Mount Hamilton, in Califor- 
nia, where stands, 1,300 meters above the sea-level of the Pacific, an 
observatory founded by James Lick. This old manufacturer of organs, 
made rich by fortunate speculations, and desirous of perpetuating his 
name in the memory of men, had for a long time hesitated between a 
pyramid under which to be interred, and an observatory waich should 
be erected above the clouds. It was said to him that a pyramid, 
which he wished to be located at the entrance of the harbor of San 
Francisco, would be taken in case of war for a mark by the enemy, 
and he decided upon the observatory, where he reposes under the 
great telescope. There have been spent, in constructing it and in mak- 
ing a road to it, more than $700,000, The bequest is not sufficient for 
it, and the State has been obliged to intervene. But its atmosphere 
has a purity unknown elsewhere; it has at least two days of fine 
weather out of three. 


ie eld cz a i Bie i a 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST.* 


By Sir HENRY E. Roscok, F. R. S., President. 


In asking myself what subject I could bring before you on the pres- 
ent occasion, I thought I could not do better than point out by one 
example what a chemist may do for mankind. And in choosing this 
theme for my discourse I found myself in no want of material, for 
amongst the various aspects of scientific activity there is surely none 
which, whether in its most recondite forms or in those most easily un- 
derstood, have done more to benefit humanity than those which have 
their origin in my own special study of chemistry. I desired to show 
what one chemist may accomplish, a man devoted heart and soul to the 
investigation of nature, a type of the ideal man of science—whose ex- 
ample may stimulate even the feeblest amongst us to walk in his foot- 
steps if only for a short distance, whose life is a consistent endeavor to 
seek after truth if haply he may find it, whose watchwords are simplic- 
ity, faithfulness, and industry, and whose sole ambition is to succeed 
in widening the pathway of knowledge so that following generations of 
wayfarers may find their journeys lightened and their dangers lessened. 

Such men are not uncommon amongst the ranks of distinguished 
chemists. I might have chosen as an example the life and labors of 
your some time townsman, Joseph Priestley, had not this theme been 
already treated by Professor Huxley, in a manner I can not approach, 
on the occasion of the inauguration of the statute which stands hard by. 
To-day however I will select another name, that of a man still living, 
the great French chemist, Pasteur. 

Asachemist Pasteur began life, as a chemist he is ending it. For 
although, as I shall hope to point out, his most important researches 
have entered upon fields hitherto tilled with but scanty suecess by the 
biologist, yet in his hands, by the application of chemical methods, they 
have yielded a most bountiful harvest of new facts of essential service 
to the well-being and progress of the human race. 

And after all, the first and obvious endeavor of every cultivator of 
science ought to be to render service of this kind. For although it i: 


* An address delivered to the members of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, 
in the Town Hall, Birmingham, on October 7, 1889. (Nature, October 10, 18389, vol. 


XL, pp. 578-583.) a 


492 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


foolish and short-sighted to decry the pursuit of any form of scientifie 
study because it may be as yet far removed from practical application 
to the wants of man, and although such studies may be of great value 
as an incentive to intellectual activity, yet the statement isso evident 
as to almost amount to a truism, that discoveries which give us the 
power of rescuing a population from starvation, or which tend to 
diminish the ills that flesh, whether of man or beast, is heir to, must 
deservedly attract more attention and create a more general interest 
than others having so far no direct bearing on the welfare of the race. 
“There is no greater charm,” says Pasteur himself, ‘ for the investi- 
gator than to make new discoveries, but his pleasure is more than 
doubled when he sees that they find direct application in practical life.” 
To make discoveries capable of such an application has been the good 
fortune—by which I mean the just reward—of Pasteur. How he mace 
them is the lesson which I desire this evening to teach. I wish to show 
that these discoveries, culminating as the latest and perhaps the most 


remarkable of all, in that of a cure for the dreaded and most fearful of 


all fearful maladies, hydrophobia, have not been, in the words of Priest- 
ley, ‘lucky hap-hazardings,” but the outcome of patient and long-con- 
tinued investigation. This latest result is, as I shall prove to you, not 
an isolated case of a happy chance, but simply the last link in a long 
chain of discoveries, each one of which has followed the other in logi- 
cal sequence, each one bound to the other by ties which exhibit the life- 
work of the discoverer as one consequent whole. In order however to 
understand the end we must begin at the beginning, and ask ourselves 
what was the nature of the training of hand, eye, and brain, which en- 
abled Pasteur to wrest from nature secret processes of disease the dis- 
covery of which had hitherto baffled all the efforts of biologists? What 
was the power by virtue of which he succeeded when all others had 
failed ; how was he able to trace the causes and point out remedies for 
the hitherto unaccountable changes and sicknesses which beer and wine 
undergo? What means did he adopt to cure the fatal silk-worm dis- 
ease, the existence of which in the south of France in one year cost that 
country more than 100,000,000 of frances? Or how did he arrive at a 
method for exterminating a plague known as fowl cholera, or that of 
the deadly cattle disease, anthrax, or splenic fever, which has killed 
millions of cattle, and is the fatal woolsorters’ disease in man? And 
last, but not least, how did he gain an insight into the workings of that 
most mysterious of all poisons, the virus of hydrophobia ? 

To do more than point out the spirit which has guided Pasteur in all 
his work, and to give an idea of the nature of that work in a few exan- 
ples, I can not attempt, in the time at my disposal. Of the magnitude 
and far-reaching character of that work we may form a notion, when 
we remember that if is to Pasteur that we owe the foundation of the 
science of bacteriology, a science treating of the ways and means of 
those minute organisms called microbes, upon whose behavior the very 


be ieeeesitiiliailia elie 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 493 


life, not only of the animal, but perhaps also of the vegetable world de- 
pends,—a science which bids fair to revolutionize both the theory and 
practice of medicine, a science which has already, in the hands of Sir 
Joseph Lister, given rise to anew and beneficent application in the 
discovery of antiseptic surgery. 

The whole secret of Pasteur’s success may be summed up in a few 
words. It consisted in the application of the exact methods of physi- 
cal and chemical research, to problems which had hitherto been at- 
tacked by other less precise and less systematic methods. His early 
researches were of a purely chemical nature. It is now nearly forty 
years ago since he published his first investigation. But this pointed 
out the character of the man and indicated the lines upon which all 
his subsequent work was laid. 

Of all the marvellous and far-reaching discoveries of modern chem- 
istry perhaps the most interesting and important is that of the exist- 
ence of compounds which while possessing an identical composition 
(that is, made up of the same elements in the same proportions), are 
absolutely different sabstances judged of by their properties. The first 
instance made known to us of such isomeric bodies, as they are termed 
by the chemist, was that pointed out by the great Swedish chemist, Ber- 
zelius. He showed that the tartaric acid of wine-lees possesses precisely 
the same composition as a rare acid having quite different properties and 
occasionally found in the tartar deposited from wine grown in certain 
districts in the Vosges. Berzelius simply noted this singular fact, but 
did not attempt to explain it. Later on, Biot observed that not only 
do these two acids differ in their chemical behavior, but likewise in 
their physical properties, inasmuch as the one (the common acid) pos- 
sessed the power of deviating the plane of a polarized ray of light to 
the right, whereas the rare acid has no such rotatory power. It was 
reserved however for Pasteur to give the explanation of this singular 
and at that time unique phenomenon, for he proved that the optically 
inactive acid is made up of two compounds, each possessing the same 
composition but differing in optical pruperties. The one turned out to 
be the ordinary dextro-rotatory tartaric acid; the other a new acid 
which rotates the plane of polarization to the left to an equal degree. 
As indicating the germ of his subsequent researches, it is interesting 
here to note that Pasteur proved that these two acids can be sepa- 
rated from one another by a process of fermentation, started by a mere 
trace of a special form of mold. The common acid is thus first de- 
composed, so that if the process be carried on for a certain time only 
the rarer lievo-rotatory acid remains. 

Investigations on the connection between crystalline form, chemical 
composition, and optical properties occupied Pasteur for the next seven 
years, and their results—which seem simple enough when viewed from 
the vantage ground of accomplished fact—were attainable solely by 
dint of self-sacrificing labors such as only perhaps those who have 


A494 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


themselves walked in these enticing and yet often bewildering paths 
can fully appreciate, and by attention to minute detail as well as to 
broad principles to an-extent which none can surpass and few can equal. 
A knowledge of the action of the mold in the changes it effects on 
tartaric acid led Pasteur to investigate that béte noire of chemists, the 
process of fermentation. The researches thus inaugurated in 1857, not 
only threw a new and vivid light on these most complicated of chemical 
changes and pointed the way to scientific improvements in brewing 
and wine-making of the greatest possible value, but were the stepping- 
stones to those higher generalizations which lie at the foundation of 
the science of bacteriology, carrying in their train the revolutions in 
in modern medicine and surgery to which I have referred. 

The history of the various theories from early times until our own 
day which have been proposed to account for the fact of the change of 
sugar into alcohol, or that of alcohol into vinegar, under certain condi- 
tions, a fact known to the oldest and even the most uncivilized of races, 
is one of the most interesting chapters in the whole range of chemical 
literature, but however enticing, is one into which I can not now enter. 
Suffice it here to say that it was Pasteur who brought light out of dark- 
nesss by explaining conflicting facts and by overturning false hypoth- 
eses. And this was done by careful experiment and by bringing to 
bear on the subject an intelligence trained in exact methods and in 
unerring observation, coupled with the employment of the microscope 
and the other aids of modern research. 

What now did Pasteur accomplish? In the first place he proved 
that the changes occurring in each of the various processes of fermen- 
tation are due to the presence and growth of a minute organism called 
the ferment. Exclude all traces of these ferments and no change 
occurs. Brewers’ wort thus preserved remains for years unaltered. 
Milk and other complex liquids do not turn sour even on exposure to 
pure air, provided these infinitely small organisms are excluded. But 
introduce even the smallest trace of these microscopic beings and the 
peculiar changes which they alone can bring about at once begin. A 
few cells of the yeast plant set up the vinous fermentation in a sugar 
solution. This is clearly stated by Pasteur as follows: “* My decided 
opinion,” he says, “on the nature of alcoholic fermentation is the fol- 
lowing: The chemical act of fermentation is essentially a correlative 
phenomenon of a vital act beginning and ending with it. 1 think that 
there is never any alcoholic fermentation without there being at the 
same time organization, development, multiplication of globules, or the 
continued consecutive life of globules already formed.” . 

Add on a needle’s point a trace of the peculiar growth which accom 
panies the acetous fermentation and the sound beer or wine in a short 
time becomes vinegar. Place ever so small a quantity of the organism 
of the lactic fermentation in your sweet milk, which may have been 
preserved fresh for years in absence of such organisms, and your milk 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 495 


turns sour. But still more, the organism (yeast) which brings about 
the alcoholic fermentation will not give rise to the acetous, and vice 
versa ; so that each peculiar chemical change is brought about by the 
vital action of a peculiar organism. In its absence the change can not 
occur; in its presence only that change can take place. 

Here again we may ask, as Pasteur did, why does beer or wine be- 
come sour when exposed to ordinary air? And the answer to- this 
question was given by him in no uncertain tone in one of the most 
remarkable and most important of modern experimental researches. 
Milk and beer which have become sour on standing in the air contain 
living micro-organisms which did not exist in the original sound fluids. 
Where did these organisms originate? Are they or their germs con- 
tained in the air, or are these minute beings formed by a process of 
spontaneous generation from material not endowed with life ? 

A controversy as to the truth or falsity of the theory of spontaneous 
generation was waged with spirit on both sides, but in the end Pas. 
teur came off victorious, for by a series of the most delicate and con- 
vincing of experiments he proved the existence of micro-organic forms 
and their spores—or seeds—in the air, and showed that while unpuri- 
fied air was capable of setting up fermentative changes of various 
kinds, the same air freed from germs could not give rise to these 
changes Keep away the special germ which is the incentive to the 
pathological change and that change can not occur. In the interior 
of the grape, in the healthy blood, no such organisms, no such germs 
exist; puncture the grape or wound the animal body and the germs 
floating in the air settle on the grape juice or on the wounded tissue, 
and the processes of change, whether fermentative or putrefactive, set 
in with all their attendant symptoms. But crush the grape or wound 
the animal under conditions which either preclude the presence or de- 
stroy the life of the floating germ, and again no such change occurs ; 
the grape-juice remains sweet, the wound clean. 

IT have said that every peculiar fermentative change is accompanied 
by the presence of a special ferment. This most important conclusion 
has only been arrived at as the result of careful experimental inquiry. 
How was this effected? By the artificial cultivation of these organ- 
isms. Just as the botanist or gardener picks out from a multitude of 
wild plants the special one which he wishes to propagate, and planting 
it in ground favorable to its growth, obtains fresh crops of the special 
plant he has chosen, so the bacteriologist can, by a careful process of 
selection, obtain what is termed a pure cultivation of any desired organ. 
ism. Having obtained such a pure cultivation, the next step is to as- 
certain what are the distinctive properties of that special organism ; 
what characteristic changes does it bring about in material suitable for 
its growth. This having been determined, and a foundation for the 
science having thus been laid, it is not difficult to apply these principles 
to practice, and the first application made by Pasteur was to the study 
of the diseases of beer and wine, 


496 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


In September, 1871, Pasteur visited one of the large London brew- 
eries, in which the use of the microscope was then unknown. A single 
elance at the condition of the yeast instantly told its tale, and enabled 
him to explain to the brewers the cause of the serious state of things 
by which frequently as much as 20 per cent. of their product was 
returned on their bands as unsalable—this being that this yeast con- 
tained foreign or unhealthy organisms. And just as pure yeast is tbe 
cause of the necessary conversion of wort into beer, so these strange 
forms which differ morphologically from yeast, and whose presence can 
therefore be distinctly ascertained, are the cause of acidity, ropiness, 
turbidity, and other diseases which render the beer undrinkable. It is 
no exaggeration to say that, whereas before Pasteur’s researches the— 
microscope was practically unknown in the brew-house, it has now be 
come as common as the thermometer or the saccharimeter, and by its- 
help and by the interpretations we can place upon its revelations through 
Pasteur’s teaching, yeast—of all brewers’ materials the least open to 
rough and ready practical discernment—becomes easy of valuation as 
to its purity or impurity, its vigor or weakness, and therefore its 
behavior during fermentation. Thus, while in former days the most 
costly materials were ever liable to be ruined by disease organisms 
unconsciously introduced into them with the yeast, at the present day 
the possibilities of any sueh vast pecuniary disasters become easily 
avertable. 

Of all industries, brewing is perhaps the one which demands the most 
stringent care in regard to complete and absolute cleanliness. The 
brewers’ materials, products, and by-products, are so putrescible, there 
is always so vast an abundance of disease organisms in the brewery air, 
that the minutest amounts of these waste products lying about in ves- 
sels or pipes transform these places into perfect nests for the propa- 
gation of these micro-organisms, whence, transferred into the brewings, 
they inevitably ruin them, however carefully and scientifically prepared 
in other respects. Without the microscope, any breach of disciplinein 
the way of the supreme cleanliness necessary is impossible of detection ; 
with it we can track down the micro-organisms to their source, whether 
it be in uneleanly plant, in impurity of materials, or in carelessness of 
manipulation. 

Among the more direct applications of Pasteur’s researches, the so- 
called Pasteurization of beer claims a place. Pasteur showed that tem- 
peratures well below the boiling-point sufficed for destroying the disease 
organisms in alcoholic fluids, and, based on these results, enormous 
quantities of low-fermentation beers are annually submitted to these 
temperatures, and thus escape the changes otherwise incident to tue 
micro-organisms which have succumbed to the treatment. This process 
is however for several intricate reasons, not suited for English beers, 
but if we can not keep our beers by submitting them to high tempera- 
tures, we can foretell to a nicety how they will keep by artificially fore- 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 497 


ing on those changes which would occur more slowly during storage. 
The application of a suitable temperature, the exclusion of outside con- 
tamination, a microscopic examination of the “forced” beer, and the 
knowledge which we owe to Pasteur of what the microscopic aspect 
means, suffice to make each brewing foretell its own future history,and 
thus suffice to avert the otherwise inevitable risks incident to the stor- 
age and export of beer, the stability of which is unknown. 

Brewing has thus become a series of precise and definite operations, 
capable of control at every point. Instead of depending—as it had to 
depend—on intuition and experience banded down in secrecy from 
father to son, it now depends upon care, forethought, and the soundness 
of the brewer’s scientific training. This change in the nature of the 
brewer’s operations, and in the persons who govern them, is primarily 
due to Pasteur. Other men have done much to carry on his work, but 
it is to his example of ceaseless patience, and to his example of freely 
publishing to the world all the results of his work, that the brewers of 
all countries are indebted for the connection of each phenomenon with 
a controllable cause, and for thus emancipating their industry from em- 
piricism and quackery. 

Much the same story has to be told about Pasteur’s investigation of 
wine and its diseases. As with the brewer, so with the wine-grower 
Pasteur has pointed out the causes of his troubles, and the causes hav- 
ing been ascertained, the remedies soon followed, and the practical 
value of these researches to the trade of France and other wine-produe- 
ing countries has been enormous. 

The next labor of cur scientific Hercules was of a different kind, but of 
a no less interesting or important character. The south of France is a 
great silk-producing district. In 1853, the value of the raw silk was 
represented by a sum of some £5,000,000 sterling, and up to that date 
the revenue from this source had been greatly augmenting. Suddenly 
this tide of prosperity turned, a terrible plague broke out amongst the 
silk-worms, and in 1865, so general had the disease become, that the total 
production of French silk did not reach £1,000,000, and the consequent 
poverty and suffering endured in these provinces became appalling. 
Every conceivable means was tried to overcome the disease, but all dn 
vain. The population and the Government of France—for the evil was 
a national one—were at their wits’ end, and a complete collapse of one 
of the most important French industries seemed inevitable. Under 
these circumstances the great chemist Dumas, who was born at Alais, 
in the center of one of the districts most seriously affected, urged his 
friend Pasteur to undertake an investigation of the subject. Pasteur, 
who at this time had never seen a silk-worm, naturally felt diffident 
about attempting so difficult a task, but at last, at Dumas’s renewed en- 
treaty, he consented, and in June, 1865, betook himself to the south for 
the purpose of studying the disease on the spot. His previous training 
here again stood him in good sted, and in September, 1865, he was able 

H. Mis, 224—— 32 


498 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


to communicate to the Academy of Sciences, results of observations 
and experiment which, striking at the root of the evil, pointed the way 
to the means of securing immunity from the dreaded plague. This pa- 
per was freely criticised. Here, it was said, was a chemist who, quitting 
his proper sphere, had the hardihood to lay down rules for the guid- 
ance of the physician and biologist in fields specially their own. Why 
should his proposals be more successful than all the other nostrums 
which had already so egregiously failed? 

In order to appreciate the difficulties which met Pasteur in this in- 
quiry, and to understand how wonderfully he overcame them, I must 
very shortly describe the nature of this disease, which is termed pébrine, 
from the black spots which cover the silk-worm. It declares itself by 
the stunted and unequal growth of the worms, by their torpidity, and - 
by their fastidiousness as to food, and by their premature death. 

Before Pasteur went to Alais the presence of certain microscopic cor- 
puscles had been noticed in the blood and in all the tissues of the dis- 
eased caterpillar, and even in the eggs from which such worms were 
hatched. These micro-organisms often fill the whole of the silk organs 
of the insect, which in a healthy condition contain the clear viscous 
liquid from which the silk is made. Such worms are of course value- 
less. Still this knowledge did not suffice, for eggs apparently healthy 
gave rise to stricken worms incapable of producing silk, whilst again 
other worms distinctly diseased yielded normal cocoons. These diffi- 
culties, which had proved too much for previous observers, were fully 
explained by Pasteur. ‘The germs of these organisms,” said he, “ which 
are so minute, may be present in the egg and even in the young worms, 
and yet baffle the most careful search. They develop with the growth 
of the worm, and in the chrysalis they are more easily seen. The moth 
derived from a diseased worm invariably contains these corpuscles, and 
is incapable of breeding healthy progeny.” 

This moth-test is the one adopted by Pasteur, and it is an infallible 
one. If the female moth is stricken, then her eggs, even though they 
show no visible sign of disease, will produce sick worms. If in the moth 
no micrococci are seen, then her immediate progeny at any rate will be 
sound and free from inherited taint, and will always produce the normal 
quantity of silk. Butthisisnotall. Pasteur found that healthy worms 
can be readily infected by contact with diseased ones, or through germs 
contained in the dust of the rooms in which the worms are fed. Worms 
thus infected, but free from inherited taint, can however (as stated) 
spin normal cocoons, but—and this is the important point—the moths 
which such chrysalids yield invariably produce diseased eggs. This 
explains the anomalies previously noticed. The silk-worms which die 
without spinning are those in which the disease is hereditary, viz, those 
born from a diseased mother. Worms from sound eggs which contract 
the disease during their life-time always spin their silk, but they give 
rise to a stricken moth, the worms from which do not reach maturity 
and furnish no silk. 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 499 


As I have said, these results were but coldly received. It was hard 
to make those engaged in rearing the worms believe in the efficacy of 
the proposed cure. Then, seeing this state of things, Pasteur deter- 
mined to take upon himself the réle of a prophet. Having in 1866 care- 
fully examined a considerable number of the moths which had laid eggs 
intended for incubation, he wrote down a prediction of what would hap- 
pen in the following year with respect to the worms hatched from these 
eggs. In due course, after the worms from a mixed batch of healthy 
and unhealthy eggs had spun, the sealed letter was opened and read, 
and the prediction compared with the actual result, when it was found 
that in twelve out of fourteen cases there was absolute conforinity be- 
tween the prediction and the observation, for twelve hatchings were 
predicted to turn out diseased, and this proved to be the case. Now 
all these “educations” were believed to be healthy by the cultivators, 
but Pasteur foretold that they would turn out to be diseased by the ap- 
plication of the moth-test in the previous year. The other parcels of 
eggs were pronounced by Pasteur to be sound, becanse they were laid 
by healthy moths containing none of the micrococci, and both these 
yielded a healthy crop. Sosuccessful a prophecy could not but gain the 
belief of the most obtuse of cultivators, and we are nou suprised to learn 
that Pasteur’s test was soon generally applied, and that the conse- 
quence has been a return of prosperity to districts in which thousands 
of homes had been desolated by a terrible scourge. 

I must now ask you to accompany me to another and a new field of 
Pasteur’s labors, which, perhaps more than his others, claims your sym- 
pathy and will enlist your admiration, because they have opened out 
to uS the confident hope of at least obtaining an insight into some of 
the inidden causes and therefore to the possible prevention of disease. 

In the first place, I must recall to your remembrance that most infee- 
tious diseases seldom if ever recur, and that even a slight attack ren- 
ders the subject of it proof against a second one. Hence inoculation 
from a mild case of small-pox was for a time practiced, but this too 
often brought about a serious if not fatal attack of the malady, and the 
steps taken by Jenner of vaccinating, that is of replacing for the serious 
disease a slight one which nevertheless is sufficient protection against 
small-pox infection, was one of the highest importance. But Jenner’s 
great discovery has up to recent years remained an isolated one, for it 
led to no general method for the preventive treatment of other maladies, 
nor had any explanation been offered of its mode of action. It is to 
Pasteur that science is indebted for the generalization of Jenner’s 
method, and for an explanation which bids fair to render possible the 
preventive treatment of many—if not of all—infectious diseases. It 
was his experience, based upon his researches on fermentation, that led 
toa knowledge of the nature of the poison of such diseases, and showed 
the possibility of so attenuating or weakening the virus as to furnish a 
general method of protective or preventive inoculation. 


500 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


I have already pointed out how a pure cultivation of a microbe can be 
effected. Just as the production of pure alcohol depends on the pres- 
ence of the pure yeast, so special diseases are dependent on the presence 
of certain definite organisms which can be artificially cultivated, and 
which give rise to the special malady. Can we now by any system of 
artificial cultivation so modify or weaken the virus of a given microbe 
as to render it possible to inoculate a modified virus which, whilst it is 
without danger to life, is still capable of acting as a preventive to fur- 
ther attack? This is the question which Pasteur set himself to solve, 
nor was the task by any means an apparently hopeless one. He had 
not only the case of Jennerian vaccination before him, but also the well- 
known modifications which cultivation can bring about in plants. The 
first instance in which Pasteur succeeded in effecting this weakening 
of the poison was in that of a fatal disease to which poultry in France 
are very liable, called chicken cholera. Like many other maladies, this 
is caused by the presence of a micro-organism found in the blood and 
tissues of the stricken fowl. One drop of this blood brought under the 
skin of a healthy chicken kills it, and the same microbe is found through- 
out its body. And if a pure culture of these microbes be made, that 
culture—even after a series of generations—is as deadly a poison as the 
original blood. Now comes the discovery. If these cultures be kept 
at a suitable temperature for some weeks exposed to pure air, and the 
poisonous properties tested from time to time, the poison is found grad- 
ually to become less powerful, so that after the lapse of two months a 
dose which had formerly proved fatal now does not disturb in the 
shghtest the apparent health of the fowl. But now let us inoculate a 
chicken with this weakened virus. It suffers a slight illness, but soon 
recovers. Next let us give it a dose of the undiluted poison, and, as a 
control, let us try the action of the same on an unprotected bird. What 
is the result? Why, that the first chicken remains unaffected, whilst 
the second bird dies. The inoculation has rendered it exempt from the 
disease, and this has been proved by Pasteur to be true in thousands 
of cases, So that whereas the death-rate in certain districts amongst 
fowls before the adoption of Pasteur’s inoculation method was 10 per 
cent., after its general adoption it has diminished to less than 1 per 
cent. 

We can scarcely value too highly this discovery, for it proves that 
the poisonous nature of the microbe is not unalterable, but that it can be 
artificially modified and reduced, and thus an explanation is given of 
the fact that in an epidemic the virus may either be preserved or be- 
come exhausted according to the conditions to which it is subjected. 
We have here to do with a case similar to that of Jenner’s vaccine, 
except that here the relation between the weak and the strong poison 
has become known tous, whilsc in Jenner’s case it has lain concealed. 
This then is the first triumph of experimental inquiry into the cause 
and prevention of microbic disease, and this method of attenuation is 


i a il eal 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 501 


of great importance, because, as we shali see, it is not confined to the 
case of chicken cholera, but is applicable to other diseases. 

And next I will speak of one which is a fatal scourge to cattle, and is 
not unfrequently transmitted to man. It is called anthrax, splenic 
fever, or woolsorters’ disease. This plague, which has proved fatal to 
millions of cattle, is also due to a microbe, which can be cultivated like 
the rest, and the virus of which can also be weakened or attenuated by 
a distinct treatment which I will not here further specify. Now, what 
is the effect of inoculating cattle or sheep with this weakened poison ? 
Does it act as a preventive? That the answer is in the affirmative was 
proved by Pasteur by a convincing experiment. Five-and-twenty 
sheep, chosen promiscnously out of a flock of fifty, were thus inoculated 
with the weak virus, then after a time all the fifty were treated with the 
strong poison. The first half remained healthy, all the others died of 
anthrax. Since the discovery of this method, no fewer than 1,700,000 
sheep and about 90,000 oxen have thus been inoculated, and last year 
269,599 sheep and 34,464 oxen were treated. The mortality which 
before the introduction of the preventive treatment, was in the case of 
sheep 10 per cent., was, after the adoption of the method, reduced to 
less than 1 per cent. So that now the farmers in the stricken districts 
have all adopted the process, and agricultural insurance societies make 
the preventive inoculation a sine qué non for insuring cattle in those dis- 
tricts. This is however not the end of this part of my story, for Pas- 
teur can not only thus render the anthrax poison harmless, but be has 
taught us how to bring the highly virulent poison back again from the 
harmless form. This may goto explain the varying strength of an at- 
tack of infectious disease, one case being severe and another but slight, 
due to the weakening or otherwise of the virus of the active microbe. 

Last, but not least, I must refer to the most remarkable of all Pasteur’s 
reseaches, that on rabies and hydrophobia. Previous to the year 15° 0, 
when Pasteur began his study of this disease, next to nothing was 
known about its nature. It was invested with the mysterious horror 
which often accompanies the working of secret poisons, and the horror 
was rendered greater owing to the fact that the development of the 
poison brought in by the bite or by the lick of a mad dog might be de- 
ferred for months, and that if after that length of time the symptoms 
once make their appearance, a painful death was inevitable. We knew 
indeed that the virus was contained in the dog’s saliva, but experiments 
made upon the inoculation of the saliva had led to no definite results, 
and we were entirely in the dark as to the action of the poison until 
Pasteur’s investigation. To begin with, he came to the conclusion that 
the disease was one localized in the nerve-centers, and to the nerve- 
centers he therefore looked as the seat of the virus or of the microbe. 
And he proved by experiment that this is the case, for a portion of the 
matter of the spinal column of a rabid dog, when injected into a healthy 
one, causes rabies with a much greater degree of certainty and rapidity 


502 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


than does the injection of the saliva. Here then we have one step in 
advance. The disease is one of the nerve-centers, and therefore it 
only exhibits itself when the nerve-centers are attacked. And this 
goes to explain the varying times of incubation which the attack ex- 
hibits. The virus has to travel up the spinal cord before the symptoms 
can manifest themselves, and the length of time taken over that jour- 
ney depends on many circumstances. If this be so, the period of ineu- 
bation must be lessened if the virus is at once introduced into the 
nerve-centers. This was also proved to be the case, for dogs inoculated 
under the dura mater invariably became rabid within a period rarely 
exceeding eighteen days. 

Next came the question, can this virus be weakened, as has been 
proved possible with the former poisons? The difficulty in this case 
was greater, inasmuch as all attempts to isolate or to cultivate the 
special microbe of rabies outside the animal body had failed. But Pas- 
teur’s energy and foresight overcame this difficulty, and a method was 
discovered by which this terrible poison can so far be weakened as to 
lose its virulent character, but yet remain potent enough, like the cases 
already quoted, to act as a preventive ; and dogs which had thus been 
inocvlated were proved to be so perfectly protected, that they might be 
bitten with impunity by mad dogs, or inoculated harmlessly with the 
most powerful rabie virus. 

But yet another step. Would the preventive action of the weakened 
virus hold good when it is inoculated even after the bite? If so, it 
might be thus possible to save the lives of persons bitten by mad dogs. 
Well, experiment has also proved this to be true, for a number of dogs 
were bitten by mad ones, or were inoculated under the skin with rabic 
virus; of these some were subjected to the preventive cure and others 
not thus treated. Of the first or protected series not one became mad; 
of the other, or unprotected dogs, a large number died with all the 
characteristic symptoms of the disease. But it was one thing to thus 
experiment upon dogs, and quite another thing, as you may well imag- 
ine, to subject human beings to so novel and perhaps dangerous a treat- 
ment. Nevertheless, Pasteur was bold enough to take this necessary 
step, and by so doing has earned the gratitude of the human race. 

In front of the Pasteur Institute in Paris stands a statue worked 
with consummate skill in bronze. It represents a French shepherd boy 
engaged in a death struggle with a mad dog which had been worrying 
his sheep. With his bare hands, and with no weapon save his wooden 
sabot, the boy was successful in the combat. He killed the dog, but 
was horribly bitten in the fight. The group represents no mythical 
struggle; the actual event took place in October, 1885; and this boy, 
Jupille, was the second person to undergo the anti-rabie treatment, 
which proved perfectly successful, for he remained perfectly healthy, 
and his heroic deed and its consequences have become historic. ‘C’est 
le premier pas qui coute,” and as soon as the first man had been success- 
fully treated others similarly situated gladly availed themselves of Pas- 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 503 


teur’s generous offer to treat them gratuitously. And as soon as this 
cure became generally known crowds of persons of all ages, stations, 
and countries, all bitten by rabid animals, visited every day Pasteur’s 
laboratory in the Rue @’U1m, which, from being one in which quiet scien- 
tific researches were carried on, came to resemble the out-patient de- 
partment of a great hospital. There I saw the French peasant, the 
Russian mowik (suffering from the terrible bites of rabid wolves), the 
swarthy Arab, the English policeman, with women too and children of 
every age; in all perhaps a hundred patients. All were there under- 
going the careful and kindly treatment, which was to insure them 
against a horrible death. Such a sight will not be easily forgotten. 
By degrees this wonderful cure for so deadly a disease attracted the 
attention of men of science throughout the civilized world. The French 
nation raised a monument to the discoverer better than any statue in 
the shape of the “ Pasteur Institute,” an institution devoted to carry- 
ing out in practice this anti-rabic treatment, with laboratories and every 
other convenience for extending by research our knowledge of the pre- 
ventive treatment of infectious disease. 

For be it remembered, we are only at the beginning of these things, 
and what has been done is only an inkling of what is to come. Since 
1885, twenty anti-rabie institutions have been established in various 
parts of the world, including Naples, Palermo, Odessa, St. Petersburg, 
Constantinople, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, and Havana. 

We in England have also taken our share, though a small one, in 
this work. In 1885, 1 moved in the House of Commons for a committee 
to investigate and report on Pasteuv’s anti-rabic method of treatment. 
This committee consisted of trusted and well-known English men of 
science and physicians—Sir James Paget, Sir Joseph Lister, Drs. Bur- 
don Sanderson, Lauder Brunton, Quain, Fleming, and myself, with 
Prof. Victor Horsley as secretary. We examined the whole subject, 
investigated the details of a number of cases, repeated Pasteur’s experi- 
ments on animals, discussed the published statistics, and arrived unani- 
mously at the opinion that Pasteur was justified in his conclusions, and 
that his anti-rabiec treatment had conferred a great and lasting benefit 
on mankind. Since then His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, who 
always takes a vivid interest in questions affecting the well-being of 
the people, has visited the Pasteur Institute, and has expressed himself 
strongly in favor of a movement, started by the present lord mayor of 
London, for showing to Pasteur, by a substantial grant to his Institute, 
our gratitude for what he has done to relieve upwards of two hundred 
and fifty of our countrymen who have undergone treatment at his 
hands, and likewise to enable poor persons who have been bitten to 
undertake the journey to Paris, and the sojourn there necessary for 
their treatment. This lasts about a fortnight, it is nearly painless, and 
no single case of illness, much less of hydrophobia, due to the prevent- 
ive treatment, has occurred amongst the seven thousand persons who 
have so far undergone the cure. 


504 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


Now let me put before you the answer to the question: Is this treat- 
ment a real cure? For this has been doubted by persons, some of 
whom will, I fear, still doubt, or profess to doubt, and still abuse Pasteur 
whatever is said or done! From all that can be learned about the 
matter, it appears pretty certain that about from fifteen to twenty per- 
sons out of every hundred bitten by mad dogs or cats, and not treated 
by Pasteur’s method, develop the disease, for I need scarcely add that 
all other methods of treatment have proved fallacious ; but bites on the 
face are much more dangerous, the proportion of fatal cases reaching 
80 per cent. Now of two thousand one hundred and sixty-four persons 
treated in the Pasteur Institute, from November 1885, to January 1887, 
only thirty-two died, showing a mortality of 1.4 per cent. instead of 15 


to 20, and amongst these upwards of two thousand persons, two hun-- 


dred and fourteen had been bitten on the face, a class of wounds in 
which, as I have said, when untreated, the mortality is very high; so 
that the reduction in the death-rate seems more remarkable, especially 
when we learn that in all these cases the animal inflicting the wound 
had been proved to be rabid. The same thing occurs even in a more 
marked degree in 1887 and 1888. In 1887, one thousand seven hun- 
dred and seventy-eight cases were treated with a mortality of 1.3 per 
cent., While last year one thousand six hundred and twenty-six cases 
were treated, with a mortality of 1.16 per cent.* 

Statistics of the anti-rabic treatment in other countries show similar 
results, proving beyond a doubt that the death-rate from hydrophobia 
is greatly reduced. Indeed, it may truly be said that in no case of 
dangerous disease, treated either by medicine or surgery, is a cure so 
probable. Moreover, in spite of assertions to the contrary, no proof 
can be given that in any single case did death arise from the treatment 
itself. And as showing the safety of the inoculation, I may add that 
all Pasteur’s assistants and laboratory workers have undergone the 
treatment, and no case of hydrophobia has occurred amongst them. 

You are no doubt aware that Pasteur’s anti-rabic treatment has been 
strongly opposed by certain persons, some of whom have not scrupled 
to descend to personal abuse of a virulent character of those who in 
any way encouraged or supported Pasteur’s views, and all of whom 
persistently deny that anything good has come or can come from 
investigations of the kind. Such persons we need neither fear nor 
hate. Their opposition is as powerless to arrest the march of science 
as was King Canute’s order to stop the rising tide. Only let us rest 
upon the sure basis of exactly ascertained fact, and we may safely defy 
alike the vaporings of the sentimentalist, and the wrath of the oppo- 
nent of scientific progress. But opposition of a much fairer character 
has likewise to be met, and it has with propriety been asked: How 
comes it that Pasteur is not uniformly successful? Why (if what you 
tell us is true) do any deaths at all follow the anti-rabic treatment ? 





*For further details, see Dr. Ruffer, Brit. Med. Journ., Sept. 21, 1889. 





pity ey 


THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 505 


The answer is not far to seek. In the first place, just as it is not every 
vaccination which protects against small-pox, so Pasteur’s vaccination 
against rabies occasionally fails. Then again, Pasteur’s treatment is 
really a race between a strong and an attenuated virus. In cases in 
which the bite occurs near a nerve-center, the fatal malady may outstrip 
the treatment in this race between life and death. If the weakened 
virus can act in time, it means life. If the strong virus acts first, pre- 
vention comes too late,—it means death. So that the treatment is not 
doubtful in all cases, but only doubtful in those which are under well- 
known unfavorable conditions. This it seems to me is a complete 
reply to those who ignorantly fancy that, because Pasteur’s treatment 
has not cured every case, it must be unreliable and worthless. 

One word more. I have said that Pasteur is still—as he has always 
been—a chemist. How does this fit in with the fact that his recent 
researches seem to be entirely of a biological character? Thisis true, 
They seem, but they really are not. Let me in a few sentences explain 
what I mean. You know that yeast produces a peculiar chemical sub- 
stance—alcohol. How it does so we can not yet explain, but the fact 
remains. Gradually, through Pasteur’s researches, we are coming to 
understand that this is not an isolated case, but that the growth of 
every micro-organism is productive of some special chemical substance, 
and that the true pathogenic virus—or the poison causing the disease— 
is not the microbe itself, but the chemical compound which its growth 
creates. Here once more “to the solid ground of nature trusts the 
man that builds for aye,” and it is only by experiment that these things 
can be learnt. 

Let me illustrate this by the most recent and perhaps the most strik- 
ing example we know of. The disease of diphtheria is accompanied by 
a peculiar microbe, which however only grows outside, as it were, of 
the body, but death often takes place with frightful rapidity. This 
takes place not by any action of the microbe itself, but by simple poi- 
soning due to the products of the growing organism, which penetrate 
into the system, although the microbe does not. This diphtheritic 

Bacillus can be cultivated, and the chemical poison which it produces 
can be completely separated by filtration from the microbe itself, just 
as alcohol can be separated from the yeast granules. If this be done, 
and one drop of this pellucid liquid given to an animal, that animal 
dies with all the well-known symptoms of the disease. This, and sim- 
ilar experiments made with the microbes of other diseases, lead to the 
conclusion that in infectious maladies the cause of death is poisoning 
by a distinct chemical compound, the microbe being not only the means 
of spreading the infection, but also the manufacturer of the poison. 
But more than this, it has lately been proved that a small dose of these 
soluble chemical poisons confers immunity. If the poison be adminis- 
tered in such a manner as to avoid speedy poisoning, but so as gradually 
to accustom the animal to its presence, the creature becomes not only 


506 THE LIFE-WORK OF A CHEMIST. 


refractory to toxic doses of the poison, but also even to the microbe 
itself. So that instead of introducing the micro-organism itself into 
the body, it may now only be necessary to vaccinate with a chemical 
substance which in large doses brings about the disease, but in small 
ones confers immunity from it, reminding one of Hahnemann’s dictum 
of “ Similia similibus curantur.” 

Here then we are once more on chemical ground. True, on ground 
which is full of unexplained wonders, which however depend on laws 
we are at least in part acquainted with, so that we may in good heart 
undertake their investigation, and look forward to the time when 
knowledge will take the place of wonder. 

In conclusion, I feel that some sort of apology is needed in thus 
bringing a rather serious piece of business before you on this occasion. 
Still I hope for your forgiveness, as my motive has been to explain to 
you as Clearly as I could the life-work of a chemist who has in my 
opinion conferred benefits as yet untold and perhaps unexampled on 
mankind, and I may be allowed to close my discourse with the noble 
words of our hero spoken at the opening of the Pasteur Institute in 
the presence of the President of the French Republic: 

‘‘Two adverse laws seem to me now in contest. One law of blood 
and death, opening out each day new modes of destruction, forces 
nations to.be always ready for the battle-field. The other a law of 
peace, of work, of safety, whose only study is to deliver man from the 
calamities which beset him. 

‘‘The one seeks only violent conquests. The other only the relief of 
humanity. The one places a single life above all victories. The other 
sacrifices the lives of hundreds of thousands to the ambition of a single 
individual. The law of which we are the instruments, strives even 
through the carnage to cure the bloody wounds caused by this law of 
war. Treatment by our antiseptic methods may preserve thousands 
of soldiers. 

‘‘Which of these two laws will prevail over the other? God only 
knows. But of this we may be sure, that science in obeying this law 
of humanity will always labor to enlarge the frontiers of life.” 


et i 


MEMOIR OF HEINRICH LEBERECHT FLEISCHER.* 


By PRror. A. MULLER, Ph. D. 


Translated by Miss HeNrinrra SZOLD. 


Were it desirable to single out the rarest and most admirable among 
the many fine qualities of the great and good scholar to whose memory 
these lines are devoted, I should not hesitate to name the perfect self- 
denial which at all times prompted him to place his unparallelled attain- 
ments at the disposal of others. Among German orientalists (if Assyrio- 
logists be excepted), few will be found who have not profited by his un- 
selfishness ; and abroad likewise there are many who are similarly in- 
debted. Weal] knew where to seek when our meager stores were on the 
point of giving out, and we stood in need of the gifts with which his treas- 
ure-houses were abundantly filled. In dispensing these to great and small, 
he was untiring, generous, and impartial as God’s sun which shines 
upon the just and the unjust alike. More than a year has passed since 
his hand has grown numb and his eye dim, but where do they linger 
who should have hastened to his grave, and wreathed with tributes of 
gratitude the hillock which nature, slow though her processes are, has 
twice decked with fresh verdure? I blame, I accuse no one. Many a 
shrinking soul hides its gratitude in reverential silence rather than pa- 
rade fine and tender feelings in the market-place. Doubtless there are 
others who reluctantly find themselves forced by the cares of existence, 
by daily new burthensome tasks, to deny themselves the fulfillment of a 
warmly cherished desire. And most probably there are still others, 
here and there, who, like the writer of these words, are even now, after 
unavoidable delay, on the point of paying the long-planned tribute of 
piety. Nevertheless it remains a sad fact that, with the exception of 
the somewhat business-like though not unsympathetic announcements 
of the French Institute and of the Bavarian Academy, the brief remarks, 
accompanying an excellent portrait of Fleischer in the Leipzig [llustrirte 
Zeitung, an article in the New York Times, and a barren notice in the 
London Atheneum, only two attempts have up to this time been made 
to give adequate and becoming treatment to the work of this distin- 
guished scholar: Thorbecke’s sketch in the Journal of the German 


* From Bezzenberger’s Beitrdge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen, Gottingen, 
1889, vol. xv, pp. 319-337. 
507 


508 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 

Oriental Society, and the more extended memorial address by Goldziher 
before the Hungarian Academy. Indeed it will ever be humiliating to 
German orientalists, that although more than a year has elapsed since 
Fleischer’s death, the only searching analysis published of his great 
activity as a scholar and a teacher (and such Goldziher’s* essay ob- 
viously is), has been written by an Hungarian in his native language, 
with which no one of us is conversant. 

In fact, the number is not very great of those who may without pre- 
sumption undertake an exhaustive treatment of the life of so distin- 
guished a scholar. I am far from counting myself among that number, 
but I believe I have learned enough to enable me to appreciate to a 
certain extent the great ability of him who acquired such vast learning 
by means of his own exertions; and I trust I have sufficient judg- 
ment to designate at least approximately the rank and position due 
my deceased teacher in the history of our science. Precisely here 
I can not permit the motive of modesty to hinder me from attempt- 
ing this task, for the reader who is interested in the science of Indo- 
European languages may justly wish to gain an idea of the general atti- 
tude of a scholar whose investigations border upon his own sphere. 
That my task also involves the duty of pointing ont the natural limita- 
tions of his activity shall not hinder me from carrying out my intention. 
Next to unselfishness, Fleischer’s most prominent trait as a scholar 
was his love of truth. He himself would be the first to censure me if 
I were to sketch his personality in white on a white back-ground, ae- . 
cording to the latest fashion among painters. Admiration without criti- 
cism is valueless. If, feeling the former, I venture to use the latter, no 
one may charge me with presumptuousness. He is a poor master who 
trains disciples bereft of the critical faculty; a poor disciple he who 
leans unquestioningly upon the authority of even a deeply-revered 
master. I must however refrain from giving a detailed description of 
the purely human side of his being and life, incomplete though his pic- 
ture will thus remain. I consider it improper to forestall a full presen- 
tation by one more qualified for this task, who can base his assertions 
upon intimate acquaintance with all the incidents and relations of his 
private life. I shall confine myself to outlines, the data for which I 
owe to the kindness of Prof. Dr. Curt Fleischer, of Meissen. They thus 
may claim reliability on those points in which they disagree with state- 
ments published elsewhere. 

Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer was born at Schandau on February 71, 
1801. His father, Johann Gottfried Fleischer, an officer in the custom- 
service. died at the age of eighty-nine, on August 24, 1860, at Pirna, 
enjoying at that time a pension as inspector of customs. His mother, 
whom he lost as early as August 10,1825, was the daughter of the 





*Emlékbeszéd Fleischer Leberecht Henrik a M. Tud. Akadémia kiiltagja felett. 
Goldziher Ignaez (a Magy. Tud. Ak. elhtinyt tagjai folott tarttot emlékbeszédek. 
Vk6t. 4. sz4m). Budapest, M. T. Ak., 1889, 44 p., 8. 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 509 


parish schoolmaster Unruh, at Prietitz, near Pulsnitz. At Schandau 
the boy attended the public school, where his talents soon attracted 
the attention of the principal, Edelmann, who undertook to teach young 
Fleischer the elements of Latin. Thus his father was enabled to enter 
him in 1814, as a student at the high-school in Bautzen, where he re- 
mained until 1819. Here he was instructed in Hebrew, thus for the 
first time coming in contact with the Orient. When next he Lecame 
interested in an Eastern subject it was by chance, and it decided his 
whole future career. He accidentally found among the wrapping-paper 
of a cheese-dealer at market sheets of an Arabic grammar, to the study 
ot which he at once applied himself. He became so deeply interested that 
when he entered upon his course in the University of Leipzig at Easter, 
1819, he not only did not neglect his theological pursuits, nor fail to 
devote himself under the guidance of Gottfried Hermann to classical 
studies, but he also indulged his love for Orientalia. In fact, after hav- 
ing passed with distinction a theological examination, he spent one more 
year in the exclusive study of Oriental languages. He soon arrived at 
the conviction that it was necessary for him to be at Paris with De Sacy. 
By the assistance of a young French merchant named Bernard, with 
whom he had become acquainted, he succeeded in obtaining a position 
as tutor in the household of Mons. de Caulaincourt (under Napoleon 
Duke of Vicenza). On March 4, he received his degree, and on April 18, 
he began his journey to Paris. For one year and a half he was in Caul- 
aincourt’s house. Later he lived alone, earning a livelihood by giving 
private lessons. But during the whole time he was zealously occupied 
with his studies under De Sacy, paying particular attention to Arabic, 
Persian, and Turkish. The impression made upon him by the great 
French savant was never obliterated,—neither by the work, nor the suc- 
cess, nor the honors with which his long life was replete. He continued 
to pay the tribute of love and esteem to his master long after he himself 
had come to belooked upon as the master Arabist. At thesame time he 
made diligent use of the valuable manuscripts in the library. Thus, 
the first essay published by him was a review, in the Journal. Asiatique 
of 1827, of the first volume of Habicht’s edition of the Thousand and 
One Nights, based upon Galland’s manuscript. His editions of Abul- 
feda and Beidhawi, as well as the essay, De glossis Habichtianis, all pub- 
lished later on, are also proofs of his industry in gathering material 
while at Paris. At the same time he sought the society of Orientals, 
especially of two Egyptians, a Mohammedan—Refa’a, and a Christian— 
Aydé, both mentioned honoris causa in the above-named essay. Al- 
though the article in the Journal Asiatique shows that he was a ripe 
scholar at that time, he continued to devote himself after his return, in 
1828, to private study, partly at his own home and partly at Dresden, 
where he catalogued the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts in 
the royal library. The catalogue was published at Leipzig in 1831; 
likewise, his edition and translation of Abulfeda’s Historia ante-islamica, 


510 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


Both publications proved that he had reached the goal which he had 
been pursuing during a twelve years’ preparatory period, entailing con- 
stant hard work and manifold sacrifices. In the preface to Abulfeda 
he deplores the fewness of his notes, and craves indulgence for himself 
on the plea of being a homo lectionis pauce, memorie paucioris, otit pau- 
cissimi. But the character of his work is such as to invalidate all but 
the last of the three excuses. Meantime he had accepted in 1831, a 
position as teacher in the Kreuz high-school at Dresden. Here he re- 
mained until 1835, when, the above-mentioned works having spread his 
fame, he was offered a professorship at St. Petersburg, later filled by 
Dorn. He wasabout to]Jeave for Russia, when, in the nick of time, the 
offer of a fuil professorship of Oriental languages, at his own university 
of Leipzig, reached him. He was elected on October 19, 1835, but did 
not enter upon the duties of his position until Easter, 1836. At first 
he was considered a member of the theological faculty, but early inthe 
next decade he was permitted, after active agitation on his own part, to 
pass over to the philosophical faculty. On September 27, 1836, he mar- 
ried Ernestine Mathilde Jiissing, of Bautzen, the daughter of Friedrich 
Leberecht Jiissing, retired brigade judge of the royal Saxon service, 
who lived at that time in Dresden, He was permitted to celebrate, with 
his faithful and affectionate wife, who still survives, the fiftieth anni- 
versary of his wedding-day, and was blessed with the joy—marred only 
by the death of their eldest daughter—of seeing their children occupy 
positions of honor in the community. Not less happy was his domestic 
life, than were his official and scientific undertakings. When, in 
1846, the Royal Saxon Scientific Society was founded, he at once became 
anactive member. In1855, he became its assistant secretary, and later, 
secretary in chief, a position which he filled with his customary scrupu- 
lousness until 1883. In 1860, he received an honorable call from Berlin. 
He refused the offer, remaining faithful to his native land until his 
death. 

When Fleischer entered upon his professorship in Leipzig, in 1836, 
Arabic-Mohammedan studies had begun to flourish in all parts of Ger- 
inany. Between 1819 and 1829 there had been published five of the 
Mo’allagat, with the scholia of Zauzani, by Kosegarten, Hengstenberg, 
Rosenmiiller, and Vullers; in 1828, the text of the Hamdsa, by Freytag; 
between 1825 and 1831, the first six volumes of Habicht’s Thousand 
and One Nights; and in 1828, Kosegarten’s Chrestomathy ; Freytag’s 
Arabic Poetics (1830), and the first volume of his great lexicon (1830), 
as well as the beginning of Ewald’s Grammatica critica (1831), had es- 
tablished the principle that the edition of texts should be prepared 
with due regard to the laws of the language. Meantime another Ger- 
man scholar—Friihn, in the service of the Russian Government, by his 
Recensio (1826), had laid a scientific foundation for Islamic numismatics. 
Dorn was beginning to assist the Petersburg investigator, and Hammer- 
Purgstall, unflagging, continued his magnificent work at Vienna, The 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. Dk 


last-mentioned scholars prove that the increased interest in Arabic 
subjects can not be traced entirely to outward causes, but should be 
connected with the renascence in Germany of philological studies from 
an historical point of view. On the other hand, the efforts of the first 
set of scholars depend entirely upon the work of De Sacy, who had 
been the teacher of Kosegarten and Freytag, and indirectly through 
the latter, also of Vullers and Hengstenberg. Even Ewald, inde- 
pendent though he was, and striving to master for linguistic purposes, 
the material bequeathed by Arabian grammarians, had to lean upon 
De Sacy in the development of the main features of his plan. 

The times have been when it was customary, if not with Fleischer 
himself, at any rate with a few of his disciples, to treat somewhat con- 
temptuously the efforts of men like Freytag and Hammer-Purgstall in 
behalf of Arabic philology. I myself must confess to the youthful folly 
of having, in my first very imperfect essay, spoken of Hammer in a way 
which even vivid remembrance of Ahlwardt’s Chalaf could not excuse, 
certainly not justify. DeServedly, I was at once reproved by a more 
sensible fellow-worker.* Freytag was also judged unkindly, though per- 
haps not with equal severity. Even the numberless corrections which 
had to be made in his lexicon, and will of necessity ever continue to be 
made, cannotalter the fact thatit wasan eminent performance at the time 
of its compilation, and still remains an exceedingly useful work. Nat- 
urally, neither Hammer nor Freytag, neither Kosegarten nor Vullers 
can bear comparison with the master mind at Paris. The last three are 
docile disciples, who praiseworthy for industry, and estimable for at- 
tainments, do no more than follow in the footsteps of their master, with- 
out reaching him, even in their happiest moments. Hammer, on the 
other hand, was never more than a highly gifted dilettante, whose desire 
for novelties stifled the faculty of maturing ideas. His capacity for 
work was unbounded; its results however laid down in numerous volumes, 
but appartntly solve the vast problems of history and literature. On 
his bold excursions, he often paved the way to fieids hitherto inaccessi- 
ble, but keenly discovered by him to be worthy of cultivation. It will 
always remain his distinction that he made it possible for us to gain a 
bird’s-eye view over such fields, and cursory though it was, it is still 
valuable on all points in which detailed research has not replaced bis 
superficial statements by more reliable data. Hence it is not astonish- 
ing that the Vienna Orientalist enjoyed undisputed fame and exerted 
great influence in the first third of this century. Thus the danger was 
imminent, that his virtues being inseparable from his personality, his 
pupils and imitaturs might after his death seize only upon his weak 
points and develop them into a radically false and highly dangerous 
system. It is doubtful whether any of the German representatives of 
DeSacy would have been able successfully to combat this method. De- 
spite their merits, not one of the investigators named was distinguished 


oe Sener 


*See H. Derenbourg, Revue critique, 1869, No, 35, p, 182, 


512 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


by that combination of wide knowledge and philological accuracy which 
had marked De Sacy’s work, and which—in case his death occurred as 
early as was feared,* would have to be the characteristics of a successor, 
whose influence was to counteract Hammer’s. Kosegarten approached 
this ideal most closely, unless we except Rédiger, who if not totally in- 
dependent of De Sacy, had atleast not been trained in his school. But 
neither devoted himself exclusively to Arabic-Mohammedan philology ; 
and the same objection, to a still stronger degree, holds of Riickert, 
whose interests were chiefly poetic. Thus it was Fleischer alone in 
whom the ideal was fully realized. To him therefore naturally fell the 
task of placing our science upon the same eminence in Germany that 
it had oceupied under De Sacy in France,—a task rendered difficult by 
the necessity of guiding it so that it might permanently be rescued trom 
the crooked path into which it might have been forced under Hammer’s 
influence. 

It is impossible for me to judge whether Fleischer, at the time of en- 
tering upon the duties of his Leipzig professorship, had conceived his 
mission as clearly as we can now formulate it after its accomplish- 
ment. At all events, the two essays with which he introduced himself 
upon the arena of his fature successes seems to bear unequivocal signs 
that this was his conscious goal. When he was no more than “ Pro- 
fessor-elect of Oriental languages at the University of Leipzig,” he pub- 
lished, while at Dresden, his translation of Zamachshari’s Golden Neck- 
laces, with a preface and notes, containing a sharp attack on Hammer’s 
edition and translation of the same text. Almost at the same time he 
reviewed Habicht’s glosses, in which there is surely no lack of grave 
mistakes. In this last review his tone was the mildest imaginable, 
and later, even when dealing with bunglers of the worst sort, he never 
became vehement. If then in opposing Hammer he made use of more 
violent language, he must have been actuated by serious and far-reach- 
ing considerations. In fact, he states them at the beginning of the 
preface in these words: “If highly esteemed scholars in possession of 
every facility, at a time when science has reached its manhood, give 
thoroughly useless work to the world, what should be the attitude of 
criticism? Itis our opinion that its sharpest weapons should be di- 
rected against such abuses, and in this case it should combat even such 
as are really beneath criticism, in order that their becoming contagious 
may be prevented.” The man, comparatively speaking a novice, who 
thus met a scholar, universally looked upon as the most eminent orien- 
talist in Germany, must have felt the assurance of victory. The con- 
tents of his essay justified his bold language, and a still further justifi- 


cation was furnished by his Dissertatio critica de glossis Habichtianis 


in quatuor priores tomos MI noctium, which appeared in the following 
year (1836), on the occasion of his entering upon the duties of his chair. 
On account of the minutiz of medizwval Muslim life described, the 








* He died in 1838, 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 513 


“Arabian Nights,” require complete mastery of the whole domain of 
Arabic-Mohammedan life, for a thorough understanding of all the 
difficulties that grow out of the language and the subject-matter. Of 
this mastery the essay testifies abundantly, as it does of the unerring 
philological tact of the critic, whose emendations by no means are the 
happy suggestions of an ingenious mind, but rather the results of wide 
linguistic and historical knowledge, and of intimate acquaintance with 
the habits of copyists and the manner of transmitting manuscripts. 
For obvious reasons, it is not easy—and so far as Iam concerned it 
is at this moment not possible—to trace the impression made by the 
two essays when first published; but their success shows that it must 
have been deep and lasting. The same complete mastery of the sub- 
ject is displayed by Fleischer’s next works: Alv’s One Hundred Proverbs 
(1837), a description of the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts 
in the Catalogus Librorum MSS. Bibl. Civit. Lipsiensis (1838), and the 
completion of, Habicht’s edition of the Arabian Nights (vols. [x—x11, 
184243). But the character of the subjects treated in these works was 
not calculated to confer controlling influence upon them. Likewise his 
edition in 1847 of Mirza Mohammed Ibrahim’s Grammar of the modern 
Persian Language (2d edition, 1875), merely strengthened the impression 
derived from Ali’s Proverbs, that this scholar had as wide an acquain- 
tance with Persian as with Arabic. Thus, directly or indirectly, it 
must be duc to these two short essays that Fleischer, as early as the 
fourth decade of this century, was freely acknowledged by all, except- 
ing perhaps the immediate followers of Hammer, as the chief of Ger- 
man orientalists. In fact, from that time on for a period of nearly half 
a century, he became the chosen guide of all Germans and many 
foreigners, desirous of thorough disciplining in Arabic-Mohammedan 
philology. The impression created by these two works was so strong, 
because they are an exemplification of the true philological method for 
which the Germans, after the death of Reiske, the vir incomparabilis, 
once more had to resort to the Frenchman De Sacy,—a method which 
is nothing less than the use of common sense, coupled on the one hand 
with faithful, untiring efforts to attain to the greatest possible complete- 
ness and to scrupulous accuracy in the collecting and sifting of the 
material handed down to us, and forbidding, on the other hand, all ar- 
bitrariness, however ingenious, as well as all superficiality, however 
grandiose. This definition by no means puts an interdict upon clever- 
ness on the part of the philologist thus gifted. It merely provides that 
cleverness must manifest itselfin mastering the details acquired, not in 
speciously hiding the imperfections of scientific research and then sat- 
isfying one’s conscience by a perfunctory though minute adherence to a 
traditional method. That Fleischer realized in himself this ideal of a 
philologist perhaps best marks his importance in the history of science ; 
his example as well as his precept have made it possible for all to gain a 
knowledge of the correct method to be used in our department of re- 
H. Mis. 224——33 


514 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


search. Many of the most prominent scholars of the present day have 
in other ways arrived at a knowledge of this method, or have been in- 
tuitively gifted with it, but its spread to extended circles we owe to 
Fleischer, and to him alone. 

His disinclination to treat philological subjects according to routine 
methods was shown by Fleischer in his edition of Beidhawi’s Coran com- 
mentary, which completed his fame, and which, in a way is to be con- 
sidered the most important work of his life. He, Gottfried Hermann’s 
disciple, who surely knew what elements constitute a “ methodical” 
edition of a work, published this voluminous and difficult text with- 
out any variant readings. I have elsewhere* shown what consider- 
ations, in my opinion, justly led him to adopt a system unusual 
even with himself. The character of a Coran commentary is, in every 
respect, technical. He who would understand and edit it must first 
have extensive and detailed acquaintance with the contents and techni- 
eal peculiarities of the theological, juridical, and grammatical ‘system 
of the Islam. But so enviable a scholar, aided by all available manu- 
scripts and super-commentaries, certainly has the ability in every case 
to select the correct reading; and superfluous readings serve but to 
confuse less learned readers. The responsibility incurred by an editor 
who takes it upon himself to omit customary technicalities is propor- 
tionately great. But whoever heard Fleiescher himself interpret his 
own Beidhawi a single time, was forever delivered from all uneasiness 
on the score of his power to meet such responsibility. This edition is 
naturally not purged of every human imperfection. Fieischer himself, 
in a lecture on one oceasion, expressed his vexation that after the 


0 
feminine 4, \is\, the expression \\ el instead of the correct 


wv 


word Y\ \ had escaped him. (Cf. Fel’s Indez, p. 67.) But such 


instances assuredly are not numerous. On another occasion he related 
that a copy of his book—(I no longer remember how and when)—had 
been submitted to the Sheikh-ul-Islam at Constantinople, and that the 
latter had considered it beneath his dignity to throw even a superficial 
glance at an ignorant infidel’s disfigurement of the classical work of 
Mohammedan theology. Finally however he had opened it and 
glanced at a few lines; then, amazed had eagerly continued to read, 
at last giving expression to his astonishment that, in the Occident, there 
could exist a man who apparently understood Beidhawi as well as an 
orthodox doctor. I quote these remarks of Fleischer, which I heard 
myself, since I should consider it presumption were I to praise his 
Beidhawi. He only has the privilege of doing this who is so well 
versed in Muslim theology, that he might on a proper occasion, criticise 
it. Whether there are—outside of the Orient—a half-dozen scholars 





* Gétting. gelehrte, Anzeigen, 1884, No. 24, p. 961, 


ee ee eee 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 515 


who may venture to make this assertion is doubtful; at all events, I do 
not reckon myself among them. 

Aside from a small edition of the Hermes trismegistus, written in 1870, 
ona special occasion, Beidhawi is the last work published by Fleischer 
without assistance. Even Beidhawi was not complete when it left the 
hands of the publisher. For years the Indices weighed heavily upon 
his conscientious mind, until finally in 1878, they were brought out by 
the helpful aid of Fell. With reference to this unusual delay, Fleischer 
said in the preface with which he introduces his pupil’s work: “ Qué 
me resque meas norunt, eos me ultro excusatum habere scio,” and his mean- 
ing was evident to all. During the period while he was busy with the 
Beidhawi text, the claims made upon him from all sides had inereased 
with his growing fame. These claims were put forth chiefly by three 
parties: his pupils, his co-laborers, and the community at large. His 
manner of satisfying them illustrates the most admirable traits in his 
character: extreme conscientiousness, faithful attention to the shghtest 
details, affability and absolute unselfishness. 

His conscientiousness and faithfulness were pre-eminently evinced in 
his academic labors, as I can testify from personal experience in the 
years 1867 and 1868. He knew Beidhawi thoroughly ; daily, at any 
chance occasion, he excited admiration by his clear explanation of the 
doctrines of Mohammedan scholasticism, or by his equally correct way 
of tracing the history of a word and its development in meaning from 
the Arabic through the Persian to the Turkish,—all this without refer- 
ring, except in rare instances, to his inter-leaved copy of Freytag, 
famous on account of its marginal notes, literally covering the text as 
well as the inter-leaves. Yet he never lectured on Beidhawi without 
- preparation. His students, coming to attend a lecture at his study 
early in the morning, frequently found him standing by a high desk, 
the text and a copy of Sheikh Zade’s super-commentary lying before 
him. In his “Arabic Association,” difficult passages in various texts 
were discussed, opportunity was given to gain practice in the reading 
of manuscripts, ete. But outside of this, he gave instruction, at the 
period spoken of, only in the writings of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish 
authors. The texts selected for reading varied, frequently according 
to the wishes of the students. But the two lectures a week on Beid- 
hawi were inviolable. In these, he himself translated and explained, 
frequently cross-questioning his hearers, in order to assure himself that 
they had grasped his meaning and were making good progress. In 
the remaining four to six hours a week, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish 
texts were given to the students to translate, their transiations being 
corrected and elucidated by the professor on the spot. In conducting 
this exercise his talk wandered from topic to topic, so that in looking 
back it appears that not the reading of the texts was of prime impor- 
tance, but rather the wealth of information, relating to the subject- 
matter, chiefly however of a linguistic nature, which he fairly showered 


516 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


from out of the plenitude of his learning upon the eagerly listening 
and busily writing members of his class. Aside from the numerous 
additions to one’s knowledge, his apparently irregular and digressive 
method of instruction possessed the advantage of at once ushering the 
student into the Mohammedan world of language and ideas, giving him a 
vivid conception of the wealth and pliability of the Arabic idiom, and 
most emphatically reminding him at every turn of the necessity of being 
accurate in the slightest detai]. Naturally it was at the same time 
necessary to pursue private study systematically and unremittingly, 
and it was pre-supposed as a matter of course. He who could and 
would work, had to acquire rapidly a knowledge of the languages, and 
yield with docility to a training in habits of accuracy ; the essentials 
of Arabic, indeed of all philology. The undeniable but doubtless in- 
tentional one-sidedness of this method is justified by the necessity of 
helping the pupils to ground themselves thoroughly in these funda- 
mertals. If I have been correctly informed, Fleischer in earlier years 
delivered regular courses of lectures, as for instance on the doctrinal 
theology of the Islam. From this it can be inferred that his later 
method meant to lay increased stress upon the important and essential 
points which he had always emphasized. We were charged to acquire 
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, and to rid ourselves radically of any 
tendency to superficiality. Having done that, we were prepared as 
far as our ability went to do independent and philologically accurate 
work in whatever special field any one of us might choose. However, 
even from this point of view, there is one more desideratum, appa- 
rently unprovided for in this method, namely, a knowledge of the tech- 
nical working principles of philology, in any event a highly desirable 
equipment of the future philologist. But every one had the opportu- 
nity of acquiring them while preparing his thesis. For Fleischer’s ac- 
tivity as a teacher was by no means at an end when he had appeared 
in the lecture room eight or ten times a week. His library, his knowl- 
edge, his talents were at the disposal of his pupils, and if any one of them 
in his first attempt at editing a text was perplexed by some difficult pas- 
sage in the manuscript, he needed but to apply to his ever-obliging 
teacher to have the difficulty cleared away. Either he might content 
himself with carrying away the ready explanation or emendation, or if 
he attended intelligently, he might, in addition, derive the restricted 
number of principles and tricks of method, which, in fact, can be 
summed up in the direction to scrutinize carefully the manuscript to be 
explained and in the observance of the two main injunctions in Lehrs’s 
philological decalogue: ‘‘Thou shalt not prostrate thyself before manu- 
scripts,” and “ Thou shalt not take the name method in vain.” Finally, 
when the time came for the young scholar to leave Leipzig, perhaps 
soon after receiving his degree, the bond that linked him to Fleischer 
was by no means severed. Whenever and in whatever way he wished 
he could apply to Fleischer for a solution of problems and difficulties, 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER, 517 


In his kindness of heart he was indefatigable in replying and explain- 
ing, often himself correcting proof-sheet upon proof-sheet. Each of us 
was sure to find in him as long as we lived a firm scientific support. 
I do not care to mar this remembrance of a teacher’s touching unselfish- 
ness and faithfulness by questioning whether these characteristics were 
always appealed to with the reserve rendered doubly necessary by so 
ample a benevolence. He himself never gave this question a thought. 
He existed for his pupils as long as he supposed them at all interested 
in science. Therefore no one called him anything but “the Sheikh ;” 
unless led by the exuberant spirits of youth, we translated the Arabic 
expression by *‘ the old man ” (which after all was indicative of our un- 
bounded respect for him), for this Arabic title of honor conveys an idea 
of the parental relation existing between the teacher and the pupil, 
which is assumed as a matter of course in the Mohammedan Kast. 
But he was not our “Sheikh” alone. Long before I was permitted to 
become one of his disciples, he had been acknowledged the ‘ sheikh- 
ush shuytkh,” the master of masters. Toa certain extent it was natural 
that he should have come to occupy this rank. His pupils had de- 
veloped into co-investigators, and they could not well entertain the idea 
of supplanting him. But great as was their number, there was still no 
lack of men, who, having been disciples of Ewald, Rédiger, Freytag, 
and others, might preserve their independence. In a still higher degree 
this was true of partial contemporaries, such as Dorn and Rédiger. No 
one will deny that this state of affairs was salutary for our science. 
Under all circumstances it is baneful for one school, no matter how ex- 
cellent its principles or its representatives may be, to exercise autocratic 
sway in a given domain. In some respects it must be one-sided, and 
one-sidedness is fatal to science. Now, from what has been said of 
Fleischer as a teacher, it follows that nothing was further removed from 
his mind than to force his pupils into a narrow-minded course. If 
nevertheless any one is disposed to harbor this opinion, let him but 
read Fleischer’s preface to Behrnauer’s translation of the Forty Viziers 
to learn differently. But as was natural, his disciples at first had_to 
abandon themselves to his guidance. The necessity was constantly 
arising to refer them to the Arabic grammar, when once they began to 
do independent work in the preparation of texts, always of a grammati- 
cal nature, since such are easiest for a well-trained Arabist. Thus it 
had to come about that for a time Arabie grammar seemed to thrive 
almost too luxuriantly in these circles. Since then it has become ap- 
parent that the danger was not very great. It must be conceded how- 
ever that its complete avoidance was greatly due to the efforts of those 
scholars who remained independent of Fleischer; tbat is to say, inde- 
pendent of his instruction, not of his influence. It could not be gain- 
said; he was the most learned of the learned, the most accurate of the 
accurate. It is therefore not remarkable that the recognition of his 
scientific superiority, readily yielded by all prominent scholars, with 


518 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


one or two exceptions, gradually led to the establishinent of personal 
relations, in which he always gave more than he received. His eo-la- 
borers in Germany, as well as in more than one foreign land, by degrees 
grew accustomed to ask his advice, claim his help, which he granted 
to strangers as freely as to his own pupils. Thus it happened that for 
many a year no Arabic text of any importance was printed in Germany 
without owing to him considerable improvements, and likewise more 
than one valuable work by foreign Arabists has received similar aid. 
Sometimes he revised the proof-sheets as they were printed ; sometimes, 
after the appearance of single volumes, he arranged the notes, taken 
during its careful perusal, so that they might profitably be used in ap- 
pendices, possibly to be added. There is quite a library of Arabic writ- 
ings, in the building up of which he has thus participated. Here are 
some of the important works, selected at hap-hazard: Amari’s Bibliotheca 
Arabo-Sicula, Juynboll’s Abulmahasin, the Makkari, Tornberg’s Ibn el- 
Athir, Wustenfeld’s Jacit, Fliigel’s Fihrist, Wright’s Kamil, de Goeje’s 
Bibliotheca Geographorum, Jabhn’s Ibn Ya@ish. This critical work was 
naturally accompanied by an extensive correspondence, which took the 
more time as it was conducted with an almost exaggerated conscientious- 
ness. But in no other way could these numberless connections have 
been maintained so regularly and so steadfastly. 

As Oriental studies advanced in Germany the necessity of establish- 
ing closer connections between the representatives of the different de- 
partments was keenly felt early in the third decade of this century. 
To effect a union of this kind Ewald, Kosegarten, Rodiger, Riickert, 
and some others established, in 1837, the Journal for the Science of the 
Orient (Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes). From 1838, the 
philologists’ conventions offered place ana opportunity for personal 
intercourse between men in all departments of Oriental research. Thus 
Rédiger was but giving shape to an idea that had long been enter- 
tained when he proposed on the occasion of a visit, in September, 1843, 
at Fleischer’s house, where Pott, Olshausen, von der Gabelentz, and 
Brockhaus were also present, that German orientalists, as a body, should 
hold sessions annually in connection with the conventions of philolo- 
gists. As is well known, this plan was executed in 1844, at the Dresden 
meeting. The consultations held there resulted in the formation, at 
next year’s meeting, on October 2, 1845, at Darmstadt, of a German 
Oriental Society, modelled after the Société Asiatique and the Royal 
Asiatic Society. The Journal of the new society absorbed, in 1847, the 
Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes. From the first, Fleischer 
displayed zealous interest in the plan. The Dresden council was held 
under his presidency, and the first draught ofthe constitution issued irom 
his pen. His certificate of membership was the first conferred, and, up 
to the time of his resignation from the governing body, in 1880, it may 
be said, without disparagement to many faithful and deserving men, 
that he was the soul of the association, unseltishly, as always, devoting 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 519 


his best powers to the common good. His help was given wherever it 
was needed ; he served as editor of the Journal, and again as chroni- 
cler of the year’s work; he was called upon to pass judgment on 
works that were to be published under the auspices of the society, and 
to correct them; and sometimes he had to act as mediator between 
opposing parties that had sprung up within the society. The society 
thus became dear to his heart, as does a child that has been raised with 
care and trouble to man’s estate. Nothing (unless it were a falsehood) 
vexed him so much as an injury done the society, or failure to fulfill 
punctually the duties imposed by membership. While occupying the 
position in the governing board of executive in matters relating to the 
library, he took upon himself the unpleasant task of making a quar- 
terly list of all books and pamphlets that had been sent to him, and in- 
closing it in the chest of books forwarded to the librarian at Halle. 
Later, when direct communications between the library and the corre- 
spondents of the society were established, this work was no longer neces- 
sary. Up to that time, while I was librarian of the society, many a list 
of that kind passed from his hand into mine. I do not remember ever 
to have found an error in a single one; but I know that I often wished 
that he would not waste precious time on unimportant work, for which 
he might have found dozens of willing hands near him. But he would 
have eyed with suspicion the man who would suggest that he should 
transfer to others what he considered his own duty. Undoubtedly he 
was right, for the society would never have turned out to be such as it 
is if he had not had so conscientious a conception of duty. He was re- 
paid by the pleasure of seeing it grow and thrive; soon it could fitly 
range itself by the side of older associations abroad; and among the 
learned bodies of Germany it occupied a respected position. On one oe- 
casion, to be sure, this position caused him much unpleasantness, namely 
when the directors had to advise the Prussian Government as to the 
purchase of the Moabite antiquities, which subsequently proved spuri- 
ous. This is not the place and nowhere is it concern of mine to raise 
anew the dust under which this unfortunate affair has finally been 
buried. The proper conception of the province of a business committee 
is expressed in a resolution, afterwards adopted by the general con- 
vention of the German Oriental Society: ‘“ In consequence of the position 
assigned by the constitution to the board of directors of the society, any 
opinion published by them on scientific and more particularly on dis- 
puted points, cannot be construed to express the opinion of the society.” * 
Fleischer may have permitted a fatal mistake to be made, but he after- 
wards generously assumed more of the responsibility than was neces- 
sary. 

Surely no one who once more passes in review his extensive and 
varied work, even in the incomplete survey that I have just made, can 
find reason to doubt the truth of what Fleischer further says in the 


* Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, vol. XXXI, p. XV. 


520 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER 


above. quoted passage from his preface to Fell’s Indices: ‘‘Ceteris adsevero 
otium mihi et vires defuisse, non voluntatem et studium.” Certainly then 
it was not possible for him to find leisure for the preparation and exe- 
cution of comprehensive works embodying the results of independent 
research. The translation of the Coran, the work of many years, was 
left uncompleted. However, not all his powers were absorbed by his 
efforts in behalf of his pupils, his colleagues, and the learned world in 
general. He devoted every leisure moment to his appointed task of 
maintaining Arabic-Mohammedan philology upon the eminence to which 
De Sacy had raised it, and if possible of elevating it still higher. He 
diligently continued up to the last moment the critical work that had 
opened new paths to science upon his first appearance. For along time 
he wrote reviews of new books in the Hallische Litteraturzeitung, in 
Gersdorf’s Repertorium and in other journals, but afterwards exclusively 
in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft. For the 
readers of the Beitrdge, special mention may be made of his detailed 
notices of the re-modelled edition of Riickert’s Poetics and Rhetoric of 
the Persians, and of Bacher’s edition of Sa’di’s short poems, both repub- 
lished in the third volume of his Minor Works. Besides, he contrib- 
uted extensively to the improvement of the various editions of Arabic 
texts, especially of Makkari and Abulmahasin, and wrote a number of 
short articles on chance topics connected with Arabic, Persian, and 
Turkish literature, history, and archeology, as they were suggested to 
him by hints in his correspondence, in his official work for the German 
Oriental Society, ete. Two great series, by far the most important in 
amass of highly instructive material, must be noted: the celebrated 
contributions (Beitrage) to De Sacy’s Grammaire Arabe, and those to 
Dozy’s Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes. 

“Grammatici Arabes utilissimi nobis (sunt enim thesauri formarum totius 
que antiquitatis promi condi)” was the opinion of Ewald.* It is perhaps 
De Sacy’s greatest distinction that he put Arabic philology upon this 
basis, and no less deserving of praise is Fleischer for having continued 
and supplemented this work in a spirit of modesty and life-long devotion 
to his beloved teacher, aided by the superior knowledge which he bad 
learned how to acquire in the school of De Sacy. Those endowed with 
unusual talent, and furnished besides with a peculiar gift for the Arabic 
language, may succeed in understanding Arabic, and in avoiding all the 
hidden snares in the characters the vocabulary and the syntax, laid for 
the guileless reader by this most treacherous of all languages with 
which Iam acquainted. But the average scholar is lost, that is to say 
sinks back upon a lamentably low stage of philological development, 
unless he masters thoroughly his De Sacy with Fleischer’s additions. 
That diligent and willing students are no longer exposed to this danger 
of retrograding we owe to “the old man.” And the place filled in its 
time by the worn, interleaved Freytag, or that filled in the domain of 








* Gramm. crit. ling. Ar.,1, p. iv. 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 521 


grammar by De Sacy with the “ Beitrdge,” is occupied, on the field of 
lexicography, by Dozy’s Supplément, enriched by Fleischer’s corrections 
and additions. His ‘ Minor Works,” covering, together with the others 
mentioned, 2225 pages, are a legacy, the conscientious use of which will, 
for a long time, continue to be the prime duty of every scientific Ara- 
bist. 

We should use it however not only conscientiously, but also with 
the most grateful remembrance. We should always bear in mind that 
Fleischer, in order to become for his pupils and co-laborers what he was 
to them, refrained from working for bimself except by working for 
others, and this at a time when his powers were at their height and his 
comprehensive learning in its ripest state. 

Possibly many a one has shared the feeling of a prominent and 
clever co-laborer of mine, who said to me some years ago that it vexed 
him to think that Fleischer, with his magnificent learning and ability, 
was deserting from the solution of the highest problems. I can not 
agree with my nameless friend. Diverse gifts—one mind. Some, vent- 
uring fearlessly abroad, are permitted to discover new domains; others 
secure law and order at home. Not the one by itself, nor the other is 
the desideratum. The one canuot stand without the other. When 
Fleischer came upon the stage we stood in need of law and order, 
which he secured. Now, let the venturesome go forth upon voyages ot 
discovery ; the less talented will still do well to remain at home and 
watch lest law and order be undermined. Certainly it would have 
been a great achievement if, for instance, our sheikh had built up the 
edifice of Islamic doctrines for us. But has he not done better in sharp- 
ening tools for many generations of workers, so that now they may 
themselves build, not so quickly and not so high, but on a broad base 
and with many wings ? . 

‘“‘Let me say briefly that from my early youth I have dimly felt the 
desire and hope to cultivate myself, my whole self, such as itis,” writes 
Wilhelm Meister to his wise friend Werner. Man’s duty with regard 
to his own gifts has never been expressed more pertinently. Fleischer’s 
was a sagacious, acute, and sensible mind. He in nowise sympathized 
with what is mystic and ambiguous. A critic by nature, he exercised 
his critical faculties not only upon others, but also and chietly upon 
himself. Besides, he was faithful to duty, alover of truth, benevolent, 
humbly self-sacrificing, and single-minded. Not one of these natural 
traits did he fail to cultivate conscientiously, nor did he ever attempt 
to lay false claims to virtues which he did not possess. A man of this 
kind could not fail to see that only by means of self-restraint can one 
succeed in perfectly cultivating one’s own nature. In no respect,— 
neither in his views, nor in his studies,—was he one-sided; but he knew 
accurately wherein his strength lay, and was too sensible to sin against 
the proverb: “ Qui trop embrasse, mal étreint.” “ Il ne faut pas courir 
deux lievres & la fois,” he once wrote to me,—(he often delighted in using 


522 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


the French language, which he had mastered perfectly), and according 
to this principle he consistently arranged his scientific career. In his 
preface to the Golden Necklaces he says clearly and decidedly: * In Ara- 
bie research neither good will, nor diligence, nor penetration of mind, 
nor ingenuity, nor outside philological attainments, nor anything in the 
world, can relieve one from the necessity of modestly, faithfully, and dili- 
gently studying with the Arabic philologists;—and here in Europe, 
above all with our master De Sacy; however, I do not mean to imply 
that Ewald and his compeers will not in time succeed in summarizing the 
superabundant material of Arabic philology in a more fitting and con- 
venient form, as well as in explaining many facts in a more scientific 
way.” The justification for Ewald’s philological methods does not es- 
cape his notice, as Ewald in turn admits that the Arabian grammarians 
are the promi condi totius antiquitatis. But Fleischer avowedly limits 
himself to the purely philological side of the task, for il ne faut pas courir 
deux liévres d la fois. Only once did he deviate from this rule, and then 
it was done in order to venture upon a neighboring domain that could 
not well be avoided, that of general Semitic etymology: He that wishes 
to cast a stone at him on this account may do so after consulting St. John 
viii, 7. To this wise self-restraint, among other things, he owes his pre- 
eminence upon that field of philological research which was chosen by 
him, or which (if you will) naturally fell to his share. At all events it is 
hard to believe that any other field would have given the same scope to 
his natural abilities. The undeviating conformity to law that character- 
izes the structure of the Arabic language and its perspicuity naturally 
appeal to him, as on the other hand its boundless wealth and apparent 
complexity of linguistic phenomena offered welcome problems for his 
ingenuity to solve. He was thus, by right of birth, the expounder of 
the Arabic poets and writers, whose peculiarities are analogous to those 
of their language. This partial affinity (for in other respects, he was a 
true German with very un-Arabian feelings), together with his linguistie 
attainments and large information, permitted him to reach the incom- 
parable skill and certainty in the criticism of Arabic texts which for 
the time at least did more than anything else to shed luster upon his 
name. Theoretically indeed there is no difference between the proper 
philological treatment of a Greek or Latin and an Arabic or Persian 
text. But many external circumstances connected with Mohammedan 
literature, such as the relatively short period intervening between the 
original writer and the manuscripts to be studied, the peculiarities of 
Arabic characters, ete., cause less stress to be put in our specialty upon 
the recensio, if I may be permitted to use technical terms. In some cases 
the recensio is the most essential part of the work; in most however it 
is very unimportant. With us it is the emendatio that taxes the critical 
faculties to the utmost. Similarly, ours differs from classical philology, 
inasmuch as conjectures with us are usually either entirely correct or 
altogether incorrect rarely—probabilis. Henceit may be said that, aside 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. — 523 


from mere copyists’ blunders, it is easier to make conjectures in class- 
ical philology, but, on the other hand ceteris paribus it is easier for us 
to make correct conjectures or emendations. Tor both reasons we are not 
justified in resting satisfied with the mere recensio, as our Greco-Roman 
philologians may sometimes do. It follows that a man like Fleischer 
may not be disposed of by praising him as the lucky possessor of a talent 
for conjecturing, and then casting him into the great lumber-room, where 
the superannuated philologists’ apparatus is stored. ‘True, he is the 
author of thousands of conjectural corrections, but at least two-thirds 
of his conjectures, if this measure of worth be applicable, are emenda- 
tions. Whoever admits this, will thereby agree with me in saying that 
self forgetful work limited by wise self-restraint, and undertaken with a 
definite aim in view, is as a matter of course and almost in opposition 
to the wishes of its author, rewarded with the prize. 

It is time to conclude. Fleischer’s prominent position in the history 
of our science is due to these circumstances; by precept and example he 
made a home in Germany for the scientific study of Arabic Moham- 
medan philology ; he trained generations of scholars with this purpose 
in view; he similarly influenced his co-laborers in Germany and abroad; 
he doubled the sum total of ali the results reached by De Sacy in the spe- 
cial field of Arabic language and literature, and by his help the work 
of his contemporaries was raised to the eminence occupied by his own. 
There was no lack of prominent scholars in his own department, nor of 
such as took up and supplemented his work outside of the limits he 
himself had drawn. Still he and no other can be called the true heir 
and successor of De Sacy. In knowledge and ability he excelled his 
great teacher. But he himself would have administered a sharp reproot 
to him who might venture to rank him above his master, in scientific 


Ge 5 ; en —_ ay 
matters : ‘“ Honor be to him who leads the way. ps ath) 3\ 


The unstinted recognition yielded to the great scholar on all sides 
was commensurate with his deserts. The most prominent Orientalists of 
Germany and others of foreign countries readily acknowledged that his 
was unequalled knowledge and ability ; one learned society after another 
conferred upon him honorary membership, and to several Saxon orders 
and the Turkish Medjidié were added the two highest scientific distine- 
tions in the giving of Germany,—the Bavarian order of Maximilian and 
the Prussian pour le mérite. For a long time it seemed as though age 
itself could not impair the octogenarian’s vigor nor destroy his love of 
work. However, in the spring of 1884, there appeared the first symp- 
toms of an abdominal disorder, which gradually grew. But whoever 
saw him when he was not troubled with pain, scarcely noticed any change 
in his appearance,—none whatever in his manner. On October 19, 1885, 
I enjoyed the privilege of participating with many others in the celebra- 
tion of the fiftieth anniversary of his official connection with the univer- 
sity, and on October 4, 1886, when I again visited him during his stay at 


524 MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 


Neu-Schonefeld, the entry in my diary reads: ‘Fleischer as bright as 
ever.” But in 1886. he was compelled to avail himself of the permission 
granted him, on the occasion of his jubilee celebration, to omit the lec- 
tures of the summer session, and the physician’s orders were constantly 
limiting the amount of work he did. When again IJ visited him at Leip- 
zig in October 7, 1887, I felt that I should have to bid him an eternal 
farewell. In spite of his increasing debility he began a course of lect- 
ures for the winter session, and continued them until November 17. 
But on November 18 he took to his bed, never again to leave it. He 
bore the pain entailed by his disease with admirable patience; no com- 
plaint ever crossed his lips, until on February 10, 1888, a short while 
before completing his eighty-seventh year, death released him from his 
suffering. 

The prominent features of Fleischer’s character were truthfulness, 
conscientiousness, unselfishness, and punctuality. I was never able to 
decide how much he owed to nature, how much to the strict self-disci- 
plineexercised in early years. But whatever he had acquired by habit 
had come to be a part of his being. He became indignant nay wrath- 
ful, the kindliness that marked his features and sprung from good 
nature in the best meaning of the word, seemed to leave him,—when he 
met with falsehood, carelessness, or lack of punctuality. As long as 
there were no evidences of want of truth on the part of others, he was 
unsuspicious, sometimes too much so; but whoever shocked his deli- 
cate sense of justice, had good cause to fear his anger. Yet there was 
not a trace of dogmatism in his nature. He may in some instances 
have chanced to form an incorrect judgment of certain people, but 
he took the first opportunity to change it most willingly in their 
favor, unless weighty reasons existed for the contrary. All that he © 
thought and did was characterized by objectivity, pure and simple. In 
scientific debates he demanded that his conclusions be tested impar- 
tially, and on the other hand he accepted instruction from the young- 
est of his pupils, if he had chanced to find something that had es- 
caped the notice of ‘‘the sheikh.” His polemics were never of a per- 
sonal nature except when Ewald accused him, in a manner that even 
now impairs the reputation of this great man of *“ being actuated by 
sordid impulses in science.” In a published ‘*‘ statement addressed to 
Prof. Dr. Ewald of Gottingen,” he expresses in plain, though moderate 
terms, his just indignation. His misunderstanding with Dozy, whom 
Fleischer had unintentionally offended, was cleared up in a way that 
reflects credit upon both scholars. He was conscious of his abilities 
and bis achievements, but never boasted of them. Toall work done by 
others, in his or their department, he gladly yielded recognition. Un- 
hesitatingly he subordinated himself in every respect to De Sacy, and 
to Lane’s knowledge of the Arabic, as (in his opinion) superior to his 
own. He was never ambitious of empty honors, he never sought to 
assert himself. 


MEMOIR OF FLEISCHER. 525 


What was called Fleischer’s school, can scarcely be said any longer 
to exist as such. Arabic studies, the preponderance of which formed 
the most distinguishing mark of its unity, have been curtailed in Ger- 
many. A cruel fate has prematurely removed the very best philologists 
ot Fleischer’s school: Ralfs, Loth, Spitta, and, furthermore Kosut and 
Huber. Someof us have strack out on new paths; general interest has 
been diverted to Assyriological research and to comparative philology. 
The leadership in the Arabic domain is about to pass over to the Dutch 
school. Butit matters not what we do, if only we emulate the example 
of *‘our sheikh,” and do disinterested, honest, diligent, conscientious, 
and modest work, in whatever is within the reach of our limited ability: 





A MEMOIR OF GUSTAV ROBERT KIRCHHOFF.* 


By ROBERT VON HELMHOLTZ. 


Translated by JOSEPH DE PEROTT. 





On the 20th day of Gctober of the past year (1887) we bade our last fare- 
wells to Gustav R. Kirehhoff in St. Matthew’s Cemetery at Berlin. Nat- 
ural science has lost one of its mightiest promoters, Germany is bereft 
of one of her keenest thinkers, the youtl-lament their honored, brilliant 
master, and his friends mourn over a man who belonged to the best, in 
the true meaning of this word. While Kirchhoff’s works made his name 
immortal, so that wherever physics is taught he will be mentioned, such 
were his modesty and simplicity that his own person was hidden behind 
the object to which he devoted his life, and if we except his colleagues 
and those who had the fortune to be near him, there were very few 
who knew more than that Kirchhoff was the illustrious discoverer of 
spectrum analysis. Let one of his students be permitted to attempt to 
do what he would never have undertaken himself and what even would 
have been painful to him while he lived,—to draw a picture of his work 
not in its pure, abstract form, destitute of all earthly vesture, as he pro- 
duced it, but rather in connection with his personal life, and as a fruit 
of his personal genius. 

Gustav R. Kirchhoff wasa professor of mathematical physics. Imention 
this first, not because it is the main fact which would stand first in a 
biographical dictionary, but because mathematical physics is a science 
of which only he who was born to it can become an adept.. There are 
vocations in life, there are branches of science that do not allow us to 
infer what spirit animates their adepts. In certain regions of abstract 
science however, whoever wants to penetrate into them, must have fac- 
ulties and dispositions of definite nature and bias, otherwise he will not 
even cross the threshold that leads to them. 

Pure mathematics is such ascience. Every-day experience teaches us 
that only a small proportion of students are endowed with a genius for 
it. Itis more difficult to say on what powers of the human mind such 
a genius rests. Mathematics is logic applied to numbers and extensive 
magnitudes. It requires accordingly a great power of abstraction and - 
the faculty of intuitive perception of relations of magnitudes. At any 


*From the Deutsche Rundschau, February, 1888: vol. XIv, pp. 232-245. 
; 527 


528 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


rate, just because the technics of pure logical thinking have to be de- 
veloped to a great extent, the perceptive faculty of a mathematician, 
his judgment and his representation of things are of a peculiar kind. 

The natural philosopher requires however another faculty still, I 
mean the faculty of observation. Every one whose work rests on ob- 
servation is a student of nature in the widest meaning of this word; 
the physician, the traveller, the collector. To observe is to notice, and 
to collect what you have noticed. In proportion however as the col- 
lecting of things is done according to higher and higher standards, ob- 
servation comes nearer to thinking, collecting approaches interpreta- 
tion, and natural history verges into exact study of nature. The 
adepts of natural science work not only through the senses by means 
of observation, but also by means of the logical faculty of drawing in- 
ference. They differ from mathematicians chiefly in the material for 
their thinking being given in the external world and that they must 
have the talent to find it there, while the foundations of mathematics 
seem to be given a priort. Mathematics is the most convenient instru- 
ment in the exact science of nature because it is the tongue in which 
the latter can expressits conclusions in the quickest and most precise way. 
That is why the exact study of nature becomes more and more mathe- 
matical; physics, after astronomy, has made the most progress in this 
direction; chemistry is about to follow it. Speaking generally, the 
greatest physicist nowadays will be he who is endowed equally with the 
gifts of observation and with logical precision of thinking, and has mas- 
tered experiment as well as mathematics. According to the pre-emi- 
nence of the one or the other faculty the place of each investigator 
will be nearer to the observers of nature or to the thinkers about nat- 
ure. Both kinds are necessary, the latteris more seldom met with, 
there are more good observers than good thinkers. Gustav R. Kirchhoff 
belongs rather, according to his nature, to the great thinkers, and still 
his greatest and most celebrated discovery is a discovery of observa- 
tion. He was one of the greatest natural philosophers just because he 
was a mathematical physicist in the above-mentioned sense. 

The life of Kirchhoff was that of a thinker, too. He did not travel 
all over the world to see nature in the splendid attire of her multifari- 
ous productions, like Humboldt or Darwin; he did not work his way to 
theory through aschool of purely practical life, like Faraday or Siemens. 
No more did he pass his life in the whirlpool of historical or social 
events. He accomplished his work quietly in the externally serene, 
but internally the more active, abodes of science,—in the lecture-rooms 
and laboratories of several German universities. Whoever wants to 
know him must follow him thither into spheres of thought that lie afar 
off from the interests of the day. 

Gustav R. Kirchhoff, son of the lawyer, was born (1824), brought up, 
and educated at Konigsberg, the *‘ City of Pure Reason.” According to 
a certificate from the Kneiphof High-school, he wished to devote him- 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. Had 


self to mathematics, aud in fact he commenced the study of it under 
Richelot,and the elder Neumann. The latter, at first a mineralogist, and 
afterwards gradually becoming one of the great founders of the mathe- 
matical physics of our time, had a decisive influence on Kirchhoff. 
The student took to physics too, and helped to build up his master’s 
structure. While still a student, Kirchhoff wrote, in 1845, an excellent 
original paper (On the flow of electricity through a circular plate), and 
was granted a scholarship for a scientific journey to Paris. The dis- 
turbances of the year 1848, prevented him from going any farther than 
Berlin, however. He stopped there and qualified for a professorship in 
mathematical physics. Strange to say, the first course of lectures of a 
professor who afterwards attracted hundreds did not take place. 
Mathematical physics appeared at the time a very remote and abstract 
subject. In the year 1850, Kirchhoff went to Breslau in the quality of 
an adjunct professor, and in 1854, as a fuli professor to Heidelberg, so 
that he went through the usual career of a German professor. 

The bloom of his life was the twenty years he lived and taught at 
Heidelberg. These years fell into the most brilliant period of the most 
beautiful of German universities, and Kirchbotf himself contributed 
much to the increase and preservatiou of Heidelberg’s fame. 

Indeed, when Kirchhoff came to Heidelberg, the University of that 
town held an undisputed rank as the foremost of the German universi- 
ties, through the renown of its teachers in law and history. A. v. Van. 
gerow exercised an incomparable attraction through his celebrated 
lectures on the Pandects; at his side worked men like Wittermaier, 
Renaud, Mohl; the historians Schlossen, Weber, Gervinus, Hausser 
have a world-wide renown. They raised the level not only of scientific 
—but even of social life to such a high standard that all who partook of 
it preserve forever the recollection of those days. A circle arose around 
Hausser in particular, which took its first beginning from political 
grounds, but became afterwards the seat ofan enchanting and cheerful 
conviviality. Among the scientists, Kirchhoff’s predecessor Jolly, the 
anatomist Henle, the clinical physician Pfeuffer, all belonged to this 
circle; and Bunsen, who was already famous when he came in 1852 to 
Heidelberg, was one of its foremost members. 

Robert Bunsen, whose friendship with Kirchhoff became as eventful 
in the annals of German science as that of Gauss and Weber, made his 
acquaintance at Breslau. It wasthrough Bunsen’s influence that Kirch- 
hoff received a call to Heidelberg. 

The large public knew nothing of Kirchhoff at the time his Berlin 
and Breslau papers could only be appreciated by his fellow-physicists. 
There was a great surprise at Heidelberg accordingly, when-—heartily 
recommended by Bunsen—there came an unusually young, gentle, shy 
and modest North German. His fine, spirited talk, his amiable manners 
full of courtesy to every one, and his keen sense of wit and humor won 
the hearts of those who came nearer to him. Kirchhoff became accord- 

H. Mis. 224 b4 





530 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


ingly a favorite guest at the eheerful meetings of this circle at Hausser’s 
friends. Butit was with Bunsen particularly that Kirchhoff came into 
a close connection in the first years of his sojourn at Heidelberg. Bun- 
sen was his elder by thirteen years; strong, broad shouldered, of a more 
vivacious temper and of a more immediate influence, Bunsen struck 
with awe one and all by the pienitude of his powers. Thus the two 
men were in exterior very different from each other. I[t is a faet how- 
ever that Bunsen and Kirchhoff not only accomplished together their 
great works, but even spent together their bachelor days as true friends. 
They took trips together to the magnificient environs of Heidelberg, 
they travelled together during the summer holidays, and even could 
often be seen together of an evening at the small Heidelberg theater, 
an amusement in which Kirchhoff particularly took a great delight 
from the days of his youth. 

They did not part company, as is usually the case, even when Kirch- 
hoff, towards the end of the sixth decade of our century, married the 
young and charming daughter of his Kénigsberg Professor Richelot. 
It was in fact during the years 1859-62 that the two investigators, start 
ing from a research of Bunsen, made and accomplished together the 
great discovery of spectrum analysis. 

Towards the beginning of the seventh decade Kirchhoff moved, at the 
same time with my father, to the newly erected Frederick Hall, the first 
great institution in Germany devoted wholly to the furtherance of re- 
sources in natural science. It was an external manifestation of the fact 
that the center of gravity of the Heidelberg University gradually 
shifted from law and history to natural science and medicine. The 
philosopher Zeller, the mathematician Hesse, afterwards Konigsberger, 
the chemist Kopp, the clinician Friedreich, my father as physiologist, 
all received calls to the institution. The Frederick Hall, became a kind 
of branch university. In this building I spent the days of my child- 
hood; Kirehhoff’s apartments, as well as the apartments of my parents 
under them, and the whole Frederick Hall, coalesce into one image in 
my memory. Large lecture-rooms and museums, with enigmatical 
— ological names, stuffed animals, chemical and anatomical smells, 
acoustie sounds, then crowds of students (Russian lady students among 
them) overflooding at regular intervals the passages and the yards, to 
the great annoyanee of children, while going to hear lectures by their 
(the annoyed children’s) fathers,—these are the impressions that time 
has left me. 

Kirchhoff spent there happy years. His name was already famous 
through his discovery of spectrum analysis, so that his laboratory and 
his lectures became the most frequented ones. With his wife, his four 
children, and his nearest friends, he led a happy life made cheerful 
through convivial intercourse. 

Unfortunately these in every respect pleasant circumstances came to 
anend already towards the close of the seventh decade. In consequence 


—— 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 531 


of a fall on the staircase, he suffered from a sore foot, which compelled 
him for a long time to move only on a rolling-chair or by means of 
crutches. It was only at Berlin that he acquired again, after many re- 
lapses, his power of locomotion, but even after that he enjoyed his com- 
plete health only occasionally. He lost his wife about the same time, 
so that his family lite broke asunder. Some of his friends (Hiausser, 
Vangerow) died; others, like Feller and my father, received calls to 
Berlin. But accidents to his person could endanger his life, not his 
work. He continued to perform his task as a teacher and an investiga- 
tor under the most difficult circumstances and after most severe trials, 
with a stoical faithfulness to duty and with iron consistency. His own 
person and his science should have nothing to do with one another. 

Afterwards Kirchhoff married, as a second wife, Louise Brémmel, at 
the time matron of the university clinical hospital for the diseases of 
the eye. His inexhaustibly cheerful and amiable temper made this 
second marriagea happy one too, notwithstanding his frequent ill health. 

In the year 1875, Kirchhoff received and accepted a call to the Uni- 
versity of Berlin, after having refused previously an invitation to be- 
come a director of the projected solar observatory at Potsdam. 

Whether a life at Berlin is to be considered as an advantage for a 
scientist may be doubted. The teacher acquires a larger, richer field for 
his activity, but just so much more is there loss of time for the investiga- 
tor. Kirchhoff, however, owing to his infirm health, suffered but little 
from the turmoil of the capital. He did his work as usual; he published, 
as he used to, a paper or so every year in the reports of the academy; he 
did experimental work too in the laboratory of his friend, G. Hanse- 
mann. He it was who, after continuous separation from Bunsen, stood 
nearest to him as a co-worker and friend. 

But the most favorite and admirable work of Kirchhoff at Berlin (in 
fact unique in its effect) was his course of lectures on mathematical 
physics. His delivery captivated one and all through its externa! finish 
and the precision of exposition. Nota word too little or too much; he 
never bungled, hesitated, or made himself guilty of a want of clearness. 
The terseness of his calculus was truly admirable,—a quality not easy 
to expiain to an outsider. The whole subject rose betore a hearer in 
the shape of a highly artistic, classically perfect frame-work, in which 
every part could be logically deduced from some other, so that it was 
even an wsthetic pleasure to follow Kirchhoft’s deductions. In fact 
Kirchhoff’s lectures though intrinsically they belong to the most diffi- 
cult, ought to be intelligible to every one—even the less gifted—pro- 
vided of course he is acquainted with the instrument used, the mathe- 
matical language. It may happen, and it happened often indeed, that 
one was not able to see the arrangement of what was put before him, 
could not understand why and to what parpose Kirchhoff made such 
and such a dedustion, but to follow the train of his master’s thoughts, 
to think the whole over and to reproduce it afterwards was within reach 
of every one. 


532 MEMOIR OF. KIRCHHOFF. 


Paradoxical as it may seem, it was not impossible, without ever hav- 
ing understood Kirchhoff, to write his lectures as a first-rate book by 
means of the notes alone. It is to this quality of Kirehhoff’s dialectics 
(absolute clearness and self-comprehension), that he owed a large part of 
his success as a teacher. During nine years Kirchhoff was able to de- 
liver his lectures at Berlin withoutinterruption. But it became more 
and more apparent to us, his hearers, what exertion they required from 
him and how he was obliged to gather his last strength in order to keep 
himself on his feet. Nevertheless he was always punctual to the minute, 
and the excellence of his leetures remained unimpaired. At last (1884) 
he was prohibited lecturing by the physicians; he took up however 
this favorite occupation of his once again for a short time. It became 
apparent however that palsy made him unable to move, and Kirehhoft 
was reduced entirely to his own home, to the rolling chair, and to the 
eare of his family. In the last two years of his life one would see him 
always cheerful and amiable, sitting « his arm-chair and preserving a 
vivid interest in all problems, Never, not even once, did a complaint 
escape his lips, though he must have been well aware of the decline of 
his forces. Death, which came unawares during his sleep, delivered him 
from worse suffering. : 

We lost in him a perfect example of the true German investigator. To 
search after truth in its purest shape and to give it utterance with 
almost an abstract self-forgetfulness; was the religion and the purpose 
of his life. He loved and furthered science only for her own sake; 
every embellishment exceeding the limits of what was logically proved, 
would appear to him as a profanation,—any admixture of personal mo- 
tives, or grasping at honors or lucre, would seem to him worthy of 
blame. And in life as well as in science, he carried out what he con- 
sidered his duty as a man, a citizen, or functionary, with a logical rigor 
divested of all personal motives. But the knowledge of good alone does 
not make a man a good one, not even the will or the power to execute 
it. It was only Kirchhoft’s kindness of heart and humaneness, which if 
not demonstrative and warm in the expression of feelings, were the more 
pure and genuine, that made of him a true friend, a self-forgetful co- 
worker, the teacher ready to help, the judge ready to acknowledge the 
merits of others; in short, a man that all of us loved. I have a fine 
instance lying before me of how friendly and obliging he was, even 
toward the humblest of his fellow-men. A poor workman—many would 
have taken him to be insane-—applies in a letter to Kirchhoff, for an 
explanation of pessimistic doubts that torture him. ‘No physician, no 
priest, or any other materialistic egotist ean help me, but only a man of 
a truly scientific educational training, an investigator and thinker him- 
self, who does not consider himself too much above any of his fellow- 
men, placed below him by birth and circumstances, to communicate his 
conviction free of any compromise. When people tell me [ am a work- 
man and must not trouble myself about such mattters, [ answer that not 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. Hao 


all men are alike; that in all classes of men are individuals that have 
not only material, but also spiritual wants. Not all sciences that are 
known were developed by scientists alone,” etc. Many a one would 
have simply laid aside the workman’s letter. Kirchhoff however wrote 
to him a well-considered reply, as the minute shows, where among 
other things we read: * That there are such limits to our knowledge of 
nature, must be borne with patience by every sound mind whether he 
be a scientist or a workman. I can only advise you to leave off all 
impossible aspirations and trying to conceive things that are beyond 
conception. This requires a struggle, but a struggle is the lot of many 
men of all professions. The best help is to devote one’s self to the task 
which has fallen to one’s lot, and to fulfill the duties of the position in 
which one is placed.” And, in fact, Kirchhoff fulfilled himself the duties 
of his position. He was really “the truly noble mind, free from all 
egotistic sham,” the workman was looking for. As for us, we are only 
inclined to ask which to admire more, the greatness of his mind or the 
strength of his will that lifted him so high above 
“The vulgar, which we all, alas, obey!” 

We have tried to portray Kirchhoff as he appeared to us, his contem- 
poraries, as a man and asa teacher. His works will outlive him and 
will be appreciated accurding to their merit only by posterity. ‘To us, 
his pupils, falls the task, even if we do not belong to physics, to make 
apparent what science owes to him. One is apt in such eases to lay 
the chief stress on the practical results of his works, to adduce their 
influence on technics and industry. While speaking of Kirebhoff’s 
works one must however keep free from such a bias, first because 
the chief value of many of his papers lies not in the application but 
in the method; secondly such considerations would have been antipa- 
thetic to his own mind. Kirchhoff never asked himself ‘What is the 
use of thy brooding and searching?” What he had to expound he 
expounded in the way best suited to the thing itself, and in as general 
a manner as possible, without paying any attention to accessory pur- 
poses. ‘I think I have found such and such a thing, and [ take the 
liberty of giving a demonstration of it in what follows.” Such is the 
beginning of the most of his papers. His writings are Jess voluminous 
than might have been expected. His forty papers—product of as 
many years—are collected into a volume of moderate dimensions. He 
published besides, a report on his ‘* Researches on the solar spectrum 
and the spectra of the chemical elements” and a volume of lectures 
on mechanics, the latter his most mature and perfect work. 

What an immense amount of brain work is here condensed into the 
smallest space possible! Kirchhoff’s style, like his delivery, was a 
model of the most clear and concise diction, absolutely classical in the 
subject concerned. The words stand as if hewn in stone, each one at 
its place, the logical comprehension of each duly considered ; we find 
here condensed into a few lines what would have taken others pages to 


534 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


describe; only when the existing words seemed not precise enough, he 
uses circumlocutions and definitions, and that mostly in mathematical 
language. He held the highest rank among those who strove to re- 
move from exact sciences all want of clearness, all subjective judg- 
ments, all phrases. The influence of such an endeavor will transcend 
the limits of his particular science. 

The most popular of Kirchhoff’s works is his spectrum analysis. It 
had in fact most extraordinary consequences of the most palpable kind, 
and has become of the highest importance for all branches of natural 
science. It has excited the admiration and stimulated the fancy of 
men as hardly any other discovery has done, because it has permitted 
an insight into worlds that seemed forever veiled for us. It is accord- 
ingly the most celebrated of Kirchhoff’s discoveries. 

But however wonderful the results, what seems to us more admirable 
still is the truly masterly work itself, the unusually keen and at the same 
time ingenious and diligent way in which Kirchhoff deduced from the 
outset, from an accidental observation, a general theoretical law and all 
the surprising inferences, and demonstrated them with full strictness 
and certainty. Great men had already held in their hand before him 
the threads of his discovery without being able to unravel them. The 
French as well as English brought forward and still produce claims 
of priority. Kirchhoff repelled them quietly but firmly. All had seen 
something, made guesses, considered as possible or probable (without 
Kirchhoff having been aware of it at the time, however). A solid basis, 
a rigorous demonstration had been given by nobody ; it was reserved 
to the acuteness, thoroughness, and perseverance of a German searcher 
to elevate the lucky guess to the rank of a sure knowledge. 

Spectrum analysis in the narrowest sense, 7. ¢., the ‘analysis of the 
chemical elements by means of spectral observations,” is due, if we 
wish to make a distinction, to an idea and a suggestion of Bunsen’s. 
Among the most ingenious performances of Bunsen may be reckoned 
certain very simple physical methods of qualitative chemical analysis, 
i.é., the detection and the discrimination of chemical elements. A 
characteristic re-action of this kind he found to be the coloring of non- 
luminous flames. Each chemical element vaporized or burned in a non- 
luminous flame, for instance a blue-burning gas-flame, imparts to it a 
definite characteristic coloring. We should be able accordingly to 
recognize each substance by the light its incandescent vapor emits if 
our eyes had the power to distinguish as many differences of color as 
there are substances in nature. Kirchhoff and Bunsen helped the eyes 
however by decomposing the light of flames into its separate colors by 
means of a prism. This gives rise to the spectrum of the flame. The 
rainbow is a natural spectrum of the solar light made by the rain-drops. 
But this spectrum, as well as the spectra of all glowing solid or liquid 
bodies, offers quite another aspect from the spectra of flames, 7. é., in- 
candescent gases. The first consist of known colors varying in a con- 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 535 


tinuous way from one to another; the second consist of different bright 
lines separated by dark spaces, which bright lines have not only char- 
acteristic colorings, but are placed in particular positions and at definite 
intervals. Just as we recognize the constellation by their configurations 
and different brightnesses of their stars so do we distinguish the spec- 
trum of iron from the spectrum of copper by the respective distances and 
coloring of their lines. We could even do without colors; it would be 
sufficient to measure by means of a scale the intervals between different 
lines in order to recognize by means of Kirchhoff and Bunsen’s tables the 
element we have before us. It may seem amazing—but it is true—that 
a color-blind man could know with absolute certainty what colors a 
flame emits! The greatest advantage of a method in natural science, its 
independence of all subjective judgment, was bestowed on spectrum an- 
alysis by its discoverers. The main part of Kirchhoff and Bunsen’s 
work and their chief merit is however the demonstration of the validity 
of the method, viz, that the configuration of lines depends only on the 
chemical nature of the luminous incandescent vapor, not on its temper- 
ature or other elements with which if is combined, and not on the nature 
of the flame in which it glows or other accessory circumstances. Of 
this a carefully worked out experimental proof was given, and Bunsen 
was accordingly able long ago to make the perfectly safe assertion that 
he discovered by means of his spectrum analysis a new element, because 
the salt from a certain mineral spring showed unknown lines. Nowa- 
days spectrum analysis is the most sensitive chemical method of -de- 
composition. And nevertheless, what is still more astonishing is the 
further discovery made by Kirchhoff, by means of this method diseov- 
ered jointly with Bunsen. Kirchhoff happened to let a solar ray pass 
through a flame colored with sodium and then through a prism, so that 
the spectrum of the sun and of the flame fell one upon another. It 
was to be expected that the well known yellow line of sodium would 
come out in the solar spectrum; but it was just the opposite that 
took place. On the spot where the bright line ought to have shown 
itself there appeared a dark line. Jo Kirchhoff this reversal of the 
sodium line appeared at once in the highest degree remarkable, and 
he suspected immediately that some fundamental law was lurking there. 
The fact had been noticed by others (as was proved afterwards), and 
that by men of the highest renown. It was reserved however to 
Kirebhoff’s genius to detect and to pick up the treasure of new truths 
that lay hidden there. Already on the day following the experiment 
he was able to deduce and to explain the phenomenon from a more 
general principle which, strange to say, belonged not to opties but to 
the theory of heat. From a proposition, very remote in appearance, 
that heat passes only from a body of a higher temperature to one of 
a lower and not inversely, he deduced by dint of purely logical infer- 
ences the fact of the reversal of the sodium line. The middle term in 
the syliogism was given by the celebrated Kirchhoft’s law on the emis- 


536 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


sion and absorption of light and heat by bodies, which says that all 
bodies absorb chiefly those rays, those colors they emit themselves, and 
that the ratio of the absorbed and the emitted amount of light is 
one and the same in all bodies however different. The paper where 
this law is proved is the most beautiful Kirchhoff ever composed, 
although there is the smallest amount of mathematics init. The history 
of this law might serve as a model for the work of astudent of nature ; 
the law is vigorously deduced from well-known general propositions ; 
but says itself something new; it gives the different particular infer- 
ences which are to be verified by experiment. It will be the lot of a 
few only to make such discoveries, but all ought to consider as a model 
to imitate, the diligence, the conclusiveness, and the care—and not less 
the great modesty—with which Kirchhoff communicates his discovery to 
the world: ‘ On the occasion of a research made jointly with Bunsen on 
the spectra of colored flames, by means of which it became possible to 
us to recognize the qualitative composition of complex aggregates by 
inspection of their blow-pipe flames, I mad@ some observations that 
give an unexpected disclosure as to origin of Fraunhofer’s lines, and 
justify the inference to be drawn from them as to the material consti- 
tution of the solar atmosphere, and perhaps of those of the brightest 
stars.” These words show that Kirchhoff himself made the wonderful 
application of his law. The Fraunhofer’s lines to which he alludes are, 
asis well known, fine dark bands that furrow the solar spectrum, such 
as it is, even without the help of a flame. The nature of these lines was 
at first very eniymatic. The just described experiment of Kirchhoff 
shows however that artificial Fraunhofer’s lines may be produced by 
means of aflame. The inference was near that the natural lines are pro- 
duced by the same cause as the artificial ones, that they are reversed 
gas spectra, and that the light of the giowing solar body has already 
traversed somewhere incandescent gases, before it reached the earth. 
We may go further, however. Whenthe artificial lines coincide with the 
Fraunhofer’s lines, as (for instance), Kirchhoff proved to be the case for 
iron, sodium, or nickel, one may conclude—taking one’s stand on the 
joint research of Kirchhoff and Bunsen—that these chemical elements 
are found in those hypothetical incandescent gases. The fact that the 
sun consists of a glowing liquid nucleus, surrounded by an envelope of 
luminous vapors, and above all that these vapors contain the terrestrial 
substances whose line-spectra coincide with Fraunhofer’s lines, this fact 
was inferred, with as much certainty,” says Kirchhoff,” ‘as can be 
attained in natural science.” 

It is a characteristic trait of Kirchhoff that he calculated numerically 
this certainty. It would be possible for the bright lines of iron, for in- 
stance, to coincide by mere chance with Fraunhofer’s lines; but the 
probability for such an event was found to be equal to 7335-.0b-o0 0-000 
(one-billionth), an almost evanescent quantity. ‘‘There must be a 
cause that occasions these coincidences,” says Kirchhoff. ‘ An adequate 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFYF. Hal 


cause can be produced ; the observed fact may be explained if it be ad. 
mitted that the rays of light that make the solar spectrum have trav- 
ersed vapors of iron and suffered an absorption such as vapors of iron 
generally produce. It is at the same time the only cause that can be 
adduced; its adoption seems accordingly necessary.” 

We may insert here a story that Kirchhoff liked to relate himself. 
The question whether Fraunhofer’s lines reveal the presence of gold in 
the sun was being investigated. Kirchhoff’s banker remarked on this 
occasion: ** What do I care for goldin the sun if I ean not fetch it down 
here?” Shortly afterwards Kirchhoff received from England a medal 
for his discovery, and its value in gold. While banding it over to his 
banker, he observed: ‘‘ Look here, I have succeeded at last in fetching 
some gold from the sun.” As to Kirchhofft’s own opinion of the impor- 
tance of this law, it was quite indifferent to him, as stated above, whether 
the law admitted of any application to the investigation of the nature of 
the sun and fixed stars, or had only a theoretical interest. Asa char- 
acteristic trait of him may be mentioned that in his theoretical lectures 
he never says a single word about the region to which access was gained 
through his discovery, and in his collected papers he grants it a place 
only near the end. 

The other papers of Kirchhoff treat various subjects of mathematical 
physics. Those concerned with electricity are the most numerous. A 
whole series of them is devoted to the calculation of the paths the elec- 
trical current takes in bodies of different shape or in a net-work of con- 
duction. There is a Kirchhoff’s law about it too, which is of funda- 
mental importance for the investigation of the distribution of the flow 
of electricity in complicated conditions of conduction. Another series 
of papers treats of the distribution of static electricity and magnetism. 
These were in part celebrated problems on which the greatest of his 
predecessors (like Poisson), had already tried their forces and had not 
succeeded in mastering them so completely as Kirchhoff. He was the 
first to apply the so-called mechanical theory of heat to chemical pro- 
cesses, and by this application he bridged the way to the connection of 
different branches of natural science by means of mechanical principles. 
The basis of the mechanical theory of heat, the iaw of the permanency 
of work, as Kirchhoff styled it, is according to him undoubtedly the 
most important accession of knowledge gained in our century in the 
region of natural science.* 

The brilliant, various, and apparently complicated phenomena of 
light, Kirchhoff deduced in his lectures on optics from the purely me- 
chanical theory of an elastic body. That ether is such a body is a hypoth- 
esis which, though enunciated by Kirchhoft’s predecessors, was worked 
out by him ina particularly vigorous way. Nevertheless, all phenomena 
can not be explained by such a supposition. That Kirchhoff developed 
this hypothesis and this only, and eontented himself with mentioning at 





* His discourse as rector of Heidelberg University 1865. 


538 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


the end of his course what circumstances spoke against his hypothesis 
and, in this way, demolished before the eyes of the students the whole 
structure, is to be accounted for by his idea of the scope and the limits 
of the investigation and interpretation of nature. 

On such occasions, | must confess, I asked myself many a time, 
‘What for? Why develop a theory that leads to contradiction with 
experiment? Is the probing of nature, for Kirchhoff, only the greatest 
and the most interesting exercise in calculation 2” 

In answer to such doubts | shall adduce bis own words in bis discourse 
delivered in 1865,as rector of Heidelberg University ‘“‘on the scope of 
the natural sciences.” He says there: ‘There is a science called me- 
chanics, whose object is to determine the motion of bodies when the 
3auses that occasion them are known. - - - Mechanics is a twin sis 
ter of geometry; both sciences are applications of pure mathematics ; 
the propositions of both, as to their certainty, stand on the same level; 
we have just as much right to ascribe absolute certainty to mechanical 
theorems as to geometrical.” And further: “If we were acquainted 
with all the forces of nature and knew what is the state of matter at a 
certain moment of time, we should be able to deduce by means of me- 
chanies its state at every subsequent moment, and to deduce how the 
various natural phenomena follow and accompany each other. The 
highest goal the natural sciences must strive to attain is the realization 
of the just mentioned suppostion, - - - viz, the reduction of all 
natural phenomena to mechanics. Weshall never attain the goal of the 
natural sciences, but even the fact that it is recognized as such offers « 
certain satisfaction, and in approximating to it lies the highest pleasure: 
to be derived from the study of natural phenomena.” 

I must mention besides the famous words with which Kirchhoff com- 
mences his Mechanies, published in 1875: ‘* Mechanics is the science 
of motion; its object may be stated to be to describe in the most com. 
plete and simple way the motion that takes place in nature.” The dif- 
ference between the first and the last definition of mechanics is worthy 
of notice. At the former time, and before the large public, Kirchhoff 
spoke of causes of motion. Now, and in a strictly mathematical book, 
the word and the notion of cause do not appear. The interpretation 
of nature is given up; the only thing ‘looked for is the simplest possible 
description of nature. These introductory words of his Mechanics, 
and their working out in the book itself are the most consequent, far- 
reaching expression of Kirchhoff’s way of looking at nature. He 
makes no hypothesis as to the possibility of arriving at a knowledge of 
things in themselves. He wants only to portray the phenomena in a 
logically certain form. In relation to the sensible world (according to 
Kant) we have logical (that is to say, a prior?) certainty only of the propo- 
sitions of geometry and mechanics, the last distinguished from the first 
on account of their requiring, besides the three dimensions of space, the 
fourth one, time, and the notion of a mobile matter. With these three 


MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. Hog. 


fundamental notions of space, time, and matter, Kircbhoti tries to make 
his way to the description of the facts of experience and goes beyond 
his predecessors by delineating by means of pure geometry the sup- 
posed logically fandamental notions of force and mass. Force is to him 
the acceleration (change of velocity) experienced by a material particle 
in aunit of time; the knowledge of all these accelerating forces in a 
given moment of time would suffice to describe the world ; experience 
has shown however that the description gains in simplicity, if we mul- 
tiply the acceleration by a certain positive constant, called mass of the 
moving particle. I have mentioned this abstract train of thought be- 
cause it is very characteristic of Kirchhoff. The necessity of looking at 
natural forces as something really existing, or the mass as something 
really constant, remaining equal to itself, he does not recognize. It is 
only a fact of experience that the movements in nature hitherto observed 
have taken place in such a way that they seem to be represented in the 
simplest manner by making those suppositions. We can build up me- 
chanical systems on quite different bases, but it would not help us to 
describe simply the real movements. The problem of mathematical 
physies will be solved when the observed phenomena will be described 
by means of the simplest possible supposition as to the nature of forces 
and distribution of matter. There is nothing impossible in it; it can be 
proved in fact that all that men can observe in finite time must be sus- 
ceptible of being described mathematically. 

Even an outsider will not fail to notice, I think, that something is not 
included in Kirchhoff’s programme. The simplest description can not 
produce the conviction that the phenomena, even in future time, shall 
run in accordance with the description ; its equations are, so to say, not 
laws. There exists a stand-point differing somewhat from that of Kirch- 
hoff; it looks for what is in accordance with a law in the change of 
phenomena. Experience teaches us that nature acts according to laws; 
because without laws experience would be impossible. Experience is 
the collecting of what is similar in different particular perceptions. 
That the laws exist is accordingly an observed fact and not a hypothe- 
sis. We feel them acting at every moment independently of our will. 
We must ascribe to them the same reality as to our will; these two 
things are opposite to one another, power against power. We desig- 
nate them accordingly by the names of forces, and forces as causes of 
motion; they have the same reality as the motion itself. Up to this 
point nature may be said to be intelligible. What a force is we know 
not; we can only say that it manifests itself in the acceleration it im- 
parts tothe mass, and de facto accordingly, we do not go beyond Kirch- 
hoff’s description of nature. As to results, the search after a law and the 
endeavor after the simplest description of nature is one and the same 
thing; the difference lies only in the formnlation of the problem and 
sometimes possibly in the way towards its solution. It follows for in- 
stance from Kirchhoff’s definition, that it must be permitted (not only 


540 MEMOIR OF KIRCHHOFF. 


upon pedagogical but even upon philosophical grounds) to use hypothe- 
ses, even when they are recognized not to be sufficient in all cases, pro- 
vided they are still the simplest. In fine, only that will appear to us 
simple which is logically true. 

From what precedes one sees how near sometimes mathematical 
physies approaches to metaphysics. Kirchhoff gave to empiricism in 
the theory of cognition, its most precise and most consequent expression, 
and placed himself accordingly at the acme of the whole of modern 
mathematical physies. 

Kirebhoff’s endeavor after clearness and truth appears also in his 
philosophical stand-point, and makes him prefer to give the definition of 
his own problem in the study of nature from a narrow view, rather than 
to suffer in it even a semblance of a proposition accepted on faith, as 
nature’s conformity to law possibly is. And still he analyzed nature 
not merely as a critical thinker. His greatest discovery shows that he 
possessed also the alert introspection, the sympathetic investigation, and 
the intuitive insight into the working of natural forces, without which 
no true student of nature can make investigations. We repeat, Kirch- 
hoff was one of the greatest students of nature, because he was a math- 
ematical physicist in the sense explained above. 


ON HEREDITY.* 


By Sir WILLIAM TURNER. 


The subject of heredity (if I may say so) is in the air at the present 
time. The prominence wiich it has assumed of late years is in connec- 
tion with its bearing on the Darwinian theory of natural selection, and 
consequently biologists generally have had their attention directed to 
it. But in its relations to man, his structure, functions, and diseases, it 
has long occupied a prominent position in the minds of anatomists, 
physiologists, and physicians. That certain diseases, for example, are 
hereditary was recognized by Hippocrates, who stated generally that 
hereditary diseases are difficelt to remove, and the influence which the 
hereditary transmission of disease exercises upon the duration of life 
is the subject of a chapter in pumerous works on practical medicine, 
and forms an important element in the valuation of lives for life insur- 
ance. 

The first aspect of the question which has to be determined is whether 
any physical basis can be found for heredity. The careful study, espe- 
cially during the last few years, of the development of a number of 
species of animals, mostly but not exclusively amongst the invertebrata, 
by various observers, has established the important fact that the young 
animal arises by the fusion within the egg or germ-cell] of an extremely 
minute particle derived from the male parent, with an almost equally 
minute particle, derived from the germ-cell produced by the female 
parent. These particles are technically termed in the former case the 
male pronucleus, in the latter the female pronucleus, and the body formed 
by their fusion is called the segmentation nucleus. These nuclei are so 
small that it seems almost a contradiction in terms to speak of their 
magnitude,—rather one might say their minitude ; for it requires the 
higher powers of the best microscopes to see them and follow out the 
process of conjugation. But notwithstanding their extreme minute- 
ness, the pronuclei and the segmentation nucleus are complex. both in 
chemical and molecular structure. From the segmentation nucleus pro- 
duced by the fusion of the pronuclei with each other, and from corre- 


*Presidential address before the Anthropological Section of the British Association, 
A.S., at Newcastle, September, 1889, (Report of the British Association, vol. LIx, pp. 
756-771. ) 

d41 


542 ON HEREDITY. 


sponding changes which occur in the protoplasm of the egg which sur- 
rounds it, other cells arise by a process of division, and these in their 
turn also multiply by division. Thése cells arrange themselves in course 
of time into layers, which are termed the germinal or embryonic layers. 
From these layers arise all the tissues and organs of the body, both in 
its embryonic and adult stages of life. 

The starting-point of each individual organism—i. e., of each new gen- 
eration—is therefore the segmentation nucleus. Every cellin the adult 
body is derived by descent from that nucleus through repeated division. 
As the segmentation nucleus is formed by the fusion of material derived 
from both parents, a physical continuity is established between par- 
ents and offspring. but this physical continuity carries with it certain 
properties which cause the offspring to reproduce, not only the bodily 
configuration of the parent, but other characters. In the case of man 
we find along with the family likeness in form and features, a corre- 
spondence in temperament and disposition, in the habits and mode of 
life, and sometimes in the tendency to particular diseases. This trans- 
mission of characters from parent to offspring is summarized in the 
well-known expression that “ like begets like,” and it rests upon a phys- 
ical basis. The size of the particles which are derived from the parents 
(called the male and female pronuclei), the potentiality of which is so 
utterly out of proportion to their bulk, is almost inconceivably small 


when compared with the magnitude of the adult body. And yet these- 


particles are sufficient to stamp the characters of the parents, of the 
grandparents, and of still more remote ancestors on the offspring, and 
to preserve them throughout life, notwithstanding the constant changes 
to which the cells forming the tissues and organs of the body are sub- 
jected in connection with their use and nutrition. 

In considering the question of how new individuals are produced, one 
must keep in mind that it is not every cell in the body which ean act 
as a center of reproduction for a new generation, but that certain cells, 
which we name germ-cells and sperm-cells, are set aside for that pur- 
pose. These cells, destined for the production of the next generation, 
form but a small proportion of the body of the animal in which they 
are situated. They are as arule marked off from the rest of the cells or 
of its body at an early period of development. The exact stage at which 
they become specially differentiated for reproductive purposes varies 
however in different organisms. In some organisms (as is said by Bal- 
biani to be the case in Chironomus) they apparently become isolated 
before the formation of the germinal layers is completed ; but as a rule 
their appearance is later; and in the higher organisms, not until the 
development of the body is relatively much more advanced. 

The germ-cells after their isolation take no part in the growth of the 
organism in which they arise; and their chief association with the other 
cells of its body is that certain of the latter are of service in their nutri- 
tion. The problem therefore for consideration is the mode in which 


—— 


ON HEREDITY. 543 


these germ or reproductive cells become influenced, so that after having 
been isolated from the cells which make up the bulk of the body of the 
parent they can transmit to the offspring the characters of the parent 
organism. Various speculations and theories have been advanced by 
the way of explanation. The well-known theory of Pangenesis, which 
Charles Darwin with characteristic moderation put forward as merely a 
provisional hypothesis, assumes that gemmules are thrown off from each 
different cell or unit throughout the body which retain the characters of 
the cells from which they spring; that the gemmules aggregate them- 
selves either to form or to become included within the reproductive 
cells; and that in this manner they and the characters which they 
convey are capable of being transmitted in a dormant state to sueces- 
sive generations, and to reproduce in them the likeness of their parents, 
grandparents, and still older ancestors. 

In 1872, and four years afterwards, in 1876, Mr. Francis Galton pub- 
lished most suggestive papers on kinship and heredity.* In the latter 
of these papers he developed the idea that ‘the sum total of the 
gerins, gemmules, or whatever they may be called,” which are to be 
found in the newly fertilized ovum, constitute a stirp, or root. That 
the germs which make up the stirp consist of two groups; the one 
which develops into the bodily structure of the individual, and which 
constitutes therefore the personal structure; the other, which remains 
latent in the individual, aud forms, as it were, an undeveloped residuum 
That it is from these latent or residual germs that the sexual elements 
intended for producing the next generation are derived, and that these 
germs exercise a predominance in matters of heredity. Further, that 
the cells which make up the personal structure of the body of the in- 
dividual, exercise only ina very faint degree any influence on the repro- 
ductive cells, so that any modifications acquired by the individuals are 
barely, if at all, inherited by the offspring. 

Subsequent to the publication of Mr. Galton’s essays, valuable con- 
tributions to the subject of heredity have been made by Professors 
Brooks, Naegeli, Nussbaum, Weismann, and others. Professor Weis- 
mann’s theory of heredity embodies the same fundamental idea as that 
propounded by Mr. Galton; but as he has employed in its elucidation 
a phraseology which is more in harmony with that generally used by 
biologists, it has had more immediate attention given to it. As Weis- 
mann’s essays have during the present year been translated for, and 
published by the Clarendon Press,t under the editorial superintendence 
of Messrs. Poulton, Schonland, and Shipley, they are now readily ac- 
cessible to all English readers. 

Weismann asks the fundamental question, ‘‘ How is it that a single 
cell of the body can contain within itself all the hereditary tendencies 
of the whole organism?” He at once discards the theory of pangenesis, 


* Proceedings Roy. Soc. Lond., 1872, and Journ, Anthrop. Inst., 1876, vol v. 
t Oxford, 1889. 


544 ON HEREDITY. 


and states that in his belief the germ-cell, so far as its essential and 
characteristic substance is concerned, is not derived at all from the body 
of the individual in whichit is produced, but directly from the parent 
germ-cell from which the individual has also arisen. He calls his theory 
the continuity of the germ-plasm, and he bases it upon the supposition 
that in each individual a portion of the specific germ-plasm derived 
from the germ-cell of the parent is not used up in the construction of 
the body of that individual, but is reserved unchanged for the forma- 
tion of the germ-cells of the succeeding generation. Thus like Mr. 
Galton, he recognizes that in the stirp or germ there are two classes of 
cells destined for entirely distinct purposes: the one for the develop- 
ment of the soma or body of the individual, which class he calls the so- 
matic cells; the other for the perpetuation of the species, 7. ¢., for re- 
production. In further exposition of his theory, Weismann goes on to 
say.as the process of fertilization is attended by a conjugation of the 
nuclei of the reproductive cells (the pronuclei referred to in an earlier. 
part of this address), that the nuclear substance must be the sole bearer 
of hereditary tendencies. Each of the two uniting nuclei would con- 
tain the germ-plasm of one parent, and this germ-plasm also would 
contain that of the grandparents as well as that of all previous gen- 
erations. - - - 

it follows therefore from this theory that the germ-plasm possesses 
throughout, the same complex, chemical, and molecular structure, and 
that it would passs through the same stages when the conditions of 
development are the same, so that the same final product would arise. 
Each successive generation would have therefore an identical starting- 
point, so that an identical product would arise from all of them. 
Weismann does not absolutely assert that an organism can not exer- 
cise a modifying influence upon the germ-cells within it; yet he limits 
this influence to such slight effect as that which would arise from the 
nutrition and growth of the individual, and the reaction of the germ- 
cell upon changes of nutrition caused by alteration in growth at the 
periphery, leading to some change in the size, number, and arrange- 
ments of its molecular units. But he throws great doubt upon the 
existence of such a re-action, and he, more emphatically than Mr. Gal- 
ton, argues against the idea that the cells which make up the somatic 
or personal structure of the individual exercise any influence on the 
reproductive cells. From his point of view the structural or other 
properties which characterize a family, a race, or a species, are derived 
solely from the reproductive cells through continuity of their germ- 
plasm, and are not liable to modification by the action on them of the 
organs or tissues of the body of the individual organism in which they 
are situated. 

The central idea of heredity is permanency; that like begets like, or 
as Mr. Galton more fitly puts it, that ‘like tends to produce like.” But 
though the offspring conform with their parents in all their main char- 


ON HEREDITY. 545 


acteristics, yet, as every one knows, the child is not absolutely like its 
parents, but possesses its own character, its own individuality. It is 
easy for any one to recognize that differences exist amongst men when 
he compares one individual with another; but it is equally easy for 
those who make a special study of animals to recognize tndividual dif- 
ferences in them also. Thus a pigeon or canary fancier distinguishes 
without fail the various birds in his flock and a shepherd knows every 
sheep under his charge. But the anatomist tells us that these differ- 
ences are more than superficial,—that they also pervade the internal 
structure of the body. Intimately associated therefore with the con- 
ception of heredity—that is, the transmission of characters common to 
both parent and offspring—is that of variability,—that is, the appear- 
ance in an organism of certain characters which are unlike those pos- 
sessed by its parents. Heredity therefore may be defined as the per- 
petuation of the like; variability, as the production of the unlike. 

And now we may ask, Is it possible to offer any feasible explanation of 
the mode in which variations in organic structure take their rise in the 
course of development of an individual Organism? Anything that one 
may say on this head is of course a matter of speculation, but certain facts 
may be adduced as offering a basis for the construction of an hypothesis, 
and on this matter Professor Weismann makes a number of ingenious 
suggestions. 

Prior to the conjugation of the male and female pronuclei to form the 
segmentation nucleus, a portion of the germ-plasm is extruded from the 
egg to form what are called polar bodies. Various theories have been 
advanced to account for the significance of this curious phenomenon. 
Weisman explains it on the hypothesis that a reduction of the number of 
ancestral germ-plasms in the nucleus of the egg is a necessary prepara- 
tion for fertilization and for the development of the young animal. He 
supposes that by the expulsion of the polar bodies one-half of the num- 
ber of ancestral germ-plasms is removed, and that the original bulk is 
restored by the addition of the male pronucleus to that which remains. 
As precisely corresponding molecules of this plasm need not be expelled 
from each ovum, similar ancestral plasms are not retained in each case ; 
so that diversities would arise even in the same generation and between 
the offspring of the same parents. 

Minute though the segmentation nucleus is, yet microscopic re- 
search has shown that it is not a homogeneous structureless body, 
but is built up of different parts. Most noteworthy is the presence 
of extremely delicate threads or fibrils, called the chromatin filaments, 
which are either coiled on each other, or intersect to form a_net- 
work-like arrangement. In the meshes of this network a viscous—and, 
so far as we yet know, structureless—substance is situated. Before the 
process of division begins in the segmentation nucleus these filaments 
swell up and then proceed to arrange themselves at first into one and then 
into two star-like figures before the actual division of the nucleus takes 

H. Mis, 224——35 


546 ON HEREDITY. 


place.* It is obvious therefore that the molecules which enter into the 
formation of the segmentation nucleus can move within its substance, 
and can undergo a re-adjustment in size and form and position. But 
this re-adjustment of material is without doubt not limited to those 
relatively coarse particles which can be seen and examined under the 
microscope, but applies to the entire molecular structure of the segmen- 
tation nucleus. Now it must be remembered that the cells of the em- 
bryo from which all the tissues and organs of the adult body are de- 
rived are themselves descendants of the segmentation nucleus, and they 
will doubtless inherit from it both the power of transmitting definite 
characters and a certain capacity for re-adjustment both of their con- 
stituent materials and the relative positions which they may assume 
towards each other. One might conceive therefore that if in a sue- 
cession of organisms derived from common ancestors the molecular 
_ particles were to be of the same composition and to arrange themselves 
in the segmentation nucleus and in the cells derived from it on the 
same lines, these successive generations would be alike; but if the lines 
of adjustment and the molecular constitution were to vary in the differ- 
ent generations, then the products would not ke quite the same. Vari- 
ations in strueture and to some extent also in the construction of parts, 
would arise, and the unlike would be produced. 

In this counection it isalso to be kept in mind that in the higher organ- 
isms, and indeed in multicellular organisms generally, an individual is 
derived, not from one parent only, but from two parents. If one parent 
were tocontributea larger proportion than the other to the formation of a 
particular organism, then the balance would be disturbed, the offspring in 
its character would incline more to one parent than to the other, accord- 


ing to the proportion contributed by each, and a greater scope for the . 


production of variations would be provided. These differences would be 
increased in number in the course of generations, owing to new combi- 
nations of individual characters arising in each generation. As long 
as the variations which are produced in an organism are collectively 
within a certain limitation, they are merely individual variations, and 
express the range within which such an organism, though exhibiting 
differences from its neighbors, may yet be classed along with them in 
the same species. It is in this sense that I have discussed the term 
variability up to the present stage of this address. Thus all those 
varieties of mankind which on account of differences in the color of 
the skin, we speak of as the white, black, yellow races and red-skins 
are men, and they all belong to that species which the zoologists term 
Homo sapiens. 

But the subject of variability cannot, in the present state of science, 
be confined in its discussion to the production of individual variations 


*The observations, more especially of Flemming, E. Van Bendenen, Strasburger, 
and Carnoy, may be referred to in connection with the changes which take place in 
nuclei prior to, and in connection with, their division, 


iin 


ON HEREDITY. 547 


within the limitations of a common species. Since Charles Darwin 
enunciated the proposition that favorable variations would tend to 
be preserved, and unfavorable ones to be destroyed, and that the result 
of this double action, by the accumulation of minute existing differ- 
ences, would be the formation of new species by a process of natural 
selection, this subject has attained a much wider scope, has acquired 
increased importance, and has formed the basis of many ingenious 
speculations and hypotheses. As variations when once they have 
arisen, may be hereditarily transmitted, the Darwinian theory might 
be defined as heredity modified and influenced by variability. 

It may be admitted that many variations which may arise in the 
development of an individual, and which are of service to that individ- 
ual, would tend to be preserved and perpetuated in its offspring by 
hereditary transmission. But itis also without question that variations 
which are of no service, and indeed are detrimental to the individual in 
which they occur, are also capable of being hereditarily transmitted. 
This statement 1s amply borne out in the study of those important 
defects in bodily structure which pathologists group together under 
the name of congenital malformations. The commonest form of mal- 
formation is where an increase in the number of digits on the hands or 
feef, or on both, occurs in certain families, numerous instances of which 
have now been put on record. But in other families there is an hered- 
itary tendency to a diminution in the number of digits, or to a defect 
in the development of those existing. Another noticeable deformity 
which is known to be hereditary in some families is that of imperfect 
development of the upper lip and roof of the mouth, technically known 
as hare-lip and cleft palate. 

These examples illustrate what may be called the coarser kinds of 
hereditary deformity, where the redundancies or defects in parts of the 
body are so gross as at once to attract attention. But modifications or 
variations in structure that can be transmitted from parent to offspring 
are by no means limited to changes which can be detected by the naked 
eye. They are sometimes so minute as to be determined rather by the 
modifications which they occasion in the function of the organ than by 
the ready recognition of structural variations. |Cases of color-blind- 


ness, and of deaf-mutism were then referred to.| -— - Dr. Horner 
has related a most interesting family history in which color-blindness 
was traced through seven generations.* - - - Mr. David Buxton, 


who has paid great attention to the subject of hereditary deafness,t 
states that the probability of congenital deafness in the offspring is 
nearly seven times greater when both parents are deaf than when only 
one is so. In the latter case the chance of a child being born deaf is 
less than ? per cept., in the former the chances are that 5 per cent. of 
the children will be deaf-mutes. 


“Cited in Die Allgemeine Pathologie, by Dr. Edwin Klebs, Jena, 1887. 
t Liverpool Medico-Chirurg. Journ., July, 1857; January 1859. 


548 ON HEREDITY. 


Although a sufficient number of cases has now been put on record to 
prove that in some families one or other kind of congenital deformity 
may be hereditarily transmitted, yet I do not wish it to be supposed 
that congenital malformations may not arise in individuals in whom no 
hereditary tendency can be traced. 

The variations I have spoken of as congenital malformations arise, as 
a rule, before the time of birth, during the early development of the 
individual; but there is an important class of cases in which the evi- 
dences for hereditary transmission is more or less strong, which may 
not exhibit their peculiarities unti] months, or even years, after the 
birth of the individual This class is spoken of as hereditary diseases, 
and the structural and functional changes which they produce exercise 
most momentous influences. Sometimes these diseases may occasion 
changes in the tissues and organs of the body of considerable magni- 
tude, but at other times the alteration is much more subtle, is molecu- 
lar in its character, requires the microscope for its determination, or is 
even incapable of being recognized by that instrument. 

Had one been discussing the subject of hereditary disease twenty 
years ago, the first example probably that would have been adduced 
would have been tuberculosis, but the additions to our knowledge of 
late years throw some doubt upon its hereditary character. There can, 
of course, be no question that tubercular disease propagates itself in 
numerous families from generation to generation, and that such families 
show a special susceptibility or tendency to this disease in one or other 
ofits forms. But whilst fully admitting the pre-disposition to it which 
exists in certain families, there is reason to think that the structural 
disease itself is not hereditarily transmitted, but that it is directly ex- 
cited in each individual in whom it appears by a process of external infec- 
tion due to the action of the tubercle bacillus. Still, if the disease itself 
be not inherited, a particular temperament which renders the constitu- 
tion liable to be attacked by it, is capable of hereditary transmission. 

Sir James Paget,* when writing on the subject of cancer, gives statis- 
tics to show that about a quarter of the persons affected were aware of 
the existence of the same disease in other members of their family, and 
he cites particular instances in which cancer was present in two and 
even four generations. He had no doubt that the disease can be in- 
herited—not, he says, that strictly speaking, cancer, or cancerous mate- 
rial is transmitted, but a tendency to the production of those conditions 
which will finally manifest themselves in a cancerous growth. The germ 
from the cancerous parent must be so far different from the normal as 
after a lapse of years to engender the cancerous condition. 

Heredity is also one of the most powerful factors in the production 
of those affections which we call gout and rheumatism. Sir Dyce Duck- 
worth, the latest systematic writer on gout, states that in those families 
whose histories are the most complete and trustworthy the influence is 





* Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 3d ed,, London, 1870. 


ON HEREDITY. 549 


strongly shown, and occurs in from 50 to 75 per cent. of the cases ; 
further, that the children of gouty parents shoe signs of articular gout 
at an age when they have not assumed those habits of life and peculi- 
arities of diet which are regarded as the exciting causes of the disease. 

In connection with the tendency to the transmissibility of either con- 
genial malformations or diseases, consanguinity in the parents, al- 
though by no means a constant occurrence, is a factor which in many 
cases must be taken into consideration.* If we could conceive both par- 
ents to be physiologically perfect, then it may be presumed that the off: 
spring would be soalso; but if there be a departure in one parent from the 
plane of physiological perfection, then it may safely be assumed that 
either the immediate offspring or a succeeding generation will display 
a corresponding departure in a greater or less degree, Should both 
parents be physiologically imperfect, we may expect the imperfections, 
if they are of alike nature, to be intensified in the children. It is in 
this respect therefore that the risk of consanguineous marriages arises; 
for no family can lay claim to physiological perfection. 

When we speak of tendencies, susceptibilities, proclivities, or pre- 
disposition to the transmission of characters, whether they be normal 
or pathological, we employ terms which undoubtedly have a certain 
vagueness. Weare as yet quite unable to recognize, by observation 
alone, in the germ-plasm any structural change which would enable 
us to say that a particular tendency or susceptibility will be manifested 
in an organism derived from it. We can only determine this by fol- 
lowing out the life-history of the individual. Still it is not the less true 
that these terms express a something, of the importance of which we are 
all conscious. So far as man is concerned, the evidence in favor of a 
tendency to the transmission of both structural and functional modifi- 
cations which are either of disservice or positively injurious, or both, 
is quite as capable of proof as that for the transmission of characters 
which are likely to be of service. Hence useless as well as useful char- 
acters may be selected and transmitted heriditarily. 

Much has been said and written during the last few years of the trans- 
mission from parents to offspring of characters which have been ‘ae- 
quired” by the parent, so that I cannot altogether omit some reference 
to this subject. It will conduce to one’s clearness of perception of this 
much-discussed question, if one defines at the outset in what sense the 
term ‘* acquired characters” is employed; and it is the more advisable 
that this should be done, as the expression has not always been used 
with the same signification. This term may be used in a wide or ina 
more restricted sense. In its wider meaning it may cover all the char- 
acters which make their first appearance in an individual, and which 
are not found in its parents, in whatever way they have arisen :— 

(1) Whether their origin be due to such molecular changes in the 


*T may especially refer (for a discussion of this subject) to an admirable essay by 
Sir Arthur Mitchell, K. C.B., ‘On Blood-relationship in Marriage considered in its 
Influence upon the Offspring.” 


550 ON HEREDITY. 


germ-plasm as may be called spontaneous, leading to such an altera- 
tion in its character as may produce a new variation ; or, 

(2) Whether their origin be accidental, or due to habits, or to the 
nature of the surroundings, such as climate, food, ete. 

Professor Weismann has pointed out with great force the necessity 
of distinguishing between these two kinds of “ acquired characters,” 
and he has suggested two terms, the employment of which may keep 
before us how important it is that these different modes of origin should 
be recognized. Characters which are produced in the germ-plasm it- 
self by natural selection, and all other character which result from this 
latter cause, he names blastogenic. He further maintains that all blasto- 
genic characters can be transmitted ; and in this conclusion, doubtless 
most persons will agree with him. On the other hand, he uses the term 
somatogenic to express those characters which first appear in the body 
itself, and which follow from the re-action of the soma under direct ex- 
ternal influences. He includes under this head the effects of mutila- 
tion, the changes which follow from increased or diminished perform- 
ance of function, those directly due to nutrition, and any of the other 
direct external influences which act upon the body. He further main- 
tains that the somatogenic characters are not capable of transmission 
from parent to offspring, and he suggests that in future discussions on 
this subject the term “ acquired characters” should be restricted to 
those which are somatogenic. 

That the transmission of character so required can take place is the 
foundation of the theory of Lamark, who imagined that the gradual 
transformation of species was due to a change in the structure of a part 
of an organism under the influence of new conditions of life, and that 
such modifications could be transmitted to the offspring. It was also 
regarded as of importance by Charles Darwin, who stated,* that all the 
changes of corporeal structure and mental power cannot be exclusively 
attributed to the natural selection of such variations as are often called 
spontaneous, but that great value must be given to the inherited effects 
of use and dis-use, some also to the modification in the direct and pro- 
longed action of changed conditions of life, also to occasional rever- 
sions of structure. Herbert Spencer believes,t that the natural se- 
lection of favorable varieties is not in itself sufficient to account for 
the whole of organic evolution. He attaches a greater importance 
than Darwin did to the share of use and dis-use in the transmission 
of variations. He believes that the inheritance of functionally pro- 
duced modifications of structure takes place universally, and that 
as the modification of structure is a vera causa as regards the indi- 
vidual, it is unreasonable to suppose that it leaves no traces in pros- 
terity. 

_On the other hand, there are very eminent authorities who, contend 


* Preface to 2d eaition of De scent of Mun; 1885 ; his Siigin of Species, 1st ed. 
t** Factors of Organic Evolution,” Nineteenth Century, 1886. 


ON HEREDITY. 551 


that the somatogenic acquired characters are not transmissible from 
parent to offspring. Mr. Francis Galton (for example) gives a very 
qualified assent to the possibility of transmission. Protessor His, of 
Leipsig, doubts its validity. Professor Weismann says that there is no 
proof of it. Mr. Alfred Russel Wailace in his most recent work* con- 
siders that the direct actions of the environment (even if we admit that 
its effects on the individual are transmitted by inheritence) are so small 
in Comparison with the amount of spontaneous variation of every part 
of the organism, that they must be quite overshadowed by the latter. 
Whatever causes (he says) have been at work, natural selection is su- 
preme to an extent which even Darwin himself hesitated to claim for it. 
There is thus a conflict of opinion amongst the authorities who have 
given probably the most thought to the consideration of this question. 

In the first place I would however express my agreement with 
much that has been said by Professor Weismann on the want of sufti- 
cient evidence to justify the statement that a mutilation which has af- 
fected a parent can be transmitted to the offspring. It is I suppose 
within the range of knowledge of most of us that children born of par- 
ents who have lost an eye, an arm, or a leg, come into the world with 
the full complement of eyes and limbs. The mutilation of the parent 
has not affected the offspring; and one would indeed scarcely expect 
to find that such gross visible losses of parts as take place wien a limb 
is removed by an accident or surgical operation, should be repeated in 
the offspring. but a similar remark is also applicable to such minor 
mutilations as scars,of the transmission of which to the offspring, 
though it has been stoutly contended for by some, vet seems not to be 
supported by sufficiently definite instances. 

I should search for illustrations of the transmission of somatogenic 
characters in the more subtle processes which affect living organisms, 
rather than those which are produced by violence and accident. I shall 
take as my example certain facts which are well known to those engaged 
in the breeding of farm-stock or of other animals that are of utility 
to, or are specially cultivated by, man. I do not refer to the influ- 
ence on the offspring of impressions made on the senses and nervous 
system of the mother, the first statement of the effects of which we 
find in the book of Genesis, where Jacob set peeled rods before the 
flocks in order to influence the color and markings of their young; 
though I may state that I have heard agriculturists relate instances 
from their own experience which they regarded as bearing out the 
view that impressions acting through the mother do influence her off- 
spring. But I refer to what is an axiom with those who breed any 
particular kind of stock, that to keep the strain pure, there must be 
no admixture with stock of another blood. For example, if a short- 
horned cow has a calf by 4 highland sire, that calf, of course, exhibits 
characters which are those of both its parents. But future calves 





* Darwinism. London, 1889. P. 443. 


552 ON HEREDITY. 


which the same cow may have when their sires have been of the short- 
horned blood, may, in addition to short-horn characters, have others 
which are not short-horned but highland. 

The most noteworthy instance of this transmission of characters ac- 
quired from one sire through the same mother to her offspring by other 
sires, is that given in the often-quoted experiment by a former Lord 
Morton.* An Arabian mare in his possession produced a hybrid, the 
sire of which was a quagga, and the young one was marked by zebra- 
like stripes. But the same Arabian had subsequently two foals, the 
sire of which was an Arab horse, and these also showed some zebra-like 
markings. How then did these markings characteristic of a very differ- 
ent animal arise in these foals, both parents of which were Arabians ? 
I can imagine it being said that this was a case of reversion to a very 
remote striped ancestor, common alike to the horse and the quagga. 
But to my mind no such far-fetched and hypothetical explanation is 
necessary. The cause of the appearance of the stripes seems to me to 
be much nearer and more obvious. I believe that the mother had ac- 
quired during her prolonged gestation with the hybrid, the power of 
transmitting quagga-like characters from it, owing to the interchange 
of material which had taken place between them in connection with the 
nutrition of the young one. For it must be kept in mind that in pla- 
cental mammals an interchange of material takes place in opposite di- 
rectious, from the young to the mother as well as from the mother to 
the young.t In this way, the germ-plasm of the mother, belonging to 
ova which had not yet matured, had become modified whilst still lodged 
in the ovary. This acquired modification had influenced her future 
offspring, derived from that germ-plasm, so that they in their turn, 
though in a more diluted form, exhibited zebra-like markings. If this 
explanation be correct, then we have an illustration of the germ-plasm 
having been directly influenced by the soma, and of somatogenic ac- 
quired characters having been transmitted. 

Those who uphold the view that characters acquired by the soma 
can not be transmitted from parents to offspring undoubtedly draw so 
large a check on the bank of hypothesis that one finds it difficult, if not 
impossible, to honor it. Let us consider for a moment all that is in- 
volved in the acceptance of this theory, and apply it in the first instance 
toman. On the supposition that all mankind have been derived from 
common ancestors through the continuity of the germ-plasm, and that 
this plasm has undergone no modification from the persona or soma of 
the succession of individuals through whom it has been transmitted, it 
would follow that the primordial human germ-plasm must have con- 
tained within itself an extraordinary potentiality of development; a 











*Philosophical Transactions, 1881; also Darwin’s Animals and Plants nder Domestica- 
tion, Ist ed., 1868, vol. 1, p. 403. 

t See for facts and experiments Lssays by Professors Harvey and Gusserow and Mr. 
Savory; also my Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Placenta, Edinburgh, 1876. 


ot 


ON HEREDITY. 553 


potentiality so varied, that all the multiform variations in physical 
structure, tendency to disease, temperament, and other characters and 
dispositions which have been exhibited by all the races and varieties of 
men who either now inhabit, or at any period in the world’s history have 
inhabited, the earth must have been included in it. - - 

Let us now glance at the other side of the question. All biologists 
will, I suppose, accept the proposition that the individual soma is influ- 
enced or modified by its environments or surroundings. Now, if on the 
basis of this proposition, the theory be grafted that modifications or vari- 
ations thus produced are capable of so affecting the germ-plasm of the 
individual in whom the variation arises as to be transmitted to its off: 
spring (and I have already given cases in point), then such variations 
might be perpetuated. If the modification is of service, then presum- 
ably it will add to the vitability of the individual, and through the 
inter-action between the soma and the germ-plasm, in connection with 
their respective nutritive changes, will so affect the latter as to lead to 
its being transmitted to the offspring. From this point of view the en- 
vironment would, as it were, determine and regulate the nature of those 
variations which are to become hereditary, and the possibility of varia- 
tions arising which are likely to prove useful becomes greater than on 
the theory that the soma exercises no influence on the germ-plasm. 
Hence I am unable to accept the proposition that somatogeniec charac- 
ters are not transmitted, and I can not but think that they form an 
important factor in the production of hereditary characters. 

The morphological aspect of organic structure is undoubtedly of fun- 
damental importance. But it should not be forgotton that tissues and 
organs—in addition to their subjection to the principles of development 
and descent—have to discharge certain specific purposes and functions, 
and that structural modifications arise in them in correlation with the 
uses to which they are put, so as to adopt them to perform modified 
duties. It may be difficult to assign the exact force which physiologi- 
cal adaptation can exercise in the perpetuation of variations. If the 
habit or external condition which has produced a variation continues 
to be practiced, then in all probability the variation would be intensi- 
fied in successive generations. But should the habit cease or the 
external condition be changed, then although the variation might con- 
tinue to be for a time perpetuated by descent, it would probably be- 
come less strongly marked and perhaps ultimately disappear. By ac- 
cepting the theory that somatogenic characters are transmitted we 
obtain a more ready explanation, how men belonging to a race living in 
one Climate or part of the globe can adapt themselves to a climate of a 
different kind. On the theory of the non-transmissibility of these ae- 
quired characters, long periods of years would have to elapse before the 
process of adaptation could be effected. The weaker examples (on this 
theory) would have had to die out, and the racial variety would require 
to have been produced by the selection of variations arising slowly and 


554 ON HEREDITY. 


requiring one knows not how many hundreds or thousands of years to 
produce a race which could adapt itself to its new environment. 

It may perhaps be thought that in selecting the subject of Heredity 
for my address, and in treating it as I have to a large extent in its gen- 
eral biological aspects, I have infringed upon the province of Section D 
(that of Biology). But Iam not prepared to admit that any such en- 
croachment has been made. Man is a living organism with a physical 
structure which discharges a variety of functions, and both structure 
and functions correspond in many respects (though with characteristic 
differences) with those which are found in animals. The study of his 
physical frame cannot therefore be separated from that of other living 
beings; and the processes which take place in the one must also be 
investigated in the other. 

The physical aspect of the question, although of vast importance and 
interest, yet by no means covers the whole ground of man’s nature, for in 
him we recognize the presence of an element beyond and above his ani- 
mal framework. Man is also endowed with a spiritual nature. He pos- 
sesses a conscious responsibility which enables him tocontrol his animal 
nature, to exercise a discriminating power over his actions, and which 
places him on a far higher and altogether different platform than that 
occupied by the beasts which perish. The kind of evolution which we 
are to hope and strive for in him is the perfecting of thisspiritual nature, 
so that the standard of the whole human race may be elevated and 
brought into more harmonious relation with that which is holy and 
divine. 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS.* 


By Dr. RuDOLPH VIRCHOW, of the University of Berlin. 
Translated by Rev. C. A. BLEISMER. 


Nearly twenty years ago the foundation of our present union meeting 
was laid on Austrian soil. A few men attending an association of nat- 
uralists, at Innspruck in 1869, formed themselves into a separate sec- 
tion, which held its session in a small auditorium of the university. 

Of that number my countryman, Koner, has since died, but the rest. 
are still living, among them Karl Vogt, Professor Semper (first general 
secretary of the German Anthropological Society), Professor Seligman, 
of Vienna, and some others. 

And as I see with us Count Enzenberg, the secretary of that section, 
there are here at least two representatives of that memorable day. 

Every member ot that little gathering was fully convinced that Ger- 
many and Austria ought to be united in anthropological matters and 
that only through united work could any success be expected in anthro- 
pological investigations. A call was published for the establishment 
of a General German Anthropological Society, which should unite all 
German workers, including the German Swiss and the Germans in 
Austria. 

At a subsequent meeting held in Mayence, in May, 1870, for the pur- 
pose of drafting a constitution, a number of Austrians participated and 
the articles were purposely framed in such a manner as to include Ger- 
man Austrians. But circumstances are frequently more powerful than 
the intentions of men. 

The current of opinion during the period following this meeting was 
contrary to our purpose, which represented ideas based upon an un- 
prejudiced consideration of events. Previously, in 1869, there had been 
formed an Anthropological Society at Berlin, the first one in Germany, 
also a separate society at Vienna, but only the Berlin society became a 
branch of the General German Society. It seemed impossible for some 
time to find any direct point of contact with the society at Vienna, 








* Opening address delivered before the twentieth general meeting of the German 
Anthropological Association (of Germany and Austria) in Vienna, August 5, 1889. 
(From the Correspondenz—Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnolo- 
gie und Urgeschichte, xx. Jabrgang, No. 9, September, 1889, pp. 89-100.) 


556 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


although there was no variance between them_and us. Individual mem- 
bers—as I most gratefully admit, (among whom our president, Baron 
von Andrian, is one,) often expressed their regret at our lack of union. 

In 1881, the first attempt to bring about a union was made when the 

yerman and the Austrian anthropologists held their general meetings 

successively at Regensburg and Salzburg, both attending each other’s 
session. Since that time the idea of union gained strength until it 
was realized in our present joint meeting; and may a sentiment of 
union be developed that shall complete the work which we began. 

You all understand that this question of nationality is a very impor. 
tant one in an anthropological sense. 

We must always start from What is known; our question is that of 
habitat. And here we differ from the zoologist, who is only to a limited 
degree concerned about this question. Not until we know whence a 
person came and where he lived is he a legitimate subject of anthropo- 
logical investigation. This holds true also with respect to a human 
skull. An unknown skull may be momentarily of some interest, but 
from a scientific stand-point it is of no importance until its habitat has 
been determined. 

Tis x60cv cis dvdpéy is @ question which not merely concerns our every 
day life, but is an important one for the anthropologist. It is a very 
difficult matter to make collectors of skulls understand that not merely 
skulls, but skulls of persons or tribes are needed, that can be identified 
as regards their habitat. Then only are they of any anthropological 
value to the investigator. 

A skull per se is of very little account to us, but when its nationality 
is known it begins to exist, so to speak. We must not forget more- 
over that our conceptions of nationality are largely based upon our 
present relationships, and that these become of less value the farther 
back we go, and that they are of ne value at all when we reach the 
period in which clearly defined nationalities are not known. 

Kvery evidence of nationality ceases in pre-historic times; it is then 
a mere abstraction. There nationality has to be made up and a no- 
menclature adopted which can be at best only a designation for a cer. 
tain period, valueless in itself and unintelligible to future times. To 
be sure, to talk about a race of Cannstatt or of Cro-Magnon may sound 
very learned, but I hope that ere long such a phraseology will be dis- 
carded. 

At present questions of nationality can be settled only with great 
difficulty. We may be sure of being tolerably successful, if we select 
some island of the Pacific Ocean. There nationality is fully developed 
and its people are tangible; every one of them is easily recognized as 
belonging to a distinct nationality, and our experience is similar to that 
of the geologist who can construct a whole species from a single, or at 
most only from a few skulls of animals, or who at any rate can determine 
from a single skull the craniology of the whole species. It would be very 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY -YEARS. oat 


pleasant to be able to trace the history of a whole tribe whenever a skull 
is found, but unfortunately we are too often confronted with such com- 
plicated variations that we lose all data for making out the nationality. 
But in an island of the Pacific Ocean, which possesses much more scien- 
titic interest than political importance, we find an avalogy to animal 
races, viz: races of men, developed in circumscribed surroundings, with 
definite characteristics, easily pointed out, who represented a distinct 
type. Much to our regret this can be done only very infrequently in 
the case of continental tribes or nations. ‘To determine the question of 
nationality with regard to a Kuropean would take many days. 

Permit me to emphasize right here that we as anthropologists have 
little right to thrust into the foreground the idea of nationality, in a 
harrow sense of the word. We know that every nationality, take for 
instance, the German or the Slavonic, is of a composite character, and 
that no one can say, on the spur of the moment, from what original 
stock either may have been developed. We usually call the Germans 
blonde and the Slavonians brunette, yet just as great variations in this 
respect can be found among the Germans as among Slavonians. In- 
deed, northern, southern, eastern, and western groups of either nation 
present such a large number of variations that it is just as difficult to 
assert that the Germans came from a common stock, as is the case with 
the Slavonians. Consanguinity and heredity have been urged an ex- 
planation of these differences, but it has been proven that certain Sla- 
vonic groups are more nearly related to the Germans than to their own 
Slavonic brethren. If we compare the blonde element among the Poles 
and Galicians with the brunette Slavonians of the south, itis found 
that they not only differ with respect to color of skin, of eyes, and of 
hair, but also in a very marked degree in the structure of their skull; 
so much so indeed that the former show a greater affinity to our Ger- 
man tribes than to the Slavonian. In Northern Germany matters are 
still more intricate. There, in some of the old burial fields, skulls are 
found which might be called Germanic, were it not that they clearly 
possess Slavonic added character, so that for the present at least these 
fields must be considered Slavonic burial places. To make the case still 
stronger, there are found in the famous grave-rows (Reihengriber) of 
the period of the Franks or of the Merovingians, with their character- 
istic ornaments and weapons, skulls which very distinctly present the 
peculiarities of the Germanic type. Corresponding to these in an an- 
thropological sense, a large number of graves have been opened in the 
east of Germany where similar types of skulls are found; but these are 
lacking in Frankish peculiarities and are characterized by Slavonic 
marks. Greater contrasts than these can not be imagined. 

It is at present an impossibility and probably will be for all times to 
trace back to a common type either the Slavonic or the German tribes. 
When we compare the short and thick skulls of our Alemannic brethren 
with the long and low skulls of the Frisians and Hanoverians, it is evi- 


558 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


dent that they differ more from each other than is the case with skulls of 
certain Slavonic or German tribes. Consequently we must give up the 
idea of an original consanguinity in respect to each one of the historic 
nationalities. We do not possess as yet any known conclusive series of 
observations by means of which it can be demonstrated that from dolicho- 
cephalous families there have been developed brachycephalous individ- 
nals, such as we find among Slavonic or Germanic tribes. It may he 
possible by means of cross breeding to develop in process of time from 
a dolichocephalous family a brachyeephalous one; but actual proof of 
this has not as yet been produced. Hence we are compelled to adopt 
as a solution the theory of ‘‘ mixed races.” A mixed race is one whose 
elements are people of different blood, not of one blood: it is one which 
can not appeal to a common origin but which in the course of time was 
made up of elements of different original races. This theory causes 
us, as you easily see, to attach but little importance to nationalities as 
such existing at present. It will be our task to determine the localities 
of the original elements of this mixture, and to ascertain whence came 
these brachycephalous and these dolichocephalous peoples. Somewhere 
there must be a starting point for each of these categories, since upon 
an anthropological map these distinctions are marked with geological 
clearness. This difficulty not only exists in Germany or Austria but 
also in Russia. What are now called Russians are made up of a very 
composite mass of elements, derived from the farthest parts of Asia, 
from Turanian and Mongolian stocks. Hence our colleagues in the 
East are in no less a quandary than ourselves. They too meet wide 
differences between north and south, east and west. 

In the popular mind these questions are very easily cousidered to be 
concerned merely with a single nationality, but we must not only try 
to solve them in respect to one nation, but for the whole of Europe. In 
attempting to do this our investigations carry us further and further 
from a consideration of their special relation to individual nations. I 
may be permitted to say right here, that we are all especially interested 
to see such investigations carried on in this Austrian Monarchy ; for 
Austria in its peculiar development has preserved in greater purity the 
remnants of old nationalities, than any other state in Europe. Every- 
where else the change of former environments has gone on to a larger 
extent, the remains of antiquity have been crowded back so far that at 
present it is very difficult to make collections of the very oldest remains. 

We are now occupied with the establishment of a museum in Berlin 
for German costumes and domestic utensils; we intend to preserve in 
it everything that can yet be saved from destruction. In some locali- 
ties the very last relic has been secured for our museum. Here and 
there we meet with lingering recollections of primitive days, but these 
can not be compared with the living realities in so many districts of 
Austria. 

A reference to dead and living languages will make plain this con- 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 509 


trast referred to. For while adead language may indeed be studied, 
the investi gation of a living language secures to a greater degree a com- 
prehension of its fundamental elements, than the mere study of authors, 
each one of whom expresses his own individuality. So that we lose 
sight of the fact that this individuality of the author studied can not 
be the portrait of the thoughts of the people to whom he belongs. On 
this account we notice with especial gratitude the efforts along that 
line, which are gradually spreading throughout all Austria and of which 
the late Crown Prince Rudolf was the acknowledged leader. 

Extensive labors were carried on under his direction and by reason 
of his personal participation in them promised to yield rich returns of 
trustworthy reports taken from life concerning.the nationalities of 
Austria. To-day the place is vacant in which he hoped to stand; at 
the throne we were considering the establishment of this congress ; 
and it is fitting that I should voice the sorrow of all on account of the 
loss which this great country has sustained in him who seemed to be 
one of the most humane princes of this century. We trust that the 
idea bequeathed to us in his words will not be lost, but prove a precious 
heritage to Austria, which will be carried on by her to completion. It 
will be our aim to do all in our power to foster a spirit of union with 
our neighbors, which is so essential to the success of such an under- 
taking. 

In the department of archeology, you have made large advances 
during the last few years, completely over shadowing the rather slow 
progress of former years, which caused at times a little feeling of im- 
patience in the bosom of your superintendent. Those of us who saw 
yesterday your new buildings and your finely arranged collections were 
obliged to ground their weapons. We can not longer keep up our 
rivalry in view of such magnificence and completeness. Such a palace 
of science as your Imperial Natural Historic Museum can be found no- 
where else, and we too though strangers, must praise most highly the 
beneficent plans of His Majesty the Emperor, as well as of the Govern- 
ment, which have been executed in such an admirable manner. Here 
we find revealed the incredible riches of pre-historic materials belonging 
to Austria. Secarcely can there be found anywhere else a museum sur- 
passing this one. 

We are always sure to see in Austria, every possible effort made to 
put into execution any views which have fully gained ascendancy. I 
hope therefore that under the direction of Mr. von Hauer, with the 
assistance of such accomplished investigators as are here to be found, a 
further development of the pre-historic archeology of Austria may take 
place and reach such a degree of perfection that the different branches 
of local types will be arranged into a comprehensive whole. 

Several years ago we differed widely concerning the interpretation 
of certain local finds. At that time the most noted Austrian investi- 
gators thought that the original seat of European civilization must 


560 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


have been in the mountains of Austria, while the Germans contended 
that the starting point must be looked for farther south. I myself, 
although recognizing the importance of this local development, was in 
favor of the German theory. It seems to me that every day the bonds 
are made stronger of a definite connection among the nations of the 
north and south as regards their civilization. 

My own travels in places of ancient human civilization as well as : 
study of recent literature convince me that the numerous finds made 
in Egypt and Babylonia prove conclusively that the origins of our 
civilization are to be found only to a small degree in our own country, 
or that they have arisen out of individual necessities, but that on the 
contrary there exists a connection with the pre-historic times of those 
nations of ancient civilizations, and that from them there have been 
derived our present lines of culture. I will not say anything further 
concerning this point, only to call your attention to a publication of 
investigations in our Berliner Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie concerning old 
weights and measures. These investigations demonstrate again the 
fact that our present weights and measures existed in all their details 
in remotest antiquity and were at that time in common use, that our 
modern measures correspond to the old as far as one-tenth of a gram, 
and that we therefore have not made any advancement in respect to 
them since 4000 B. ©. 

I have stated elsewhere that only a few people can be called inventors. 
At times it happens indeed that similar inventions are made at the 
same time in different places, and that the same ideas make their way 
in different directions, and it is said at such times “these things were 
in the air.” But it is not in the air but in living human beings where 
such things exist. Yet if at times two men arrive at the same thing, 
a closer study proves that after all there is a difference. _Everywhere, 
whenever we can follow the history of human culture in individual 
things, we find that i¢ was not the work of the masses which determined 
the great lines of civilization, but the work of individuals, or of individual 
tribes, or of individual nations, if you please. 

Not only in our study but in other matters however we met with 
numerous contradictions which for a long time impeded the discovery 
of the true direction of civilization in general, and the connections of the 
civilization of different countries. This difficulty is so great because 
first of all a mass of antiquated traditions remaining until the present 
must be discarded in order to determine this question aright. There 
are in Europe, perhaps three or four museums in which Caucasian 
antiquities are more richly represented than anywhere else, and among 
them your Imperial Museum here in Vienna occupies a prominent place. 

Until a very recent period when these collections came to Europe it 
was a rigid dogma of philologists and archeologists that the bronze 
culture had its origin in the Caucasus. Its impossibility has now been 
proven, for we do not find bronze of a primitive form or mixture in the 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 561 


Caucasus, but of the same composition as that found in Greece and 
Italy, and at the same time in an advanced state of development that 
clearly proves it to be an importation. Whether single articles were 
imported or only patterns and a knowledge of the art of making bronze 
matters little. At any rate the invention must have been made in 
another place. 

By examining different countries and nations we succeed in narrow- 
ing the territory until by keeping on, we may find the point of beginning 
of bronze manufacture. We shall probably be unable to find the orig- 
inal inventor, but we shall learn the steps which mankind has taken in 
its advance regarding bronze manufacture. 

It may be mentioned at this point, that just such considerations as 
these enable us to cast a retrospective glance upon the last twenty years, 
and to exhibit the progress made by us in the science of archeology. 
The science of pre-historic archeology twenty years ago bad reached 
in but few places its full development. At that time the museum at 
Copenhagen was so far ahead of all others that it was considered as 
an unattainable prototype; next to this was the one at Lund, and later 
on the one at Bergen. Here there was exhibited a seemingly circum- 
scribed field of civilization which was called for brevity the Scandi- 
navian. The Scandinavians indeed went so far as to believe that their 
remote ancestors had invented these things, and that only at the time 
of the Romans had there taken place an influx from without. The aged 
Nilsson with his Pheenician hypothesis stood all alone. Matters have 
changed considerably since then. Many Scandinavians to be sure still 
defend the old view, by pointing out the great development which the 
older bronze exhibits in the north, but none of them seriously believe 
that the invention of bronze was really a northern achievement, even 
though the manufacture in bronze shows numerous northern peculiar- 
ities. We take in like manner Chinese patterns and copy them, but 
although by modifications, the style may be called at last German or 
Austrian, the Chinese origin never disappears entirely. Among us 
scarcely any one believes in the Scandinavian origin of bronze. At 
present we may assume that our Scandinavian friends are convinced 
that bronze came to them as a finished thing. The formula of its compo- 
sition was invented before it came to the north. Although special pecul- 
iarities have been developed and although the art of bronze manufact- 
ure seemed to flourish more independently in the north than in the 
south, nevertheless they must adinit that their ancestors were not the 
inventors of bronze. Here I think lies the main difference between the 
former and the present theory. Formerly it was thought that the 
secret lay concealed in the north, that there the origin of our metallur- 
gical art was to be found and that there had lived the original smith 
from whom our people had inherited their technique. During the last 
two decades another view has found much favor, and for many good and 
strong reasons it is called the Indo-German or Aryan theory. Inter- 

H, Mis, 224——-36 


562 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


esting investigations were made to prove how the Indo-Germans in their 
immigrations from the east and from the central parts of the mountains 
of Asia, had brought with them on their advance towards Europe, all 
sorts of things and formule, not only the knowledge of the smelting of 
bronze, but also precious stones like nephrite and jadeite. But this Indo- 
Germanic theory has received lately some very damaging blows and 
none more destructive than from the quarters of pre-historic archeology. 

In spite of much care, we have not as yet succeeded in finding any 
patterns in the supposed Asiatic home of bronze. I myself have made 
strenuous efforts to find original Indian bronzes, but have not obtained 
types which would justify the statement that this importation alluded 
to ever took place. Not even sufficient proof can be found for saying 
that the classic formula of 90 parts of copper and 10 parts of tin was in 
use in India. This formula remained as-constant as the measures of 
weight and length. Both facts present a good argument for the exist- 
ence of a continuous communication of knowledge from one generation 
to the next. 

Indian bronzes are zine bronzes, like mixtures found in our country be- 
longing to the time of the Roman empire. There are no authentic speci- 
mens of them found in Europe dating before the Christian era. Pre- 
historic archeology therefore at the present offers the poorest kind of 
testimony for the Indo-Germanie origin of bronze. Moreover, the routes 
of migration of the Indo-Germans are mapped out differently. Some 
authors put them northward of the Aral and Caspian Sea, others to the 
south. The northern route must be considered an entirely arbitrary 
hypothesis, for there have never been found any Aryan tribes in those 
regions. Onthe other hand, we find along the supposed southern route 
of the Indo-Germans mainly a population of brachycephalous peoples, 
which fills the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands, Thrace, and Illy- 
ria. All these differ materially from those inhabiting the north, espe- 
cially from the Seandinavians. This Indo-Germanic hypothesis is 
attended with still another difficulty. Existing races in this region not 
only differ among themselves in their physical composition and are 
crossed in various ways, but they also diverge widely in many of the 
conditions of life. 

Archeological researches have nowhere led to the beginning of a 
common civilization in an indisputably Aryan territory. Of course this 
does not necessitate an attempt to locate the origin of the Ayran race 
in Germany or Belgium, as has been proposed in the case where the race 
of Cannstatt or of Neanderthal (a dolichocephalous people) is said to 
represent the original central stock. 

The pre-historic theory of the much abused skull of Cannstatt has 
been much shattered; it does not fit into that far off period into which 
our French neighbors place it. Too little attention has been paid to 
the proposition: that international intercourseis a more important factor 
archeologically considered than we are wont to think, With an increasing 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 563 


conviction of its truth a greater value will be attached to proofs which 
show that there has been a transmitting of culture from one race to an- 
other. Nothing has given me greater joy than the discovery of those 
large burial fields in the most southern parts of the Austrian Alps, along 
the coast and in Istria for which we are indebted to the energy of Messrs. 
De Marchesetti and Szombathy. A number of new links have thus 
been welded into the chain of the old system of transmission, and the 
result of these researches wiil doubtless be embodied in a series of 
papers, and given to the public. 

Let me emphasize right here that these finds are most valuable be- 
cause they prove a pre-historic international intercourse (not migrations, 
for this can not be established); and because they exhibit the directions 
which civilization has taken. They will also beget in our international 
intercourse a little more modesty and amiability than seems to exist at 
times on account of a too great sensitiveness about this idea of nation- 
ality. 

If different races would recognize one another as independent co-la- 
borers in the great field of humanity, if all possessed a modesty which 
would allow them to see merits in neighboring people, much of the strife 
now agitating the world would disappear. 

A far greater revolution than that which took place in the sphere of 
archeology has been brought about in anthropological science. At 
the time of our coming together twenty years ago, Darwinism had just 
made its first triumphal march through the world. My friend Karl 
Vogt, with his usual vigor, entered the contest and through his personal 
advocacy secured for this theory a great adherence. At that time it 
was hoped that the theory of descent would conquer not in the form 
promulgated by Darwin, but in that by his followers ;—for we have to 
deal now not with Darwin but with Darwinians. No one doubted that 
the proof would be forthcoming, demonstrating that man descended 
from the monkey and that this descent from a monkey or at least from 
some kind of an animal would soon be established. This was a chal- 
lenge which was made and successfully defended in the first battle. 
Every body knew all about it and was interested in it ; some spoke for it, 
others against it. It was considered the greatest question of Anthro- 
pology. 

Let me remind you however at this point that natural science, as long 
as it remains such, works only with real existing objects; a hypothesis 
may be discussed, but its significance can only be established by pro- 
ducing actual proofs in its favor, either by experiments or direct obser- 
vations. This Darwinism has not succeeded in doing. In vain have 
its adherents sought for connecting links which should connect man 
with the monkey ; not a single one has been found. The so-called pro- 
anthropos which is supposed to represent this connecting link has not 
as yet appeared. No real scientist claims to have seen him; hence 
the pro-anthropos is not at present an object of discussion for an an- 


564 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


thropologist. Some may be able to see him in their dreams, but when 
awake they will not be able to say that they have met him. Even the 
hope of a future discovery of this pro-anthropos is highly improbable, 
for we are not living in a dream, or an ideal world, but in a real one. 

At our meeting in Innspruck it looked as if it might become possible 
to demnstrate amid the excitement, the descent of man from the mon- 
key or some other animal. At present to our regret we do not even 
possess the means to prove a descent of the individual races from one 
another. It was not known at that time how difficult it is to prove that 
all men are brethren, nevertheless laborious attempts were made to show 
the unity of mankind. 

There was an inclination to single out individual skulls and skele- 
tons found among the remains of men in caves, as for instance in the 
caves of the “ Maasthal”,) as representative types, and from them 
make up the races of primitive ages. Some claimed the original race 
to have been Mongoloid, others contended that the first man was Aus- 
tralioid. It all depended on the question whether the Mongolians or 
the Australians were the lowest race. The first European must have 
looked like one of them, it was said. But the first European has not 
yet been found. At preseut we know that judging from his remains, 
primitive man did not resemble a monkey any more than do men of 
to-day. Theancients were well formed, they bore the same characteristic 
marks which we find in men of our times; not a single one was so 
poorly developed as to justify us in saying that he possessed the lowest 
form of skull. 

Twenty years ago little was known of the skull forms of the lowest 
prinitive nations. This accounts for hasty judgments passed; the 
wildest ideas were afloat about the make-up of the lowest tribes. No 
one possessed any exact idea concerning the physical construction of 
the Eskimos, Patagonians, ete. To-day there is scarcely upon our 
earth a tribe which might be called entirely unknown. There is only 
one place where there is some possibility of new discoveries,—I mean 
the peninsula of Malacca ;—but even in this place we have an energetic 
agent at work. Its inhabitants, according to the results of the re- 
searches of some, seem to satisfy most nearly the demands made for a 
lowes trace. Aside from these we know them all,—Patagonians, Eski- 
mos, Bushmen, Veddas, Laplanders, Australians, Polynesians, Mela- 
nesians ; about many of them we really know more than of European 
nations. 

If for instance you take the case of individual islanders and com- 
pare them with Albanians, | may say that more investigations have 
been made concerning the Polynesian natives than concerning separate 
groups of Albanians. All these uncivilized nations, which stand so 
low in their mental development, are becoming gradually known to us. 
Of most of them we have in Europe good typical examples, concerning 
whom the most exact observations in respect to their whole organiza- 


Se 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. Oo 
tion have been made. Not a few of these died in Europe, and on that 
account were more especially noticed. We possess greater knowledge 
concerning the brains of a Patagonian than about the brains of the 
civilized nations of Asia. 

Not one of these examples resembled the monkey any more than (if 
indeed as much as) it does our own. Now the systematic naturalist de- 
termines thelines separating genera and species in the following manner: 
Whenever he finds that the totality of points of one group equals that of 
the other, he separates both from related genera or species. {f however 
the respective sums of their points are equal he draws a line-between 
them and makes of each a separate genus or species. Such a dividing 
line is drawn between man and monkey. Every living race of men is 
as yet purely human; not one has been found which might be called 
pithecoid, or which might be considered an intermediate race between 
man and monkey. 

I must however admit that there exists a series of peculiarities found 
among men which are called pithecoid, and these can not be explained 
as mere disturbances or hindrances of their normal development. Let 
me illustrate: The higher apes exhibit frequently an especial develop- 
ment of the skull in the region of the temples. Just as in the case of 
man, several bones join in the depression beneath the muscles covering 
this part. From below, the upper edge of the great wing of the sphenoid 
bone joins the parietal bone; the squamous portion of the temporal 
bone to which the ear is attached touches this spot from behind, and 
the frontal bone is joined anteriorly to the other three bones just men- 
tioned. These four bones come together in such a manner that the 
parietal and the sphenoid bone, joining each other, keep the frontal and 
the temporal bone apart by being thus unitedly wedged in between 
them. Now in the skuli of the monkey a long process of the temporal 
bone is frequently found wedging itself in as far forward as the frontal 
bone, thus separating the parietal and the wing of the sphenoid bone. 
This constitutes a marked difference of great value, since this does not 
occur in man, as a rule, but there exist isolated cases where this same 
peculiarity is found. 

As we examine large collections of skulls and formulate the result, 
we find that certain races show these peculiarities more than others. 
So far as we can tell, three races especially exhibit them. We find them 
first of all among the Australian and African, 7. ¢., the black races; 
then among the yellow in the Malay Archipelago, especially on that 
chain of islands which connects New Guinea with Timor, and to which 
are joined the Molucea Islands in the north and Australia in the south. 

I lectured only a little while ago* concerning a number of skulls of 
Alfuros, of Tenimber, among which this peculiarity was noticeable. At 
the same time another characteristic was observed, namely, the enor- 
mous development of the jaws, as shown in a greatly projecting ridge of 








* Vide: Transactions of the Berlin Anthropological Society, 1889, page 177. 


566 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


the arch of the jaw and of the teeth. Associated with this prognath- 
ism there is found an inward curving of the nose, together with the 
extreme flattening, as if somebody had sat on it. In this case some- 
times the nasal bones grow into one, which scarcely ever takes place in 
other races of man. These forms also are especially characteristic of 
catarrhine apes. Hence this catarrhine nose is a kind of pithecoid 
element (Thermorphy). In certain localities this occurs more frequently 
than in others, and there may have existed a greater propinquity of re- 
lation with apes. It is not without importance to remember that among 
the anthropoid apes, the gorilla and chimpanzee are found in Africa, and 
the orang and the gibbon in the Indian Archipelago. But if you in- 
quire farther, may not the Australian and the African blacks or the 
Malay and the Alfures be the sought-for connecting links which bridge 
the chasm between man and the ape? No one can answer with an ab- 
solute no. It might be possible, but possibility is a great way from re- 
ality. For temporal processes, catarrhine noses, and prognathous jaws, 
do not make an ape; a number of other characteristics are necessary 
to produce a monkey. 

Hypothetically from every piece of skin a monkey may be con- 
structed; no anatomist ever doubted this. But the differences between 
man and monkey are so wide that almost any fragment is sufficient to 
diagnose them. Much is still lacking for a demonstration of the theory 
of descent. 

How necessary it is then as we may look at the problems of the fu- 
ture, to make still more far-reaching researches in this particular branch 
of science which has to do with the earlier developments of the human 
race. Especially should there be made careful investigations concern- 
ing pre-historic man in Australia, and also in Indonesia. If anthropo 
logically-trained physicians would stay there continuously and make 
researches, perhaps essential and important proofs might be found. 

At present they are still lacking, and we can study the early state of 
man only by means of what old graves, a few caves, and lake-dwellings, 
and what the present can furnish us. I would not pass over in silence 
the fact that from all these sources mentioned only specimens of man 
have been discovered of which we need not be ashamed and whom we 
may fully acknowledge as brethren. Through the kindness of Swiss 
colleagues, I was enabled to make comparative examinations of nearly 
all the existing skulls of the lake-dwellers. It became evident to me 
that even in those times difference existed between tribes which prob- 
ably came upon the scene of action one after the other. None of them 
however was constructed in such a manner as to lie outside of the phys- 
ical form of our present nationalities. 

Again, it can not be said that all races have descended from a single 
human pair. This matter does not lie within the province of natural 
science proper. Everybody may decide that to suit himself. Those 
who, on account of their religious convictions, need a first pair, will 


“ 
Abie ite ie 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 567 


encounter no objection from us. A possibility exists, we acknowledge, 
that all races and tribes may have sprung from a single pair by means 
of transmutations. But no one has actually demonstrated that negroes 
descended from white parents, or vice versa. Whenever a black tribe 
is found the naturalist supposes that there were negroes before, and 
where a white tribe is located that such a tribe always has been white. 
Of course, all this is likewise a mere supposition, which can not be es- 
tablished. In short, every proof is lacking to show that a nation or a 
tribe is capable of a total transmutation. This is seen in Egypt. I 
thought that I could find by means of comparative examinations of the 
living and the remains and pictures of the dead some points establish- 
ing a change of ancient Egyptians into Egyptians of historic times, but 
I have returned with the conviction that ancient Egypt and its neigh- 
boring countries have not essentially changed during all these periods. 
If Menes really existed, there were in his time negroes, since quite 
old mural paintings show negroes with all their peculiarities. Nor 
do the native Egyptians offer any data to speak of. The Egyptian of 
to-day possesses still the forms of the ancient one. Unfortunately for 
us, Egyptian skulls and skeletons are not as ancient as we might wish. 
There has never a skull been seen belonging to the three oldest dynas.- 
ties. Hence there is no possibility of a continuous list. But anyhow 
the register goes as fair back as 3000 B. Cc. with positive certainty, which 
gives us in all some 5000 years. During this long time only one 
difference has been noticed, namely: An appearance of brachycephalous 
men in the old kingdom in centrast with dolicho- aud meso-cephalous 
people of the new kingdom. At any rate, definite proof is not wanting 
that since the beginning of the new kingdom, 1700 B. c., no noteworthy 
change of type has taken place. A permanence of type accordingly 
during thirty-five centuries is established. 

It does not look unreasonable to assume a certain influence of climate 
and occupation. In this respect both the straitest orthodoxy and the 
purest Darwinism agree. Their thesis is the same. The former go as 
far back as the first human pair, the latter beyond it to the first pair of 
animals ; aside from this they both accept the transmutation ofa primi- 
tive race into different races. Those can not sustain scientifically 
their position in the case of man, and these as regards the monkey. If 
you should ask me whether the first pair was white or black, i must 
confess Ido not know. We have no foundation upon which to base 
any decision. It can not be supposed that there lived, e. g., in France 
at the time of the troglodytes all negroes with woolly heads and that 
from these sprung white and straight-haired people. For other reasons 
moreover it is not clear to me how or where this could have happened. 
The very oldest remains show already differences. It sounds very 
plausible that the north made man light complexioned. But in Amer- 
ica where similar conditions exist we do not find any blonde natives. 
The primitive Germans as well as the Finns of Mongolian origin are 


568 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


blonde, why these should be thus, while the rest of the Mongolians 
became black or deeply brunette is a question which we can not an- 
swer. It must not be forgotten that language does not stand in correla- 
tion with outward physical phenomena. On the contrary, they arerelated 
to each other in a similar manner as a process of the forehead which 
may appear as a single mark without its necessitating a corresponding 
similarity in all the rest of the given characteristics ; nor can we say 
that underneath alight skin there is always one and the same arrange- 
ment of internal organs. It may be entirely different. 

In this particular direction I have tried from the very first appear- 
ance of Darwinism to modify the doctrine of heredity. I recognize as 
truth the law of heridity, but Lever emphasized, and do so again to- 
day, that heredity in man is only a partial one. Man is not subject to 
a general heredity by means of which all peculiarities are developed in 
him from generation to generation. If botanists have begun upon a 
basis of local variations to establish subdivisions, and in that way have 
instituted within the same genus individual sub-genera or variations 
with hereditary character, it is a very easy matter to form out of these 
sub-genera new genera. But the fact that within thesame genus there 
occur individual variations which appear to de hereditary, only proves 
that the same individual may be the possessor of different hereditary 
peculiarities. 

It is indeed well known that one may inherit peculiarities from both 
father and mother and thus unite in himself a double heredity; or he may 
even exhibit characteristics which belonged to his grandparents while 
at the same time marks may be present which were inherited from his 
parents. In the same individual may unite then the aggregate of par- 
tial heredities, which are more or less limited. There may be many of 
these parts, but that can not beestablished. Only in the case of twins 
it sometimes happens they can not be distinguished without much pains- 
taking observations ; whenever they can be distinguished it is done by 
means of marks peculiar to each one of them. Hereditary character- 
istics under some circumstances may appear with such prominence 
that the resulting shape actually differs from the type. 

Often people are born with six fingers and six toes. These transmit 
this peculiarity and whole families of this description come into exist- 
ence. If this peculiarity were cultivated by in-breeding one might 
get a whole tribe with six fingers. Something like this exists in the 
dynasty of Hadramaut in Southern Arabia where only six-fingered 
descendants have any right to the crown. Certainly these are peculiar 
formations, but it can not be said on that account that in primeval times 
all mankind had six fingers. The negroes in the neighborhood of the 
Congo River have often web-membranes between their fingers and since 
fishes have not only five but many more single rays in their fins, be- 


tween which there is found such membrane, while the rays show, also, — 


articulation, the thought suggests itself that web-membranes of the 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. OG 


negro must have been produced by a kind of retrograde movement. 
There are to be found such retrograde movements whether we believe 
it or not. If for instance a child has the nose of his grandfather we 
say that atavism is clearly existing, and everybody is satisfied with it. 
But if the six fingers are traced back to the six rays of the fins of a 
ray it is looked upon as an imputation. There are great difficulties 
connected with this subject which can be overcome only by means of 
heroic effort. I refer especially to the relation between atavistic pecul- 
iarities and those acquired by external circumstances. Acquired pe- 
culiarities are not atavistic, even when they prove to be hereditary. 

During recent years a subject has been very popular which I would 
recommend for further study, viz, the tailless cats. On the island of 
Man there is found a race of cats without tails. It has not as yet been 
explained whether these cats are indebted for their taillessness to a 
fault of their original parents and by reason of acquired characteristics 
are propagated in this way or whether there has intervened a disturb- 
ance in their development. As to the fact of this taillessness there is 
no doubt, for we find very frequently similar occurrences at other places, 
é.g., in Scotland, but how this heredity has taken its rise is entirely 
unknown. Perhaps the original mother was run over by a wagon and 
in this way lost her tail and then brought forth tailless cats ! 

We do not even know how far this law of heredity extends. On ae: 
count of this uncertainty the question becomes very complicated in its 
relation tohuman circumstances. Olimate and life may influence human 
development, although at present no convincing reasons can be given 
which show such a change in respect to human beings living in our age 
either in their totality or as individuals through the influence of local 
climate prevailing at their homes. In these particulars then we are 
deficient to-day in our knowledge. You may possibly say that it is a 
strange thing to have gone backward and to know less than people 
knew twenty years ago. 

We know indeed less, but it is our pride that we have our knowledge 
in such a shape that we really know what we claim to understand. 
Twenty years ago many things were supposed to be known when people 
were really ignorant of them. We have made this supposed knowledge 
the object of scientific tests and natural science has now really taken 
possession of its wide domain, and we can now say that much that was 
formerly asserted to be true is no longer admissible. It was supposed 
by faith, but it never belonged toscience. Now the question before us 
is whether it is not possible with all the auxiliaries to observation and 
experiment to discover a kind of plan in the natural history of man. 
Whether we shall ever get to a point where we can show that the hone of 
the negro was the submerged land, which according to English zoolo- 
gists was the original home of man, the so-called Lemuria, or that this 
_place was the river Rhine, where some claim to have found the most an- 
cient remains of primitive man ;—all this we leave for our successors to 
decide after another twenty years shall have passed. 


570 ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. 


I can only say to day we have no debts ; we have not borrowed from 
any hypothesis-framer ; we do not go about oppressed by a fear that the 
things to which we hold will be overturned. What we now determine 
has stability and will prove a foundation for further researches. We 
have levelled the ground so that succeeding generations may make as 
much use as possible of these means furnished them by us. It is our 
confidence based upon the recognition given us by our rulers and the 
sympathy of the people that in the future there will be no lack of ma- 
terial for work. 

Gentlemen, it is now our duty to go to work unitedly and with more 
zeal than ever before, so that all these questions may be solved which 
are of such importance to man for his understanding of self, and for his 
social and political development. Let us take hold then so that real 
and abiding progress may be ours. 

I would propose as our aim to be attained in the coming twenty years 
that we obtain such an insight into the anthropology of European nations 
as to be able to present some valuable points concerning the connec- 
tion of European tribes and to succeed in showing the reasons for ex- 
isting differences among them. 

This much I wanted to say to-day. I beg pardon for speaking so long. 

Anthropology is surrounded by a dense fog of traditions, a large 
number of them useless. Much labor is necessary to bring out its nu- 
cleus, just as it is the case with many of our fruits, whose little living 
kernel is surrounded by thick woody coverings. These germs are to be 
found in the field of anthropology and they must be opened up in com- 
ing days. May they find as much appreciation from a circle of such 
interested hearers as I see before me to-day, 


i 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY.* 


By M. INGWALD UNSET. 
Curator of the Archwological Museum of Christiania. 
Translated by Prof. L, D. LODGE. 


Pre-historic studies made their appearance in Scandinavia before they 
were broached in any other country. That is easily explained. The 
pre-historic times of Scandinavia are only separated by a few centuries 
from present times and extend to the introduction of Christianity into 
that country about the year 1000 of ourera. The Roman legions never 
set foot upon Scandinavian soil, and the ancient authors have only left 
us some very enigmatical passages upon the countries of the north. Nor 
do the Seandinavian traditions shed much light upon the epochs which 
preceded the introduction of Christianity. On the other hand, Scan- 
dinavia possesses an unusual number of pre-historic remains. Itis then 
easy to understand that there should have been developed a peculiar 
science, founded upon empirical studies of the antiquities themselves, 
in the north rather than in other countries. 


DENMARK. 


Passing in silence the unsuccessful attempts of past centuries, the 
first decade of our century must be considered as the epoch of the birth 
of a pre-historic science in the north, whose beginnings appear in Den- 
mark. The study of national history received in that country a strong 
impetus in consequence of the sentiment of nationality which awoke 
at that epoch in all the Germanic world. It was then that men began 

in Denmark to direct their attention to the national remains and to re- 
gard them as things worthy of study. 

In the first rank in this road must be mentioned Prof, Rasmus N yerup, 
who published in 1806, an epitome of the national remains of antiquity 
(Oversigt over feedrelandets mindesmerker fra oldtiden), in which he pro- 
poses a plan for the establishment of a national museum. At the same 
time he began to make a collection of national antiquities at the 
library of the university of which he was the librarian. This was the 
germ of the pre-historic museum of Copenhagen, a museum now so vast 
and so famous. The state itself’ a short time afterwards took charge 

*From the Revue d@ Anthropologie, May 15, 1887, 3d series, vol. 11, pp. 311-332. 
571 


572 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 


of the interests of this museum. On May 22, 1807, the King signed a 
resolution constituting a royal commission of which Professor Nyerup 
was named secretary. This commission was charged with forming a 
museum for national antiquities, with watching over the preservation 
of the remarkable remains still existing in the country, and finally 
with making known to the public the value of ancient objects which 
are found in the soil, in order to put an end to their daily destruction. 

Under the active influence of this commission the collection originally 
founded by the private exertions of Mr. Nyerup, became so extensive 
that it soon gave birth to a new special science, that of pre-historic 
archeology. 

The historian Vedel-Simonsen was not a member at first, but he was 
one of the most zealous collaborators; he undertook for the commission 
several tours into the country, in order to collect antiquities and to 
excite interest in favor of the National Institute recently founded. In 
this way he had many opportunities of seeing the finds taken from the 
soil and the tumuli. Relying upon his own experience, he was the first 
to establish a fundamental principle for the classification and distribu- 
tion of the chaotic mass of antiquities, the first to propose as a scientific 
theory the division of pre-historic times into the great paleo-ethnologic 
periods,—that of stone, that of bronze, and that of iron. 

In his work entitled: Udsigt over Nationalhistoriens oldste og mer- 
keligste Perioder (Epitome of the most ancient and most remarkable 
periods of national history), the first volume of which was published in 
1813, there is a chapter on the first settlement, the most ancient inhab- 
itants, and the primitive history of the North. He discusses (pages 
73-76) the tools and arms of the most remote times, and rejects the 
opinion then common, that the stone objects are only sacred objects. 
On the contrary, he pronounces them tools and arms of an epoch in 
which metals were still unknown, and he fortifies his opinion by citing 
for comparison the information about the savages of the present time 
who still use stone tools, and by referring to his observations during his 
tours undertaken for the new museum. t page 76, he gives a résumé 
of his ideas in the following very remarkable passage: ‘The arms and 
utensils of the most ancient Scandinavians were in the beginning of stone 
and of wood. These Seandivavians then learned to work copper and 
even to harden it ; so that there result copper axes found in the soil, and 
lastly (as it seems) iron. So from this point of view the history of their 
civilization might be divided into an age of stone, an age of copper, and an 
ageofiron. These ages were not however separated from one another by 
limits so exact that they do not encroach upon one another. Doubtless 
among the poor they continued to use stone tools after the introduction 
of copper ones, and copper tools after the introduction of iron ones; the 
same case has arisen in our day with vases of clay, of pewter, and of 
porcelain. The arms and utensils of wood have naturally decomposed, 
those of iron have been oxidized in the soil, those of stone and of copper 
alone have been preserved.” 


sp emannerame il 


~ SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAZOLOGY. 513 


This proposition, already clearly enunciated in 1813, and now recog- 
nized everywhere as a fundamental truth of pre-historic archeology, 
was not however generally accepted at once in Denmark; the mate- 
rials accumulated in the museum were not yet numerous enough for 
the truth to be obvious to the eyes of all. It was only in Sweden that 
some authors admitted the theory of Mr. Vedel-Simonsen ; in Denmark 
his ideas were for a long time only a sort of prophecy of what every- 
body was going to accept. The man who was to draw from the arche- 
ological finds, and from the antiquities themselves, the incontestable 
proofs of this theory and to secure its recognition throughout the entire 
world was Christian Jurgensen Thomsen, for fifty years the director 
of the Pre-historic Museum of Copenhagen, which he raised to the rank 
of the first institution of that kind in Europe; he has been called the 
father of the pre-historic archeology of the North. In 1816 he sue- 
ceeded Mr. Nyerup as secretary of the archeological commission and 
as director of the museum, a position which he held until his death, in 
1865. This remarkable man was truly self-taught,—originally a mer- 
chant without erudition, and for that matter little encugh attached to 
books,—but he had very extraordinary natural gifts, an observing mind, 
and a very delicate perception of objects of art and of antiquities. He 
was an excellent numismatist and a good connoisseur in art. His 
trained eye and his fine perception of the style and of the character- 
istic details of ancient objects permitted him to arrive at a more pro- 
found knowledge of pre historic antiquities. For him the aim was no 
longer to seek to determine and to illustrate pre-historic objects by the 
interpretation of traditions. Through him, as well as through the 
young men who attached themselves to this acute connoisseur and to 
his rich museum, pre-historic archeology became a study of the antiq- 
uities themselves; they understood that a knowledge of the very re- 
mote times to which these antiquities ascend is only obtained from 
these contemporary remains by the empirical path and by an inductive 
method. 

Mr. Thomsen mainly exerted his influence by his labors inside of the 
museum. It was in 1819, that he began to open the latter to the public 
for a few hours each week; he was always there himself to instruct 
visitors. In this way he succeeded by degrees in conquering for the 
Archeological museum a place in the national interests. In the classi- 
fication aud exposition of antiquities he was ever making progress. 
Very early there began to form in him the knowledge of the three great 
periods of the development of civilization, and of the way in whichan 
archeological museum should be arranged conformably to this principle. 
What Mr. Vedel-Simonsen had declared on that subject ten years be- 
fore does not seem at once to have convinced him. From 1825, how- 
ever, he expounded to Professor Keyser, of Christiania, his ideas upon 
the classification of a pre-historic collection on the basis of this chrono- 
logical principle. We know that he had already, in 1830, realized this 


574 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 


method in the museum of Copenhagen, when Mr. B. E. Hildebrand 
studied there under him. As we have already said, Mr. Thomsen has 
left only a very few printed works. In his memoirs of 1851 and of 1832, 
he already puts forth the theory of the three periods; but it was only 
in his book of 1836, Ledetraad til nordisk Oldkyndighed (Manual fer the 
learning of northern antiquity,—a German edition in 1837, afterwards 
an English one also) that he developed it more at length, and presented 
it as valid not only for all the Nortb but for all Europe. He expresses 
himself in the following terms upon the age of bronze, of which he as 
yet knew scarcely any remains in countries not Scandinavian, but which 
he thought had prevailed in the rest of Europe (p. 59): “It seems that 
a very ancient civilization, anterior to the introduction of iron, had 
spread over a large part of Europe, and that its products have had a 
very great resemblance in countries very distant from one another. In 
studying the arms and cutting tools of bronze and the inferences from 
the discoveries as a whole, one will doubtless be more and more con- 
vinced that they have a very high antiquity, and that (especially in the 
countries of the South) they are exceedingly ancient. If it isadmitted 
that the objects of this sort which are found upon Seandinavian soil 
are imitations of those which have been imported thither, it is clear 
that they have been used once in the countries from which they come. 
If .on the contrary the relations ceased there, where they only existed 
by the migrations of the peoples, one can understand that the inhabit- 
ants of the North, having once received from southern countries the 
knowledge of the most ancient inventions, should—because of the great 
distance and the interruption of communications, have remained ignor- 
ant of the progress and subsequent discoveries made by the most civil- 
ized peoples. What exists in the North will thus be able doubtless to 
instruct us about the similar objects which must have existed in coun- 
tries where the development entered into the full light of history long 
before it did in the North.” i 

The Royal Society of Antiquaries of the North, founded by Mr. Rafn 
in 1825, and directed by him for forty years, had also at this time com- 
menced to enter into more intimate relations with the museum. In the 
beginning the society expended its activity in editing the literary 
remains existing in the ancient Norwegian-Icelandic tongue; afterward 
it devoted itself also to the occupation of collecting and describing the 
antiquities and of examining the archeological remains of the country. 
The archeological commission had in 1812-27, published Antikvariske 
Annaler (Archeological Annals), four volumes; from 1832, it united 
with the royal society for the publication of Nordisk Tidskrift for Old- 
kyndighed (Periodical of the North for the investigation of antiquity), 
three volumes of which appeared by 1836. From that year the society 
began to publish the Annaler for nordisk Oldkyndighed, twenty-three 
volumes of which appeared by 1863; in the same time appeared seven 
other volumes; Antikvarisk Tidskrift (Antiquarian Periodical), 1843-63, 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 55 


containing also some memoirs treating of ethnographic subjects. 'To 
render the most important works accessible also to foreigners a series 
was printed in French: Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du 
Nord (Memoirs of the Royal Society of Auntiquaries of the North), 
1840-’60, in all three volumes. 

Under the direction of Mr. Thomsen anumber of young men began 
then to devote themselves to the study of pre-historic antiquities, work- 
ing at the museum and undertaking excavations in the country, for 
exampie Sorterup Strunk Herbst, but before all Worsaae (182185). By 
an excellent little book, Danmarks oldtid oplyst ved Oldsager og Grav 
hoie (the Antiquity of Denmark, elucidated by the tumuli and finds), 
which appeared in 1842, he places himself immediately at the head of 
the archeological authorities of Denmark. It is a statement compris- 
ing some conclusions possible to be drawn from the materials amassed 
and from the facts established up to that time. This book showed the 
public at once how this new science of pre-historic antiquities could 
extend and had already extended the horizon of our knowledge. For 
more than forty years Mr. Worsaae continued to be the chief of the 
Danish archeologists; he has enriched the science with numerous 
archeological and archeologico-historical works, and he has opened to 
the studies new paths. 

Pre-historic studies in Denmark made a very considerable stride for- 
ward by the discovery of the kjékkenmgddings (heaps of kitchen refuse). 
It is the illustrious zoologist Japetus Steenstrup, (of whose last memoir 
the Revlse @ Anthropologie gave an account in its last number,) who has 
the honor of having discovered, examined exactly, and interpreted ingen- 
iously these remarkable relics of the earliest antiquity of Denmark. It 
was in 1837, that he observed, in some heaps of oyster and other shells 
which were found in the elevated places of the Danish coasts, some 
evident products of human industry, incontestable proofs that the for- 
mation of these heaps must have taken place after the habitation of the 
country. As some bones of animals were also found in these heaps, he 
came to include these formations in the circle of his special studies upon 
the ancient flora and fauna of the country. It was by examining the 
turf-pits of Denmark that he discovered that the flora of the country for- 
merly had been altogether different from that of our day, and that he 
there established the existence of several successive periods of vegeta- 
tion. Some bones of animals found in the different layers of these turf- 
pits had also furnished him with the materials for the history of the 
fauna of the country. Upon the initiative of Mr. Steenstrup, the Royal 
Academy of Copenhagen in 1848, appointed a committee ccmposed of 
Mr. Forchhammer as geologist, Mr. Worsaae as archeologist, and Mr. 
Steenstrup himself as zoologist, to examine these shell heaps. This 
last gentleman in reality took charge of the labors of the committee. 
In the reports of the Academy of Copenhagen he gave (1848-55) a 
series of famous memoirs upon his admirable studies. The true nature 


576 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 


of these heaps was soon discovered by the committee; their formation 
was evidently due to man; the shells and the bones of animals were 
remains of things eaten; these large heaps were remains of meals, and 
that is why Mr. Steenstrup called them kjgkkenm@ddings, a word after- 
ward naturalized in all languages as a scientific term designating the 
similar remains found in the most distant countries in the world. By 
acute studies upon the formation and upon the contents of these heaps, 
Mr. Steenstrup discovered that they originated among a population of 
hunters and of tishers who were as yet unacquainted with metals, a 
population which had lived in a remote age; and that the climate of 
Denmark, and in consequence the flora and the fauna, were then alto- 
gether different from what they are now. That climate was colder ; the 
forests consisted of firs; many animals which have now disappeared 
from the fauna of Denmark were numerous there; for example, the 
great European carnivores, the Bos primigenius, the Tetrao wrogallus, 
ete.; of special interest is the presence ofa northern bird, now extinct, 
Alca impennis. Thestudies of Mr. Steenstrup not only enriched, by 
their results, Danish paleo-ethnology; indirectly they were also very 
importaut by the influence which they exerted upon the severity and 
the exactness of the method of the natural sciences which was subse- 
quently adopted by the pre-historic archeologists in Denmark. 

In this time Mr. Worsaae had already extended the circle of his pre- 
historie studies beyond the limits of his native land, undertaking jour- 
neys into Germany, France, England, and Ireland; he had already pub- 
lished some works containing the results of studies made during these 
journeys, and had just created thus the comparative method in pre- 
historic science. Several of his works had been published in foreign 
languages and had likewise exerted an influence upon the beginning of 
paleo-ethnologic studies in other countries. 

From 1850 to 1870, the museum of Copenhagen was greatly enriched ; 
it increased especially from the materials coming from the systematic 
excavations of the antiquaries. One event of great importance for the 
prosperity of the museum and of paleo-ethnology occurred : the reign- 
ing king, His Majesty Frederick VII, became warmiy interested in pale- 
ology; he even made his appearance as an author on the subject. New 
collaborators were added to the museum to those who were already 
working there under the direction of Mr. Thomsen, among others Mr. 
Boye and Mr. Engelhardt who, until 1863, was the director of the mu- 
seum of Sleswick at Flensburg. 

But relying thus upon materials whose number was increasing and 
upon ever-extending explorations, progress ought to have been made. 
First an effort was made to sub-divide the three great ages established 
by Vedel-Simonsen, and Thomsen, and to discover their chronological 
limits. It is always Mr. Worsaae who marches at the head. In 1854, 
he published an atlas of illustrations: Afbildninger fra det Kgl. Museum 
for nordiske Oldsager (Illustrations of the royal museum of northern 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAZOLOGY. 57 


antiquities), an important work, of which the second edition especially, 
under the title: Nordiske Oldsager (Northern Antiquities) 1859, circu- 
lated in all Europe, and which, still frequently quoted, has served as a 
model for several similar paleo-ethnological atlases in different countries. 
In this work appeared for the first time the sub-division of theage of iron 
into two periods. About 1840, moreover, few remains of the age of iron 
were known in Denmark, while those of the age of bronze were numer- 
ous; investigators inclined to the opinion that the age of bronze ex- 
tended there down toward the year 700 of ourera. In 1853, Mr. Worsaae, 
with the co-operation of Mr. Herbst, discovered a first age of iron, char- 
acterized especially by numerous imported Roman pieces, and whose 
duration he determined as from the year 1 to about 500 of our era. In 
a memoir of 1859, Mr. Worsaae also proposed sub-divisions of the age of 
stone and of the age of bronze. As to the age of stone, he wished to 
establish a first period, comprising essentially the kjdkkenm@ddings with 
their ground flint, and corresponding to an epoch of transition from the 
paleolithic age to the neolithic age in the west of Europe; then a second 
period, characterized by the dolmens and the ground and polished flint ; 
but this sub-division was very energetically contested by Mr. Steenstrup. 
In the reports of the Academy of Copenhagen, 1859-62, this question 
was earnestly discussed by Mr. Worsaae and Mr. Steenstrup ; the lat- 
ter wished to maintain the contemporaneity of the kj¢kkenmgddings and 
the dolmens. 

Among the most considerable publications of Danish paleo-ethnology 
about 1870, should be noticed moreover Mr. Engelhardt’s descriptions 
of some great discoveries of the first iron age, or more exactly of the 
lower Roman epoch, which had been made in some marshy meadows in 
Sleswick and in Fionia. 

The Swiss Morlot contributed much to make Danish paleo-ethnology 
and its results known abroad. In 1858, he studied a long time at the 
museum of Copenhagen and on his return to his native land, published 
several memoirs upon the pre-historic labors of the savants of the North. 


SWEDEN. 


In Sweden also attention had been directed, in past centuries to pre- 
historic remains and objects. Beginning with the year 1666, the Gov- 
ernment had established a college of antiquities which was charged 
with forming a collection of the ancient treasures which might be found 
in the soil. Aithough that is to be considered as the germ of the 
archeological museum of Stockholm, only a few objects nevertheless 
were collected there. When in 1786, King Gustavus III founded the 
Royal Academy of belles-lettres, of history, and of antiquities, that in- 
stitution was charged with the care of the remains of the country and 
with the custody of the collection which had already existed for a cent- 
ury. The Swedish historians often mentioned at this period ancient 
objects, but it was only in our century that the special study of national 
antiquities began in Sweden. 


H. Mis. 224. —37 


578 SCANDINAVIAN ARCH ZOLOGY. 


At the beginning of this century, Sjéborg, professor of history, at 
Lund, deserved credit for his activity in investigating the remains of the 
country, in order to make up its archeological topography and statistics; 
in 1805, he obtained from the government a decree ordering the preser- 
vation of pre-historic remains. The fruits of his labors are published in 
several memoirs, but especially in a work entitled Samlingar for Nor- 
dens fornelskare (collections for those interested in northern antiquity), 
I-Ill, 1822~23. The Goétiska forbundet (Gothic Union), a literary so- 
ciety, founded in 1811, by some learned and patriotic young men, has 
also done much to spread the knowledge of the national antiquities ; its 
literary organ, Jdwna, must be considered as the first periodical publi- 
cation of Swedish archeology. At this time many private collections 
of antiquities were founded, the most of which have since been acquired 
by the museum of Stockholm. 

The theory of the three ages of civilization enunciated in 1813, by the 
Dane Vedel-Simonsen, was accepted by Magnus Bruzelius, at Lund 
(Specimen antiquitatum borealium, 1816). The illustrious Geijer ap- 
proved it in his work, Svenska folkets historia (The History of the Swed- 
ish People), 1832. 

In 1830, Dr. B. E. Hildebrand, of Lund, went to Copenhagen to study 
there under Mr. Thomsen, numismatics and northern antiquities; on 
his return he was appointed chief of the archeological collection at 
Lund, which he classified according to the system of the three periods 
communicated to him by Mr. Thomsen. In 1833, Hildebrand was called 
to Stockholm to arrange the numismatic collection and the old museum 
of antiquities, hitherto however without any importance. Hildebrand 
thus became the true founder of this museum; in the beginning he 
classified it according to the ideas of Mr. Thomsen. In 1837, appointed 
antiquary of the kingdom, he had during a long energetic administra- 
tion the opportunity of being very active for the enlargement of the 
museum, so that in 1879, he was able to commit it into the hands of his 
son and successor, as an institution of the first rank. 

Another illustrious man is also to be named at the beginning of pa- 
leo-ethnological studies in Sweden in our century. As the introduction 
to a new edition of his work Skandinaviens Fauna, the celebrated 
zoologist Sven Nilsson, at Lund, in 1834, published a remarkable 
memoir: Udkast til Jagtens og Fiskeriets Historie i Skandinavien (out- 
line of a history of hunting and fishing in Scandinavia). He there 
sketches the life of the first inhabitants; they were as yet unac- 
quainted with metals, and lived as hunters and fishers: they had only 
tools of stone and of wood. He gives detailed descriptions of the different 
kinds of tools found, investigates their use, and compares them with 
those of peoples still savage, particularly with those of the Greenlanders 
and Australians. Then after having visited the museums of Copen- 
hagen and several ethpographie collections abroad, he published in 
183843 his famous work Skandinaviska Nordens Urinvanare. (The 


— 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAZOLOGY. DAo 


First Inhabitants of the Scandinavian North). In this work, which is 
of the greatest importauce, upon the age of stone, one sees introduced 
for the first time the methods of comparative ethnography; it is a book 
which assures forever to its author an elevated place among the 
founders of pre-historic science. In this first edition, the age of bronze 
is only treated in the last chapter; the opinion is there maintained that 
the introduction of that civilization is due to the immigration of a Cel- 
tic tribe. It was not until later that he put forth his well-known theory 
that the age of bronze in Europe is due to the Phcenicians, those com- 
mercial mariners of antiquity; this theory has been developed in de- 
tail in the second part, published in 186264, of a new edition of his 
work. Inthe same way a new edition of the first part, upon the age of 
stone, was published in 1866. This work, translated into German, 
French, and English, excited the greatest attention in all Europe, and 
still enjoys, and with reason, the greatest reputation, although his 
Pheenician theory perhaps no longer counts any adherents. 

Principally under the influence of B. E. Hildebrand, the Swedish 
Academy of belles-lettres, history, and antiquities, from the year 1856, 
directed its activity more and more toward archeological topography 
and the statistics of the remains of the country, the extension of the 
museum, and of the systematic excavations, and the publication of the re- 
sults; a throng of able men took part in these labors. During the course 
of 1860, local societies of antiquaries were founded everywhere in the 
provinces; these societies did much to spread archeological knowledge, 
excite interest in its favor, and collect and preserve materials; a series 
of provincial museums were organized, depending in a certain degree 
upon the National Museum of Stockholm. The Swedish Archeological 
Society, founded in 1869, has become the common center of these local 
societies. 

The most of these private societies have published private periodical 
collections; the principal organ of Swedish archeology appears under 
the auspices of the Academy of Antiquities, Antikvarisk Tidsskrift for 
Sverige (Antiquarian Journal for Sweden). Among the most impor- 
tant memoirs of this journal must be cited the work of Bb. EK. Hilde- 
brand, published in 1869, upon the carvings on rock, where he first 
gives the incontestable proofs that these remarkable remains date from 
the age of bronze. From 1860 to 1870, commenced also the labors of 
two men still the most celebrated to-day among the Swedish pre-histo- 
rians: Hans Hildebrand (the son of B. E. Hildebrand), who published 
in 1866, an important book entitled Svenska folket under hednatiden 
(The Swedish People during the Time of Paganism), in which he treats 
especially of the relations between the two periods of the age of iron in 
Scandinavia; and Oscar Montelius, whose work, Fra jernaldern (On 
the Age of Iron), which appeared in 1869, has laid the solid foundations 
of a chronological classification of the finds dating from the age of 
iron, by giving detailed descriptions of all those of the northern iron 
age, accompanied by imported forvign coins. 


580 SCANDINAVIAN ARCH ZOLOGY. 


NORWAY. 


In Norway it was the Royal Society for the good of Norway which 
founded at Christiania the first collection of national antiquities; in 
1811, it appointed a commission to form this collection. After the re- 
establishment of the independence of Norway, by the separation from 
Denmark in 1814, the society ceded the collection to the university 
recently founded, where it became the basis of the pre-historic museum, 
now the most considerable in the country. It was not until 1828, how- 
ever, that a director of the museum was appointed,—Key ser, a professor 
of history. Already,in 1825, Keyser, during a visit at the house of 
Mr. Thomsen in Copenhagen, had learned of the classification into 
three periods adopted by him in his museum; at Christiania the same 
principle was adopted from the beginning. This museum grew con- 
stantly and rapidly in a subsequent period. To Mr. Keyser, in 1862, 
succeeded Mr. O. Rygh, who is still the director. 

In 1825, another archeological museum was foundedin Norway. At 
that time a number of private citizens, patriotic and interested in the 
sciences, established at Bergen a museum for the west of Norway, 
whose collections, especially the archeological, increased rapidly. 
There also, in 1833, was begun the first Norwegian archeological jour- 
nal, Urda, of which down to 1846, two volumes and a part of a third 
were published. It was above all Christie, and the bishop Neumann, 
who displayed the most activity in the founding and the development 
of this museum of Bergen. 

In 1844, at Christiania, was created the Forening til norske fortidsmin 
desmerkers bevaring (The Society for the Preservation of the Ancient 
Remains of Norway), which formed a new centre for archeological 
labors. The society has affiliated members at Trondhjem and at Ber- 
gen, and counts members throughout the country; it is subsidized by 
the state, and its president is always the antiquary of the kingdom, ap- 
pointed by the government,—at present Mr. Nicolaysen. The society 
has done much for the preservation and description of the remains; it 
has undertaken explorations and excavations, and has published a series 
of works. Since 1815, it has published Aarsberetninger (Annual Re- 
ports), with plates; among its other publications must be named the 
work of Mr. Nicolaysen, Norske fornlevninger (Norwegian Archeolog- 
ical Materials), 1866, containing information upon all the archeological 
remains and materials known up to that time in Norway. 

About 1870, at Trondhjem, a provincial museum was also organized by 
Mr. K. Rygh, which has now acquired some importance. In the south 
of the country Mr. Lorange has formed at Frederickshald a private col- 
lection of special interest, because almost all the materials which are 
there preserved come from his own excavations. 

The most important archeological publications which appeared in 
Norway from 1860 to 1870, are some memoirs of Mr. O. Rygh, especially 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHZOLOGY. 581 


one published in 1868: Den eldre Jernalder i Norge (Yhe First Age ot 
Iron in Norway). The first period of iron stands indicated for the first 
time and distinctly characterized in the Norwegian finds. It is a model 
work as to soberness and soundness of method. 

We have followed the development of pre-historic studies in the north 
down to 1870; here it is proper for us to stop and to conclude this first 
period. ; 

It is already a long time since the new science pushed itself likewise 
junto the other countries of Europe. The surprising discoveries of Mr. 
Boucher de Perthes, which formed an epoch, havelong since been gen- 
erally accepted ; energetic labors have commenced, especially in geolog- 
ical paleo-ethnology ; great attention is directed at once upon prehis- 
totic times and upon proto-historic times. In Germany, particularly in 
the north of that country, local investigators early began work in the 
same way as the antiquaries of the north. Let us mention among them 
and in the first rank Mr. Lisch, at Schwerin. In 1852, a central museum 
was established at Mayence under the direction of Mr. Lindensehmit. 
A few years afterwards, in Switzerland, Mr. Keller discovered the palaf- 
fites ; finally about 1860, Mr. Gastaldi founded the study of paleo-eth- 
nology in Italy. 

In 1866, the international congress of anthropology and pre-historic 
archeology held its first session. It is fitting to end this first seetion 
by mentioning the fourth session of this congress, which took place at 
Copenhagen in 1869. Scholars from all the countries of Europe assem- 
bled there to learn the results attained by Danish paleo-ethnology dur- 
ing more than fifty years. The rich museums, the archeological and 
the ethnographic, both lasting monuments of the aged Thomsen, de- 
ceased a few years before, excited the admiration of all. The labors 
of the congress presented much interest. Foreigners were especially 
interested in a discussion between Messrs. Worsaae and Steenstrup upon 
the sub-division of the stone age and upon the chronological characters 
of the Aj~kkenmoddings. 

i: 


About the year 1870, a new phase opens in the history of Scandina- 
vian archeology. Under the wgis of the preceding scholars there is 
formed a phalanx of young men who bring with them new ideas, ten- 


dencies, and methods. 
SWEDEN. 


The first to be pomted out in this country, at this period, is Mr. Hans 
Hildebrand, the son (already mentioned) of B. E. Hildebrand. While 


Still young he had the opportunity of making, during several years, 


long tours to the most important archeological museums of Europe, and 
thus acquiring a profound knowledge of all archeological materials. 
The results of these studies have been recorded especially in a memoir 
the principal parts of which appeared in 1872-73, in the Antikvarisk 


582 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHA OLOGY. 


Tidsskrift for Sverige: Studier i jaémnforande fornforskning. Bidrag til 
spdnnets historia. (Studies in comparative archeology: materials to 
be used for the history of the fibula.) In this excellent work the author 
classifies for the first time the principal groups of finds of the bronze and 
the iron age in central Europe; he describes them in their peculiari- 
ties and their geographical extension and insists particularly upon the 
two great groups of the pre-Roman iron age, which he designates under 
the names of the Hallstadt group and the Zéne group, after the most 
celebrated localities of these finds. Though this work has neyer been 
translated in its entirety into a foreign language, it has nevertheless 
been of great importance in the development of the science, and has 
formed an epoch in comparative prehistoric archeology. We have 
seen how Mr. Worsaae, many years before, had already undertaken to 
compare the archeological data of the north with those of other coun- 
tries; but it is Mr. Hildebrand who possesses the merit of having sought, 
almost the first, to give a systematic epitome, a complete classification of 
all the material pertaining to a certain archeological age, in this case 
the one nearest the beginning of historic times in southern and central 
Europe. Geologically speaking, it is the principal stages and the most 
remarkable formations of the tertiary period of pre-historic time, which 
are separated and characterized in this work for the first time. The 
principal conclusions of this memoir, whether they be essentially modi- 
fied by the increase of materials or not, will always be of great impor- 
tance as the point of departure of a new phase in the progress of this 
pre-historic science. Another memoir of Mr. Hildebrand has the same 
tendency: Sur la division du Nord de VEurope en provinces archéolo- 
giques pour Vage de la pierre polie.- (On the division of the north of 
Europe into archeological districts for the age of polished stone.) Re- 
port of the Congress of Brussels, 1872. In 1873-80, he published a great 
work: De férhistoriska folken « Europa (the pre-historic peoples in 
Europe), in which—exhibiting vast erudition—he treats of all the paleo- 
ethnological materials then existing in Europe. Among his other 
works must be mentioned here a memoir upon les Cassitérides et Vétain 
dans Vantiquité (the cassiterides and tin in antiquity). In the Antik- 
varisk Tidsskrift, 1878, two works upon the “ Finds discovered by Mr. 
Schliemann in Troas” (Stockhoim, 1878) “and at Mycene” (ibidem, 
1882); then two memoirs treating of comparative ethnology: Folkens 
troom sina déda (the ideas of peoples about their dead; Stockholm, 
1874), and De lagre naturfolkens konst (art among primitive peoples). 
The latter, which is concerned especially with the sculpture and carv- 
ing on bone of the aurochs, the Eskimos and the men of the quaternary 
period, forms a part of the work of Mr. Nordenskjéld: Résultats de mes 
voyages dans le haut Nord (results of my travels in the far north). In 
1879, Mr. H. Hildebrand was appointed antiquary of the kingdom of 
Sweden. He has shown himself an energetic administrator. This is not 
the place to dwell upon the dispositions of the Government with regard 


92 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCH OLOGY. 583 


to the museums and remains, nor to speak of the works which he has 
published upon the civilization and the arts of Sweden in the middle 
ages, studies with which he seems to have been most occupied in the 
last years. 

A worthy colleague of Mr. Hans Hildebrand is Mr. Oscar Montelius, 
whom we have also mentioned already ; he is to-day first curator of the 
museum of Stockholm. By numerous works he has contributed to the 
knowledge of the antiquities of the North and of other countries of Eu- 
rope. In 1872, ’73, he published (in the Antikvarisk Tidsskrift) an ex- 
tended memoir on the relics of the age of bronze, discovered in the 
northern and central parts of Sweden, with comparative dissertations 
upon the bronzes of the North and those of central Europe. Since 
then, he has continued his studies upon the bronze age in the North, 
and has published a series of them, seeking to throw some light upon 
that remarkable epoch by profound researches upon the bronze age in 
central and southern Europe. Recently (in 1885), ie has published his 
definite conclusions upon this pre-historic age in a great work which our 
next article will discuss in detail. Among his numerous other works 


ro TT 


we must mention his atlas: Svenska pee 1872-77, a French edi- 
tion of which appeared in 1873~75— Antiquités Siionce arrangées et 
dé-rites par O. Montelius (Swedish antiquities, arranged and described 
by O. Montelius), with 658 figures; of the text corresponding to this 
atlas there has appeared only the first part, Stenalderen (the age of 
stone) 1874. An abridged collection of the results of Swedish arche- 
ology has been given by him in his book on Pre-historic Sweden, Stock- 
holn, 1874. (A French translation from the Swedish original, of 1873. 
A German edition, much enlarged, appeared in 1885, at Berlin, under 
this title: Die Kultur Schwedens in vorchristlicher Zeit.) In the Antik- 
varisk Tidsskrift, V, he published, in 1880—82, a great comparative study: 
Spdnnen fran bronsalderen, ete. (Fibule of the age of bronze and of the 
first age of iron); a study which is the result of extended travels, and 
which treats in a very detailed manner especially of the Italian fibule 
del prima eta del ferro (of the first age of iron). A succinct résumé of 
this memoir is inserted in the Matériaux pour Vhistoire de Vhomme (Ma- 
terials for the history of man, 1880, pp. 583-589). In the works of 
Messrs. Hildebrand and Montelius a peculiar method of research, typo- 
logy, with which we shall occupy ourselves in our next article, plays a 
prominent part.* 

Other archeologists attached to the museum of Stockholm are to be 
mentioned,—Messrs. Stolpe and Eckhoff. Both have made valuable in- 
vestigations and have published reports of them, Mr. Stolpe especially, 
upon the famous findings of Bjérké, of the second age of iron. Mr. 
Eckhoff, since 1880, has published the description of the antiquities of 
the Bohuslain, a model of the archzological topography of a country. 














* We cannot refrain from calling attention to a review of Mr. Hildebrand’s Scandi- 
navian archeology, which appeared in the Revue d’anthropologie in 1873, p. 523. 


584 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 


Among the men who, without being attached to the museum, have 
contributed to the pre-historic archeology of Sweden must be mentioned 
Mr. Wiberg, director of the lyceum of Gefle. From 1861 to 1873, be 
published several studies upon the relations of the ancient peoples of 
the Mediterranean to the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia; then 
upon the influence of the Greeks and Etruscans on the age of bronze 
in the north of Europe (1869). Moreover, numerous local societies 
have also displayed great activity and have given proofs of it in their 
periodicals. Important contributions to archeo!ogical literature have 
also been furnished by private individuals; for example, a work on 
“* Les antiquités de Warend (The antiquities Wiirend), a district. of south- 
ern Sweden, by Mr. Wittlock, 1874; then a ceramic monograph on the 
clay funeral vases found in Sweden by Mr. Strale, 1873. The great 
illustrated work of Mr. Baltzer, of Gétheborg, on the glyphics upon 
the rocks of Bohusliin, of the age of bronze, commenced in 1881, is not 
yet finished. 

The Swedish periodical publications which we have mentioned above, 
page 320, have been continued in this period ; since the year 1872, the 
Academy of Antiquities has added to them a new Manadsblad (monthly 
bulletin) containing less extended memoirs and especially information 
on recent finds and excavations. In 1873, the Academy also com- 
menced the publication of a grandly conceived work, Tekningar ur 
Statens historiska museum (Illustrations of the National Archeological 
Museum). This magnificent work is destined to comprise several vol- 
umes of figures on the most important series of the museum of Stock- 
holm. 

In 1874, the International Congress of Anthropology and Archeology, 
having held its seventh session at Stockholm, the Messrs. Hildebrand, 
father and son, together with Mr. Sven Nilsson, did the honors of Swedish 
archeology to their most illustrious colleagues from all the countries of 
Europe. In 1879, Mr. B. E. Hildebrand, the true founder of the museum 
of Stockholm, resigned the direction of the museum and his position as 
antiquary of the kingdom; he was succeeded by his son, Hans Hilde- 
brand; he was still living five years ago. In 1883, Sven Nilsson also 
died at Lund, almost a centenarian. 


DENMARK. 


Mr. Worsaae, during all this period, has continued to be the chief of 
the pre-historic archeologists there. Among his numerous works we 
must notice an important memoir which appeared in 1872, in the Aarbd- 
ger on the archeology of the countries situated tothe east of Seandi- 
navia, a French edition of which appeared in the Memoirs of 1873-74 
under this title: La colonisation de la Russie et du Nord scandinave et leur 
plus ancien état de civilisation (the settlement of Russia and of the Sean- 
dinavian North and their most ancient state of civilization). He demon- 
strates that the theory of the immigration of the Scandinavian peoples 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 585 


from the East finds no support in archeological facts. In the Aarbo- 
ger of 1879, he publishes a study embracing vast territories: Des ages de 
pierre et de bronze dans Vancien et le nouveau monde (on the ages of stone 
and of bronze in the Old and the New World):—French translation in 
the Memoirs, 1880. In this memoir he advances the opinion that these 
archeological ages have existed in eastern Asia and in America, and 
that the system of the three periods has thus a certain value in the 
whole world. He draws thence the conclusion that in the developments 
of civilization, there is not only a parallelism, but also a true relation, 
even between the most distant races. In his book, Nordens Forhistorie, 
1878, second edition, 1581 (the pre-history of the North), he seeks to 
give a complete epitome of the results of northern archeology. In his 
last years he occupied himself with researches by which he believed 
that he could open new horizons upon our knowledge of pre-historic 
civilization ; comparative studies of antiquities from the point of view 
of their forms and of their ornamentation, which, according to him, 
must almost all have derived their origin from religious symbols; 
and detailed observations on the usages and rites according to which 
antiquities are deposited he thought that he could even form conject- 
tures about the mythology and the religious life of pre-historic times. 

In his book, The industrial arts of Denmark, London, 1882 (South 
Kensington Hand-Book), he has published some conclusious on this 
subject. 

By the side of Worsaae the men whose names have been mentioned 
above—among them Mr. Engelhardt especially—have also been active 
at the museum of Copenhagen during this period. His works treat of 
the age of iron. Wecall attention to one of his articles of 1871, Rom- 
erske Gjenstande fundne t Norden (Roman objects found in the North), 
a French résumé of which exists in the Memoirs, 1872; then to two 
memoirs on the tombs of the iron age in eastern Denmark (in the Aar- 
boger, 1877, cf. Memoirs, 187879); and in Jutland (in the Aarbdéger, 
1881). Constructed according to a larger plan is his work of 1875, 
Klassisk Industris og Kulturs Betydning for Norden (Influence of classic 
industry and civilization upon those of the North in antiquity in the 
Memoirs, 187576). Mr. Engelhardt died in 1881. 

In Denmark also a new generation of archeologists has formed at 
the museum in the period of whose history we are giving a summary. 
Mr. Sophus Miiller has published there several admirable works on 
comparative archeology, relying not only upon Danisb materials, but 
also upon a profound knowledge of all the riches existing in foreign 
lands, where he has several times visited the most important museums. 
In a study published in the Aarboger, 1877, be succeeded in sub-divid- 
ing the age of iron in Denmark in a more detailed manner than any one 
had done before. In 1876, appeared his work on “ The periods of the 
age of bronze,” in which he seeks to demonstrate that the two groups of 
the northern age of bronze, established by Mr. Worsaae, and defined 


586 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHZXOLOGY. 


in a more compete manner by Mr. Montelius, rest upon differences 
rather in topography than in chronology. In 1880, he published an ex- 
cellent work on *‘ Decoration with animal designs in the northern age 
of iron” (La décoration avec des motifs animaux dans Vage du fer nor- 
dique) and in Europe during the epochs of the migrations of the peo- 
ples. In the Aarbéger of 1882, is contained his important memoir, Sur 
les origines et le premier développement de Vdage du bronze en Europe, 
éclairi par les trouvailles dans le sud-est de ? Europe (on the origin and 
first development of the age of bronze in Europe, elucidated by the 
finds in the southwest of Europe). There the author treats of the 
finds discovered by Mr. Schliemann and of the materials derived from 
southern Russia and Caucasus. These three works have also passed 
through German editions. 

Among the young men connected with the museum of Copenhagen 
Mr. Henry Petersen ought also to be named. In the number of his pub- 
lications must be mentioned his memoir of 1875, Helleristninger 1 Dan- 
mark (a résumé in the Memoirs, 1877; ‘‘ Notes on the sculptured stones 
of Denmark”); and further, Stenalderens gravformer og deres chronologie 
(the different kinds of tombs during the age of stone in Denmark and 
their chronology, Aarboger, 1881); the remains of northern Germany 
are also here treated. Otherwise, the works of this anthor are mainly 
taken up with the archeology of the middle ages. 

Among the other archeologists who have been active during this 
period in Denmark we must name also Mr. Boye, previously mentioned, 
who has published several memoirs upon national antiquities; tlen Mr. 
Zink, who in the Aarboger, 1871, published a very important memoir 
Sur les tombeaux de Vage du bronze et leurs relations avec ceux de Vage de la 
pierre (on the tombs of the age of bronze and their relations to those of 
the age of stone.) Mr. Vedel, the governor of the island of Bornholm, 
whoin the Aarbéger, 1869, 1870, 1872, 1878, and 1883, (cf. Memoirs, 1872, 
1878, 1879,) has given the report of his researches on the pre-historic 
antiquities of this island, researches so excellent, that there is not per- 
haps in northern Europe any territory so correctly explored from the 
point of view of its antiquities as the island of Bornholm. 

The able artist Mr. A. P. Madsen, published in 1868-’76, a splendid 
illustrated work: Afbildninger af Danske Mindesmirker og Oldsager 
(Illustrated Danish remains and antiquities), three volumes in 4to, 
containing 125 engraved tables. Another Danish artist, Mr. Magnus 
Petersen, has also devoted himself to the illustration of Danish antiq- 
uities. 

A proof of the ardor with which national archeology in Denmark 
was cultivated also by private individuals is afforded by the two mag- 
nificent works published in 1878 and 1884, by Mr. de Sehested. In the 
vicinity of his chateau of Broholm, on the island of Fionia, this gentle- 
man had for a series of years investigated the archeological remains 
with minute care, and undertaken considerable excavations, the reports 
of which are contained in the two works mentioned. Of very special 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCH ZOLOGY. 587 


interest are the descriptions in the second work (posthumous) of the 
long series of technical experiments undertaken by the author during 
several years upon the making and the utility of stone implements ; 
for example, he had a wooden house constructed, using only stone tools. 

In the same way after the year 1870, Mr. Steenstrup continued his 
studies on the pre-historic flora and fauna of Denmark. For example, 
his memoir included in the Reports of the Academy, 1872, on the con- 
temporaneity of the Bos primigentus and the forests of fir in Denmark, 
in which mention is made of some flint chips buried in animal bones, as 
proof of the hunts conducted against the deer during the stone age, is 
important. 

Quite an interesting episode in the development of Swedish archzol- 
ogy is the vehement controversy with the German archeologists which 
took place from 1876 to 1880. Before that time the system of the three 
periods had already been vigorously contested in Germany, where the 
archeological materials were scattered in a multitude of small collee- 
tions, and where (owing to the lack of great deposits of objects) one 
could with difficulty understand the principal phases of the develop- 
ment of civilization. Mr. Worsaae had been obliged several times to 
repulse the German attacks against northern archeology, especially 
those of Mr. Lindenschmit. In 1876, Mr. Hostmann, in the Archiv fiir 
Anthropologie, made a furious assault against the theory of the three 
archeological ages, and disputed especially the existence of an age of 
bronze. On the northern side M. Sophus Miiller entered the lists; 
others joined the two champions; the controversy continued for sev- 
eral years. Ifthe attacks have in no respect been able to overthrow 
the system of the three periods or annihilate the age of bronze, it will 
be found perhaps that northern archieology has received a salutary in- 
tiuence from the criticisms of German scholars. 

During these fifteen years (1870-’85), the periodical publications be- 
fore mentioned have been continued by the Royal Society of Antiquaries 
of the North at Copenhagen. In Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed 
(Annals for the study of northern antiquities), and in the Mémoires de 
la Société royale des Antiquaires du Nord (Memoirs of the Royal Society 
of the Antiquaries of the North) new series were commenced in 1866. 
Moreover, investigators have worked energetically during this epoch to 
complete the archeological exploration of Denmark, and numerous 
excavations have been undertaken by the scholars connected with the 
museum. In 1874, Worsaae, then minister of religion, procured an 
annual subsidy from the revenue of the state for the investigation of 
the antiquities of the country. Every sammer an archeologist and an 
artist associated have since 1875, travelled through several districts 
parish by parish, writing lists and detailed descriptions of the known 
remains and findings, and taking the measure and the designs of all 
the ancient remains still existing. When these labors some years 
hence shall have been finished, there will be in Europe no country 
archeologically so well explored and known as Denmark. 


588 SCANDINAVIAN ARCHAOLOGY. 
NORWAY. 


The archeological society of this country, under the direction of Mr. 
Nicolaysen, the antiquary of the kingdom, has continued since the year 
1870, its investigations and its excavations, the reports of which are 
found in the annals of the society. In 1875, was established at the Uni- 
versity of Christiania a chair of pre-historic archeology (perhaps the first 
ordinary chair for this science in any university in Europe ?) to which was 
appointed Mr. O.Rygh. The administration of the museum of Christiania 
was attached to this chair. This period saw the most active Norwegian 
archeologists: First, those already mentioned, then Mr. Lorange, the 
director of the museum of Bergen since 1874, Messrs. Bendixen and 
Undset. Among the publications must be mentioned a memoir of Rygh 
on the Deuxiéme dge du fer en Norvége (Second age of iron in Norway), 
which appeared in the Danish Aarboger, 1877, and above all a large 
and splendid atlas, which appeared in 188085, Norske Oldsager (Nor- 
wegian antiquities), 732 wood cuts, with the text in Norwegian and in 
French. 

Among the publications of Mr. Lorange must be noticed, Om spor 
af romersk Cultur i Norges celdre Jernalder, 1873 (The traces of Roman 
civilization in Norway during the first age of iron). A remarkable work, 
Langskibet fra Gokstad (The ship of Gokstad), by Mr. Nicolaysen, was 
published in 1882, with a number of plates and figures, the text in Nor- 
wegian and in English, in 4to. He there describes a large ship of the 
epoch of the Normands (about the year 900) which he was able to dig 
out of a tumulus and have transported to Christiania, where this unique 
relic is now preserved in the archeological museum, of which it con- 
stitutes the principal ornament. Mr. Undset, connected with the mu- 
seum of Christiania, has for his part contributed to comparative arche- 
ology by works founded upon studies made during extended travels. 
Reference may be made to amemoir by him, Fra Norges oldre Jernalder 
(On the first age of iron in Norway, published in the Danish Aarbdéger, 
1830);* then a book entitled, Etudes sur Vdge du bronze de la Hongrie 
(Studies on the bronze age of Hungary), Christiania, 1880, in which he 
has treated of the relations between the bronze age of central Europe 
and that of the Scandinavian North. In 1881, appeared his great work: 
Jernalderens Begyndelsei Nordeuropa (the beginnings of the iron age 
in northern Europe. A German edition of it was published in 1882, 
under the title, Das erste Auftreten des Hisens in Nordeuropa. In this 
book he speaks of all the materials of central and especially northern 
Kurope, which date from the epoch of the transition from the bronze 
age to the age of iron. 

I conclude this retrospective review of pre-historic archeology in 


* The Gueaaeee that Nocneaae archi Borne often publish their memoirs in 
a Danish periodical journal is explained by the fact that Denmark and Norway have 
the same literary language. 


SCANDINAVIAN ARCHEOLOGY. 589 


Scandinavian countries, which has become essentialiy a history of its 
developments in the North, with a single remark. It is possible that 
some persons may be surprised that under the title of pre-historic 
archeology I include works treating of Roman antiquities or dating even 
trom a later period. It is because the Scandinavian countries were 
plunged in pre-historic darkness until nearly the year 1000 of our era. 
The knowledge of northern doings and developments before that epoch 
should be sought there principally in an empirical manner, by the in- 
ductive study of all the archeological materials, whatever they may be. 
The word pre-historic has a signification altogether relative. The con- 
ditions of France, for instance, about the year 2000 before our era, are 
absolutely pre-historic, while the civilization of the valley of the Nile, 
having followed its course for many centuries, was already in the full 
light of history. 





PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


By Prof. OT1s T. MASON. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Merely for the convenience of bringing together those subjects that 
are most akin, and not to draw hard and fast lines in a vigorously 
growing science, the same method will be pursued here as in last year’s 
summary. The order of presentation will be: General or Encyclopedic 
Anthropology, Biology, Psychology, Ethnology, Language, Technology, 
Archeology, Sociology, Philosophy, Folk-lore and Religion, and 
Hexiology. 

Under the heading of Encyclopedic Anthropology, the following 
classific concepts cover the entire ground : 

(1) General treatises, annual addresses, courses of lectures, diction- 
aries, encyclopedias, general discussions, classifications of the science. 

(2) Societies, their organization, scope, enterprises, history, and lists 
of their publications. 

(3) Journals, proceedings and transactions, the organs of associated 
bodies. 

(4) Periodicals, like L’Anthropologie, devoted wholly or in part to 
anthropology. 

(5) Annual assemblies, caucuses, congresses, general meetings of a 
national or international character. 

(6) Laboratories for general study. 

(7) Museums and collections, public and private, their scope, con- 
tents, methods, catalogues and history. Expositions. 

(8) Albums, galleries, portfolios, methods of illustrating anthro- 
pology. 

(9) Libraries on anthropology, catalogues, bibliographies, check-lists, 
and devices for ready reference, classification of books. 

(10) Instructions to collectors. 


I.—GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


(1) Each year some distinguished anthropologist brings together the 
results of his lifetime work in a general treatise upon the natural 


‘history of man. In accordance with this unwritten law the historian 
591 


592 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


calls attention to the works of Sergi and Turner in the current year. 
Characteristic addresses were delivered by Galton and Virchow, the 
former before the annual meeting of the Anthropological Institute, the 
latter before the general meeting of German anthropologists in 
Vienna. The volumes of the Bibliothéque Anthropologique continue 
to make their appearance. This series is designed to give expression 
to the ripest thoughts of the French Société d@ Anthropologie. The 
series of Smithsonian Annual Reports now embraces two volumes 
instead of one, as formerly. Part I contains general papers; while in 
Part II will be found only such as are based on material in the 
National Museum collections. 

(2) Happily for the diffusion of knowledge, innumerable societies and 
organizations are now to be found in every land, studying mankind. 
It would be well to enumerate them all. The best collection of titles 
will be found in the very last Smithsonian list of foreign and home cor- 
respondents. Scudder’s catalogue has already become antiquated by 
the death of many societies and the birth of others. Indeed the 
anthropological part of it was never full. Nothing is more desirable, 
and the suggestion is here made with the hope of stirring up an inter- 
est in the subject. In the bibliography appended to this report most 
of the great national societies are noticed, especially in connection with 
their journals and proceedings. The personnel of the American local 
societies is generally represented in the American Association. The 
same is true of England and France. The leading spirits of local or. 
ganizations are to be seen in the British Association and the French As- 
sociation. It is only in Germany that a general anthropological annual 
meeting is held, in which the sole topic considered is the natural his- 
tory of man. The national organization of Germany is most complete 
in this regard. Every meeting publishes a stenographic report in 
Correspondenz-Blatt. 

(3) What is true of societies is true of their journals. A full list can 
not be given. Ifthe following should be carefully studied, nearly all 
that is good will be found reviewed or at least catalogued by author and 
by title. 

The American Anthropologist, Washington ; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, 
Braunschweig; Archivio per l’ Antropologia, Firenze; Bulletins de la 
Société d@ Anthropologiede Paris ; Journal of the Anthropological Instv- 
tute of Great Britain and Ireland, London ; Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society of Great Britain and Ireland. London; Mittheilungen der An- 
thropologischen Gesellschaft, in Wien ; Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesell- 
schaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin. 

(4) The most gratifying statement to be made in this summary is the 
fact that every popular magazine,weekly or daily newspaper, and every 
course of lectures for the people, contains a great deal of the very best 
anthropological material. It is frequently said nowadays to the pub- 
lishing committees of technical and scientific journals, ‘‘ We can not 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN _ 1889. 593 


afford to have our papers appear in our society organ because the sub- 
scription periodicals otter good prices for them.” This fact marks an 
epoch in the history of anthropological literature and invites the socie- 
ties to explore new fields to which the general reader has not arrived. 
Indeed it is impossible to chronicle ali the periodicals of purely scien- 
tific character that lend their pages to our pens. 

If the following journals be scrutinized in their original papers, re- 
views, and book-lists, little that is desirable will escape the reader: 

Academy, London; American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, Men- 
don, Il.; The American Naturalist, New York; DL’ Anthropologie, Paris ; 
Atheneum, London; Ausland, Stuttgardt; Internationale Archiv fiir 
Ethnographie, Leiden; Nature, London; The Popular Science Monthly, 
New York; Science, New York. 

5. The four events of national interest each year are, the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Associ- 
ation for the Advancement of Science, the Association Francaise pour 
PAvancement des Sciences, and the Allgemeine Versammlung der 
deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie. During the year 18389, the 
first named met in Newcastle-on-Tyne, the second in Toronto, the third 
in Paris, in connection with the Exposition, the fourth in Vienna. 

The programme of the anthropological section of the British Associ- 
ation was as follows: Marks for bodily efficiency in examination of 
candidates for public service, Francis Galton. Early failure of pairs 
of grinding teeth, W. W. Smith. Development of the wisdom teeth, 
tedolfo Livi. Left-leggedness, W. K. Sibley. Occasional eighth true 
rib in man, D. J. Cunningham. Proportion of bone and eartilage in 
the lumbar section of the vertebral column in apes and in men, id. 
Model of the head of a man said to be one hundred and six years old, 
id. Head and shoulders of a young orang, id. European origin of 
early Egyptian art, J. Wilson, African airs and musical instruments, 
Governor Maloney. The Vikings the ancestors of English-speaking 
nations, P. B. du Chaillu. Origin of the Aryans, Isaac Taylor. Eth- 
nological significance of the beech, Isaac Taylor. Right of property in 
trees on another’s land, Hyde Clarke. Report of committee on the tribes 
of Asia Minor. Report of committee on anthropological notes and 
queries. Report of committee on anthropological measures taken at 
Bath. New anthropometric instrument for the use of travelers, F. 
xalton. Instruments for measuring re-action time, id. The Smithson- 
ian Institution in relation to Anthropology, T. Wilson. The study of 
ethonology in India, H. H. Risley. Former beliefs and customs of 
Torres Straits islanders, A. ©. Haddon. Notes collected at Morvat, 
New Guinea, Edward Beardmore. The British race in Australia, Dr. 
McLaurin. Color of the skin in certain Oriental races, T. Beddoe. Tem- 
perature of negroes and Europeans in tropical countries, R. W. 
Fellcin. Sensibility in Europeans and in negroes, id. The Esqui- 
maux, [ridtj of Nansen. Northumberland in prehistoric times, G. 

H, Mis. 224 38 





594 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


tome Hall. Implements of stag’s horn with whales’ skeletons in the 
Carse of Stirling, Sir William Turner. The origin of human faculty, 
G. J. Romanes. Brain functions and human character, B. Hollander. 
Topography of the brain in relation to the surface of the head, Pro- 
fessor Fraser. Classification of sociology, G. Weddell. Fire-making 
in North Borneo, 8. B. J. Skertchley. The tribes of South Africa, T. 
Macdonald. Report on occupation and employments, their effects on 
the development of the human body. NReport on the northwestern 
tribes of Canada, six plates, pp. 797-893. Report on an archeological 
map of the British Isles. 

Colonel Mallery, of the Bureau of Ethnology, opened the session of 
the anthropological section of the American Association with a strik- 
ing paper entitled Israelite and Indian. The following is the programme 
of Section H: Aboriginal fire-making, Walter Hough. Shinto, the re- 
ligion of the Japanese, Romyn Hitcheock. Siouan terms for ‘ myste- 
rious” and ‘ serpent,” J.O. Dorsey. Gens and sub-gens in four Siouan 
languages, J.O. Dorsey. Principles of evidencerelating to the antiquity 
of man W. J. McGee. Evolution of ornament, W. H. Holmes. Mounds 
of North Dakota, Henry Montgomery. Iroquois white-dog feast, W. M. 
Beauchamp. Missions Indians of California, H. W. Henshaw. Sue- 
cessors of paleolithic man in the Delaware: Valley, C. C. Abott. 
Winnepeg mound region, George Bryce. Artificial languages, David 
R. Keys. New linguistic family in California, H. W. Henshaw. The 
Parsee towers of silence, Mrs. R. Hitchcock. Seega, an Egyptian 
game, H. C. Bolton. Onondaga Shamanistic masks, De Cost Smith. 
Gold ornaments from Florida, A. E. Douglas. Alphabet of the Winne- 
bago Indians, Miss Alice C. Fletcher. Great medicine society of the 
Ojibwa, W.J. Hoffman. Algonkin Onomatology, A. F. Chamberlain. 
Indian personal names, J. O. Dorsey. Huron-Iroquois of the St. 
Lawrence and lake region, D. Wilson. Gesture language of the 
Blackfeet, J. McLean. The African in Canada, J. C. Hamelton. 
Indian burial in New York, W. M. Beauchamp. Portrait pipe in 
Central America, A. E. Douglas. Government of the Six Nations, 
Oji-ja-tek-ka. Ancient Japanese tombs and burial grounds, RK. Hitch- 
cock. Explorations around the serpent mound, Ohio. Aboriginal 
monuments in North Dakota, Henry Montgomery. Little Fall quartzes, 
Frane E. E. Babbitt. A Mississaqua legend, A. F. Chamberlain. 
Places of gentes in Siouan camping circles, J. O. Dorsey. Onomato- 
poeia interjections, ete., J. O. Dorsey. Ancient pit-dwellers in Yezo, 
R. Hitchcock. Steatite ornaments from Susquehanna River, A. Wan- 
ner. Eskimo of Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson St., F. F. Payne. Con- 
tents of children’s mounds, H. H. Ballard. The Aceads, Virginia H. 
Bowers. 

The programme of the French Association was made far more interest- 
ing by the illustrative collections in the Paris Exposition. The following 
subjects were discussed: The Svastika and the cross as religious em- 


| 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 595 


blems, Abbe Rochon. Anthropometric characters of the French, A. 
Bertillon. Stone Age in Denmark, Valdemar Schmidt. Pre-Roman 
times in Lorraine, F. Barthelemy. Stone disks found in neolithic cem- 
eteries, Chauvet. Ethnic energy, J. Laumonier. Stone chests in the 
dolmen of Grulennec, F. Gaillard. Digging ot a mardelle in Gard, 
Delort. Photographs of Mexican antiquities, Boban Duverge. Exist- 
ence of semi-domestic herds in the Magdalenian epoch, Piette. Age of 
bronze in the Gironde, Dr. Berchon. Prehistoric right and left hand, 
G. de Mortillet. Anthropometry of a series of Algerians, Dr. Manouv- 
rier. Skulls from the sepulchral grotto of Masdfrech, Dr. Prunieres. 
Form of the thumb, Dr. A. Block. Minerals used in making prehis- 
toric objects, Thomas Wilson. Paleography among the Arabs, Tarry. 
Physical characters of the Japanese, Verrier. “Stone disks found in the 


‘neolithic sepultures, Chauvet. Histologic researches as a complement 


to morphological studies in the brain. 

The address of Dr. Virchow before the German society was a review 
of twenty years in anthropology. The papers read were as follows : 
General meeting of the German anthropological society in Vienna, from 
August 5 to 10, 1889, with adjourned meeting to Buda Pesth, August 11 
to 14. Inspection of the pre-historic exhibition and collections in the 
Royal Natural History Museum. Preliminary report upon the adoption 
of a common scheme for anthropometry and nomenclature of the brain. 
Anthropology in the last twenty years, R. Virchow. The present state 
of pre-historic studies in Austria, Moriz Hoernes. The protection of pre- 
historic antiquities, von Troltsch. Report of the centrai commission on 
art and historic monuments, M. Much. Pre-historic times in middle 
Europe and their relation with neolithic times, J. N. Woldrich. Con- 
temporaneity of mammoth with diluvial man in Mahren, J. Maska. 
Stone boring in ancient stone implements, Theodor Ortvay. Bronze 
age in Bavaria, J. Naue. Similarities of form in bronzes, at home and 
abroad, Gundaker Graf von Wurmbrand. Alphabetic characters on 
Dacian finds, 8S. von Torma. Engraved bones and antlers in the caves 
of Kulna and Kostelik, Martin. Report of the committee on thé same, 
Kriz. Daggers in women’s graves of the bronze age, Julia Mestorf. 
Archeological finds, gold and silver, Grempler. Report on physical 
anthropology ; the measurements of recruits, J. Ranke. Physical char- 
acters of the peopies of the Austrian Alps, Zuckerkandl. Human 
molars, Zuckerkand]. Present knowledge of crania, Schaaffhausen. 
Crania Americana ethnica, R. Virchow. Positions of the ear on the 
head, J. Ranke. Placenta in men and apes, Waldeyer. Diluvial finds 
from Mahren; bronze finds in Austria, Szombathy. Cemetery of St. 
Lucia in Kusterlande, Marchesetti. Finds and their positions in Len- 
gyel, Wosinsky. 

The tenth session of the International Congress of Anthropology and 
Pre-historic Archeology was held in Paris, at the College of France, 
from August 19 to 26, under the presidency of Prof. A. de Quatrefages. 


596 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


The following is the programme: (1) Erosion and filling of valleys, 
Filling of caverns in relation to the antiquity of man. (2) Periodic- 
ity of glacial phenomena. (3) Art in the alluvium and in the cav- 
erns. Value of paleontological and archeological classifications for 
the quartenary epoch. (4) Chronological relations between the civil- 
izations of the stone, the bronze, and the iron periods. (5) Relation 
between the civilizations of Hallstadt and other Danubian stations on 
the one hand and on the other that of Mycene, Tirhyns, Hissarlik, and 
the Caucasus. (6) Examinations of the quaternary skulls and skel- 
eton parts found during the last fifteen years. Ethnic elements belong- 
ing to the different ages of stone, bronze and iron, in Central and West- 
ern Kurope. (7) Ethnographic survivals which can throw light on 
the condition of primitive peoples in Central and Western Europe. 
(8) How far do the analogies of archeology and ethnology authorize © 
the hypothesis of relationship, or that of pre-historic migration. 

The enormous advantage of having the Congress in Paris during the 
Exposition was apparent in the large attendance and in the frequent 
visits which were made to the anthropological museum of Paris, and to 
the many sections of the Champs de Mars, and the Esplanade des 
Invalides under the very best of guidance. 

6. The model workshops of anthropologists is the Laboratoire 
d’Anthropologie in Paris. Even here the counting, weighing, measur- 
ing of capacity, surface, distance, and angulation is confined to the 
human body. Galton’s laboratory in London and Wundt’s psycho-phys- 
icai establishment should be added, with the assistance of the vital 
statistician and the census director to make the whole complete. The 
system employed by Alphonse Bertillon for the measurement and 
identification of criminals in the Palais de Justice in Paris, is being 
adopted in many cities in our own country. Under the names of Bene- 
dikt, Galton, Hitchcock, Rollet, Topinard, and Virchow in our bibli- 
ography will be found titles of publications on this branch of anthro- 
pology. 

7. Kristian Bahnson, of Copenhagen, has rendered a lasting benefit 
to the student in his pamphlet on ethnographic museums, first pub- 
lished in Denmark and translated in the Mittheilungen der Anthro- 
pologischen Gesellschaft, in Wien. Museum history is the subject 
of an elaborate paper by Dr. Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Dr. Bastian, in the transactions of the Berlin Anthropological Society, 
writes on American collections. Reinach, on the museum of the Em- 
peror Augustus, should not be overlooked. 

The Peabody Museum in Cambridge publishes carefully prepared 
reports of its explorations and accessions each year. New zeal and ac- 
tivity have characterized the management of the American Museum in 
New York, and of the collections in Philadelphia. In the reports of the 
National Museum in Washington will be found detailed statements of 
work done and of the accessions, 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 597 


The memorable event in our science was the Paris Exposition, and 
especially that portion of it called “Exposition retrospective du travail 
et des sciences anthropologiques.” The design of this portion of the 
world’s great fair was to trace in outline by means of specimens, re-pro- 
ductions, authentic documents and villages inhabited by native peo- 
ples, the steps of human genius from their first trace to the present 
moment. Associated with this exhibition of invention were the speci- 
mens of man himself, shown in the savage just as he came from the 
hands of nature, and in other races as he has improved with time. Fin- 
ally, the cabinets of skeletons and the soft parts of the body in plaster and 
papier-maché were so installed as to exhibit man associated with his 
inventions; the skull and the brain, laboratory of thought and discov- 
ery; the skeleton and its contents, articulated machine to execute the 
conceptions of the central office. 

A building entitled Palais des Arts Liberaux was devoted to the serial 
display of the history of invention, a large space on the Esplanade des 
Invalides was covered with villages of Africans and natives of south- 
eastern Asia. The whole Exposition was filled with the climaxes of 
modern thought in every land, the Champs de Mars was fringed with 
structures which enabled the student to grasp in a coup dil the his- 
tory and the natural history of architecture. 

The arrangement of objects embraced the following classes: (1) An- 
thropology and ethnography, anatomy and races of mankind. (2) 
Liberal arts. (3) Arts and trades. (4) Transportation, (5) Military 
arts. 

In addition to this, a very interesting conception was that of showing 
also the organized machinery for the study of anthropology in Paris. 
To this end the Société @’ Anthropologie, the Ecole d’Anthropologie and 
the Laboratoire d’ Anthropologie, under the regime of public instruction, 
made a display in the Palais des Arts Liberaux. The institutions of 
Paris, united more or less for studying the natural history of man, are 
the following : 

(1) Société @ Anthropologie, founded May 19, 1859, publishes bulletins 
and memoires. The collections of the society are styled, since 1880, 
the Musée Broca, and the literary collections, Bibliotheque de la So- 
ciété Anthropologie. Two prizes, the Godard and the Broca, furnish 
an effective stimulus to thorough work. 

(2) Laboratoire @ Anthropologie (Keole des hautes Ktudes), founded 
by Broca in 1878, During the period from 1875 to 1889 the Labora- 
toire published 378 separate titles. 

(3) Ecole @Anthropologie, tirst authorized in 1876. This school is 
an annual course of lectures by the most distinguished men in France 
upon the different branches of anthropology. 

The following foundations are accessory to the three above named. 

(1) Société WAutopsie mutuelle—In 1876 a group of members of the 
Société d’ Anthropologie formed a-fraternity, the object of which is to 


598 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


conduct a scientific autopsy upon the members as they die. Hach one 
signs a will conveying his cadaver to the society, to be used in the 
furtherance of the science to which he has devoted himself while living. 

(2) Réunion Lamarck.—In 1884, the admirers of Lamarck formed a 
union for the erection of a monument to the great naturalist, and they 
brought together in the Exposition his works and other testimonials 
of his greatness. 

(3) Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines.— This is a series of 
works on anthropology conducted by M. M. Hovelacque, Issaurat, An- 
dre Lefévre, Letourneau, Mortillet, Thulie, Veron. The list as now 
made up is as follows: (1) La Biologie, by Charles Letourneau; 518 
pages, 112 cuts. (2) La Linguistique, by Abel Hovelacque ; 454 pages. 
(3) L’Anthropologie, by Paul Topinard ; 576 pages, 52 cuts. (4) L’Es- 
thetique, by Eugene Veron; 524 pages. (5) La Philosophie, by Andre 
Lefevre; 640 pages. (6) La Sociologie, by Charles Letourneau; 624 
pages. (7) LaScience Economique, by Yves Guyot; 600 pages, 67 fig- 
ures. (8) Le Préhistorique, by G. de Mortillet ; 678 pages, 64 figures. 
(9) La Botanique, by M. de Lanessan ; 570 pages, 132 figures. (10) La 
Géographie Médicale, by Dr. A. BOniten ; 688 pages, with figures. (11) 
La Politique expérimentale, by Leon Donnat; 504 pages. (12) Les 
Problémes de l’Histoire, by Paul Mongeolle; 498 pages. (13) La Péda- 
gogie, by’ C. Issaurat; 512 pages. (14) L’Agriculture et la Science 
Agronomique, by Albert Larbaletrier; XXIV,568 pages. (15) La Phi- 
sico-chimie, by Dr. Fauvelle; Xxtv, 512 pages. 

(4) Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques. 

8. As we have frequently said in these summaries and dlsouteres 
the anthropologist must collect things, all possible knowledge about 
things, and he must also imitate the architect, mechanical engineer, and 
patent attorney in collecting working drawings. Now this last he has 
neglected until quite recently. The portfolios of Prince Roland Bona- 
parte, of Hayden, of de Mortillet and others, are well known, but now 
we may have such modified by the cheap processes of photographie 
printing. The anthropological gallery should also include pictures of 
men and things in action, their physiology, and their anatomy. But 
this part of our subject lies still chiefly in the future. 

9. The segregation of anthropological material from natural history 
collections in all the great centers of intelligence has been almost im- 
mediately followed by the formation of anthropological libraries. The 
societies also have their centers where books are gathered. For in- 
stance, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Peabody Museum has its own 
library, and in addition to that the keeper of the great library in Har- 
yard University sends to the Peabody Museum a duplicate of every 
ecard in the Harvard Catalogue which bears an anthropological title. 
This is an excellent system. At Washington, while material is more 
abundant, the facility of finding a book is not so good. The material 
is housed in the Capitol library, the Surgeon-General’s library, the 


oe 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 599 


Smithsonian or National Museum library, and the Bureau of Ethnol- 
ogy at the Geological Survey. In Paris, the Sociéte @ Anthropologie, 
the Feole, and the Laboratoire all have their books together in one 
room, but these are far from exhausting the resources of that great 
city. In Copenhagen the royal librarian turns over the books on 
various specialities to the department most interested. The precise 
method followed in Berlin, London, Dresden, Leipsic, and other great 
centers is not known, but the Peabody plan is far the best, of exchang- 
ing ecards, when the books are not in dupheate. 

In addition to the lists here given the student should carefully study 
the appendices to the American Anthropologist, Archiv fiir -Anthro- 
pologie, Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien; 
and for biological topics, the Index Medicus and Surgeon-General’s 
Catalogue. All the publications of the United States Government are 
given in Hickox’s Guide. 

10. Among the books of instruction to collectors of anthropological in- 
formation no one has had greater popularity or done more good than the 
little guide published by the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science. After several years of well earned praise it appears ina new 
dress, with such corrections as time and experience have suggested. 
The generai tone of all such manuals is toward more rigid and multi- 
plied observations. Professor Goode’s epigram, that “a good museum 
specimen is an exhaustive and truthful label illustrated by an object” is 
appreciated in all lists of questions. The material history of man must 
be studied by natural history methods, and as these methods improve, 
the science will need to re-write its question books. 


II.—BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Biological anthropology in a restricted and scientific sense is what 1s 
learned about man by the biologist in his laboratory and in the use of 
his instrumentalities of research. The psychologist, the linguist, the 
ethnologist, the ethnographer, the sociologist, have all need of this 
man’s aid, but it would be entirely contrary to the use of words to 
declare that the first named investigators were biologists only. 

No better way can be devised of showing how the body in health and 
disease has been invaded by this most zealous elass of workers than a 
list of the principal publications fora year. And this is here appended 
as a study in the scope of biological anthropology : 

Bodily efficiency, Galton: Body proportion in Bavaria, Ranke, 
Reisch: Brachydactylie, Dérode: Brains, Dercum: Caudal appendage 
in man, Rabaud: Cephalice index in Provence, Fallot: Cephalometry of 
negroes, Virchow: Chest measure, Maschkovski: Color, in France, 
Topinard: Color of the eyes and hair, Topinard: Consanguinity and 
idiocy, ete., Bourneville and Courbarien: Consumption among the 
Sioux, Treon: Contortionists, anatomy of, Dwight: Crania of Canstadt, 
Neanderthal, and Olmé, D’Acy: Crania from East Africa, Virchow: 


600 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. - 


Craniometry and cephalometry, Benedikt: Craniometric apparatus, 
Koeler: Craniometry, Virchow: Cretinism, Arnozan: Darwinism, 
Wallace: Deaf mutes, Riccardi: Deformation of children, Porter: 
Degeneration by marriage of kin, Coleman: Dental irregularities of 
Indians, Townsend: Descent and disease, Eccles: The ear in anthro- 
pology, Gradenigo Tulia: Evolution, Cope; Dewar; Girard: Evolu- 
tion and the structure of the human body, Heger: Fcetal measure- 
ments and sex, Davis: The human foot, Ellis: Goitre, its etiology and 
distribution, Capus: The hand in the animal series, Topinard; Virchow: 
Head growth in Cambridge students, Galton: Hereditary transmissions, 
Goodall; Hoke: Heredity, Galton; Hohngren; Warfield; Weismann: 
Heredity and alcoholism, Legrain: Heredity and atavism, Nicolucei: 
Heredity and disease. Lithgow: Heredity, physiological and psycho- 
logical, Dolan: Hermaphrodites, Barnes; Deniker: Human degeneracy, 
Sergi: Human variety, Galton: Hyoid bone, anthropological value, 
Wortmann: Inca bone, Matthews: Inferiority of the left side of the 
body, Duchenne: Inheritance, Galton: Inheritance of injuries, Weis- 
mann: Irregularities of teeth in normal and abnormal persons, Talbot: 
Left-leggedness, Owen: Macrobians in Greece, Ornstein; Marriage 
and descent, Tylor: Marriage and heredity, Nisbet: Measurements of 
soldiers, Baulin: Microcephaly, Anton: Mongolian eye, Drews: Mor- 
tality of soldiers in French colonies, Lagneau: Natality in France, 
Saporta: Orientation of crania, Benedikt: Osteology of the Veddahs, 
Thomson: Parturition, normal posture in, King: Pelvis, Russian female, 
Runge: Periodicity in weight—growth in children, Zacharias: Physical 
development, Hambleton: Physical development of children, Gratzi- 
anoff: Polydaetyly in horses, Von Mojsisovics: Prolongation of human 
life, Hammond: Proportions of the human body, Bertillon: Proportions 
of the body in Europeans, Topinard: Skin of Europeans and Malays, 
Glogner: Spinal curvature in Australians, Cunningham: Stature, Froh- 
lich: Steatopygia, Gillet de Grandmont; Topinard: Supernumerary 
auricles, Morgan: Supernumerary mamme, Sutton: Surd-mutism, 
Riccardi: Syndactyly, Baum; Robin: Transformism, Virchow: Use 
and modifications of organisms, Ryder. 


IlIl.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


The best work done in the field of physiological psychology finds an 
efficient reporter in our own Janguage through the pages of the Ameri- 
can Journal of Psychology. The removal of Prof. Stanley Hall from 
Baltimore to Worcester meant only a more vigorous prosecution of the 
laboratory work. 

Astronomers will be glad to follow up the researches of Dr. Stanford 
respecting what they call personal equation. in four papers filling 
nearly two hundred pages, Dr. W. H. Burnham narrates first the history 
of theories concerning memory. Hesays, “The continued Platonic and 
Aristotelian influences may still be noticed in these modern theories, 


‘ PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 601 


the former appearing in the transcendental conception of memory, 
which has been taught by the German idealists, and appeared in mod- 
ified form in the Scottish school, and later its ablest Champion in Lotze; 
the latter appearing more or less in the empirical conceptions of the 
Associationists, Herbartian, as well as English, and in modern physical 
theories. Finally it must be plain that whatever be the relative merits 
of the idealistic and the physiological theories of memory, the facts of 
introspection have been pretty thoroughly worked over in the con- 
tinued discussious of memory from the days of Plato and Aristotle 
down to the last German student who has contributed a theses Zur 
Theorie der Reproduction. After our historical orientation, the quar- 
ter of the horizon that looks most promising is in the direction of empir- 
ical study.” The progress of empirical research is then comprehensively 
sketched by Dr. Burnham. 

The value of language study in mental discipline has been questioned 
in our day as compared with the pursuit of the natural sciences. From 
a purely physiological side and in a most ingenious manner Dr. M. Put- 
nan Jacobi examines the subject. A priori, the study of language mast 
be an extension, more or less complex, of the process of acquiring lan- 
guage ;—the highest physiological acquisition that distinguishes the hu- 
manrace from the lower animals. After noting the portions of the brain 
whose activities are involved in so simple a process as the utterance 
of a word so commonplace as “ bread,” Dr. Jacobi says: “It is plain, 
therefore, that tolearn the name of a thing and to learn how to use this 
name, much more mental action is required than simply to acquire sense 
perceptions about it. The acquisition of foreign languages in addition 
to the native tongue multiplies the number of verbal signs which the 
mind habitually couples with visual impressions. In registering and 
using these multiple signs, the mind is compelled to more complex oper- 
ations than when only one signis used. When in different languages 
different primary words or roots are used to represent the same object; 
then the mind using them all becomes acquainted with the several as- 
pects of that object which have impressed the minds of those among 
whom these different names have sprung up. Thus a larger impression 
of the object is formed, and the mind of the speaker, which is rendered 
more flexible and active by engaging in more complex internal pro- 
cesses, is also enlarged by a richer store of external impressions. The 
immense mental discipline to be derived from the study of the European 
languages is likened to the delicate nanipulation of the fingers as com- 
pared with the gross movements of arms and legs. The acquisition of 
language develops the mental sphere in which ideal conceptions arise, 
combine with one another, and generate endless successions of new 
ideas. The process of acquiring foreign languages, in addition to the 
mother tongue, modifies the original process, by extending, refining, 
and complicating it. Impressions are immensely multiplied and the 
mind becomes accustomed to take cognizance of such subtle differentia- 


, 


602 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


tions that its delicacy of perception is indefinitely increased. The eca- 
pacity to appreciate subtle distinctions, more subtle than those exist- 
ing in nature outside the mind, is essential to scientific work.” The 
whole essay of Dr. Jacobi should be studied by those who all along have 
felt the superiority of language study, but who could not translate their 
convictions into modern psycho-physical phraseology. 

The accumulation of psychological literature has been chiefly in the 
fields of abnormal psychology, such as hallucinations, alexia, amnesia, 
aphasia, apraxia, illusions, idiocy, alcoholism, melancholia, and insanity ; 
animal psychology, child-mind, dreams, experimental psychology, hyp- 
notism, memory, nerve action in health and disease, physiological 
psychology, psycho-physics and reaction time; the senses and the dis- 
orders of sleep. There is no doubt that, whatever may be one’s ulti- 
mate theory of mind, psychologists, like astronomers and_ biologists, 
have often to wait for tbe instrument maker. Indeed, there seems for 
that reason to be no further advance possible in speculative psychol- 
ogy until the instrumental side of the study is improved. 

Centers of ideation in the brain, Hollander. Das Morel’sche Ohr; 
a physic study, Binder. Hereditary degeneracy, psychic state in, 
Magnan. Instinct, Fauvelle. Intellectual fatigne, Topinard. Memory, 
Burnham. Memory in surd mutes, Riccardi. Mental faculties of an- 
thropopithecus, Romanes. Mental fatigue, Galton. Merycismus, 
ruminatio humana, Sievers. Notion of space, dela Rive. Observations 
of rude phenomena, Langley. Opening address Clark University, 
Hall. Origin of human faculty, Romanes. Personal equation, San- 
ford. Physiology of aversion, Mantegazza. Psychie time measure, 
Fricke. Psychology of spiritualism. Jastrow. Sense, problematic 
organs of, Lubbock. Thought, experimental science of, Ardigo. Notion 
of space, Axenfeld. 

IV.—ETHNOLOGY. 


* 


The elassification of mankind by physical characters has been 
resumed with vigor by J. Deniker (Bul. Soe, d’Anthrop. de Paris, ser. 
3, vol. XI, 320-336). From Linnieus to our day, only four or five races 
or species have been recognized on physical marks. Bory de Saint 
Vincent, Desmoulins, @Omalius d@’Halloy, and Ir. Miiller admit fifteen 
or sixteen, or perhaps a greater number of “races” or “ species,” but 
they differentiate them by linguistic or sociologice criteria. Only the 
classifications of I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire (1858), and of Topinard (1879), 
reckon more numerous divisions (eleven and sixteen races) based 
upon physical characters. In 1885, Topinard, then in possession of 
more minute details, increases the number of races to 19. 

The tables here given were presented to the Anthropological Soci- 
ety of Paris at its session of Jane 6(1889). M. Deniker takes the ground 
that in the divers peoples, nations, hordes, tribes, etc., which we now 
see scattered over the earth, we have not a clear group of species asin 


et. 


=? 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 603 


zoology. These are mixtures of elementsthe most heterogeneous; there 
are no pure races on the earth. In classifying races therefore we must 
seek further than among the ethnic groups for the fundamental units. 
Save two or three peoples, there is not an ethnos on earth that is not 
the product of mixing two or three or several races, and it is our task 
to discover the elemental races. The first step in this analysis is to dis- 
tinguish the types, by which is meant ensembles of salient characters 
associated and incarnated in a number of individuals. Now these types 
may appear in more than one area, pure or altered, belonging to peoples 
which at first glance seem to have had no connection. Sueh is the 
Negrito type, seen in its purity among the Aetas, the Mincopies, the 
Sakai, ete., and turns up here and there among the Melanesians, the 
Australians, the Malays, the Nagas, the Dravidians, ete. 

That which varies is the proportion in which a type enters into anethnie 
group. When it is altogether preponderating, the people are nearly a 
pure race, asthe Bushmen, Aetas, Mincopies, or Ainos. The types are 
the units of classification and the numerical preponderance of individ- 
uals therein gives importance to a type as a constituent element in an 
ethnic group. Just so far as we are able to go back from type to race 
we can tell the races which go to make up a people. M. Deniker makes 
out thirteen of these races, a small number of which are pure, the 
others are represented by varietes, two for the Ethiopian, Xanthochroi, 
Indonesians, and three or more for others. Now these thirteen races 
are evidently variations of a smaller number (perhaps only one) of 
species of the genus Homo. 

The first table differentiates the thirteen races into the thirty types 
fixed by M. Deniker. The first group corresponds with the Oulotriches of 
Bory Saint Vincent (Ulotriches of Haeckel), and comprehends Negroes, 
Melanesians, and Bushmen. The second group comprehends blacks 
with curly hair, but not woolly, Negritos, Australians, Ethiopians, and 
corresponds to the Australoids of Huxley. In the third group, wavy 
haired Caueassians, is subdivided according to Huxley into the brown, 
Melanchroi, and the blonde, Xanthochroi. The fourth group compre- 
hends races with white, yellow, or yellowish sEins and slightly wavy 
hair, Uralo-Altaic, Ainos, Indonesians. The fifth group, finally, includes 
Mongoloids and the Americans. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


604 


9L “UDYIALD YT “77 7" ° pedopaasp opt] wozsts snopid yWSreq wurpeu ‘oryeydeo Aqovig ] 
‘(MvrABuIp ° pizisisisitce a10LyooyJUMY "TITA St se4o ‘epuolq arey ‘Asou ‘ayy ULYS } 
CI -WB0G) UNwWAY 10 ‘arpsoyr >>> * pisicie)aislejaisieinisislaiaislais cicis is waicc cis swine = -'- ATU [Le} -olleqdeooqonocy) | 
“(eq Ipayy) ‘oun | | 
FL UWNLINHYT-074) 10 ‘UnyaYy -YV4S JO JAIOYS ‘Qssnoijed UoIJO ‘ou “YS VIs oson )-- > oyeydooAYourg } | 
eT’ (WelaeIy-OFtU9S) proriissy ~-Layey Apoq ‘poyzziay Ley ‘soreu ‘payoou oson | | | 
GL. “(UVa ‘elAqey) saquag---*77 77-7 dij Off} plvsao} MOTIVE ‘YYSve1Y8 OSO NT 1 | : 

: “‘queu "4 “>> olyeydeooqorjog p°*""""** n0LyIoUnW ‘ITA ~*Yivp sefo ‘youlq irey !yainquns urys 

IT ‘(avowmlery) qoep -ra1ord ynd1o090 ‘ourpinbe ‘poqzutod ‘poaanoed aso Ny J | 

*(‘doqipoyy ‘uvedoing-opuy) | 
OL wohip do ‘oyun F-opuy----- Se ae *-MINIPOU oiNn}eYS ‘osou YYS VIG" > **7 77° OTTVYdaoosoj, J ) 
6 "UunIpIADAy --"°" "777° ices sage inariaioieic an 9SSNOIJII W94JO BsoU ‘MUIpeEew 10 4.LOYS ) *(Aqjaed ora yy ] ail 
“(UBIQUNT , ‘aqziqsny) unrdoupgy “TA‘°""*°77"* JueiTes Bs0U !UMOIG ULYS | 3. | 
§ ‘BQ [NOT 10'[neg ‘Bl[VX) Dlpag---*e7 ort ts eee t et tet ees eese sees ee eee* Qutb JO ySIe1Is oso ‘{[By, J c ° 
L PUD US BTU iin meen a mataet cicteie aa al gic en as Sioa alae pessoidop ‘opts esou ‘oreqdeooqorody 77° 777 UNYDASNH "Aww Aaveq ‘ wnrpew 20 yu0yg | S, | 
9 SO2WUDON Dea canis mera clos.eiensaciesicis!=<isies'si- ORS TOOD OPLA O80, Ol[UqMoOAU 0 Bd Gisming sre mem OWE NT: Atlin. eae ces Auvy AroA you ‘qa0ysJ aa) 


‘quoutmoaid saspra Aretprovsd } ei} 
g "(uendug) wwrsauMpapy ~~ srr t rset tt cette eee ees eee cece erence ee cen en een n ne een e ec nenecscs een ccncces unisaunpayy ‘TI -us ‘dy on] qv Oa THT "PqmeoeriosO NT ey 
P HY =22cies'sc = sielipicioinieicle sjela a reinlcinle iol sietefelafol al siol= 91nqeys J10y8 ‘orpey dood qovig, ‘Surpusjoid peayesoy ‘quores | = \ 
g “(n[nz) Naww_ -7*-777--- orggeuSoad 07941] ‘[[v2 ‘yueutrmo0ad osoN sce hneniiesndedegh Sara Seas oywbin ‘TT sdit ‘aep ‘yqsteays ‘opr oson J : 
z *(TBpUS JO) onBaaT-* ttt oe d1qyeusoid ‘oinjeqys MINIpou “Yvy oso Ny ; y *(Atjaed 
I SAUD ULUS IVS: 2 aia! =)sin eo lnie xie)sle'e)si~ininlal=\nl=lulne(e/a)= > (=cninl= = =o = sett cseccececresscececeessecerees* Toy -10N) UDWYsSNG ‘T° snoes{do}vo}s ‘41048 ‘uIyYS MO]]Ox J 
"SHdAL “‘SaOVa 


‘SHOVY NVWOH AO NOILVOIMISSVID SUEMINAGQ—'] AIAV GE 


euy pus Sava Ie 


“MOTIVE PUL BOOT[RS 


9sou 


“polZ2tay Ite Hy 


*AyTooM ‘ds110 Jey 


605 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


‘(opnocqjog 
Of -URISON A) UNIIMaW F OaN]D ~~ 77777 YAOYS | YSSNOTJOA W99JO ‘qq3twijs oson «++ + OTfeYdooo0yor10q, | 
6a OGRE TRAD a a ° 
“7o 7" poAIN O]}PTT B10 IYSBIYS VSON 
gz ‘UDIPUT ULIYINOY "> JOYS 5 = oypendoosqorag | 
1 ULys-pay uN pou 10 [TeR} 9anye}s foutTIMbe ason J 
92 SOWANGGT ~~ 158s *75"* 91njv4s JO JLOYS ‘panos voB*- 7" > OITRCoooyoT[OCT | 
CZ PZT, a> ta cine nes oe poVSuope 9ovVJ /SSO15 ASON 2 ‘ornyeys uINIp pb 77 
¥ obuopy 77777 TT popunod odeF ‘OU ‘MOLIVT O80 N 5 -om'oteydaasyovag J 
“(981 
serpy ‘Heid ‘eoeN ‘ey, 
€Z ‘loW) wnweuopuy - ohmnyy -7 777 Torte aoa MOTIAA TTYS ‘WYSteqys {Trvau ae 
ZZ ‘uprsauhjod ~~ "* Sie pele TS te le ase srs" QATTO UIYS ‘KATM ITE 
1G 
*(aev1UBIN T, 
0g ‘auqreg, - OOANT,) yseyeng o-oo oT teers seers sence ore dooAqovig | ‘osIv09 | 
“(yeqny, ‘SUUL yy Wo SvEy | puv yysreijs osoN | 
61 ‘epoXomes ‘HRIISO) upwiQg 7 t7t tr ttt orpeydaooyorfop 10 ‘orperdaoosoyqy J > 
81 ddl 7 oo = tne ocein ice Penns oan e ae = TAOIY trey ‘Oljeydeosqourg 
LT ‘(sau W10}89, AA) Wulong ~~“ oT r eee meee eeececensccecrsccccrcesss Opuolq seq ‘Ossno.1}90.1 O80N J 





‘yuoutmoid praqaloy fanary =} 


pu yueryes osou ‘mado opt ‘QyStvays 


‘Satpnajoid proays.0y 
! [jeurs ‘passoidap esou ,,! plojosuout,. 
- sores projobuoyg "IX soto ‘Moyes YSQIGA JO MOTTEA TIS 


(avIssuaTog 


-ofv[eyy) woisauopuy ‘Tx Aqsog sdiy ‘ystsorjos u 


SOUL Vewaae ee ge eee oC pe ee oan rcas ae aes ves SOT RU COO oyoroqd- "77 r tr OWP SNe ae ee eee AVE Sopra OSON 





*((StaULy ‘OSIIAIP WALOF 
-OOIN],) 02070 F-07D4Q “XI [eruvs0 ‘Aarey you ‘Morea osoN 


= 
TM 


————$ —- + --——_ ——_ 


1 


terres UMIaUlP ‘TITX seo ‘eatjo ro MoTpad ‘Ystpper uryS 


“TPPOO TLS 


‘TYySreiys ‘osuvo 


| 
J 


“uy sdry ‘oq ULyS 


——- ——_ + - a 





‘Lava A]OUNSIP 
pues 4qsreays ‘ouy dey 


>) Me EL 


606 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


In the second table M. Deniker ingeniously shows by the size and 
location of spaces the relative importatice and relationship of races. 


TABLE IT.—RELATION OF HUMAN RACES. 


XANTROCAROIDE 
2 Sa URALO-ALTAIQUE 
MELANOCHROIDE 


= 





\NDONESIENNE 





RWSTRALIENN E 


The subjoined list refers to titles in the bibliography and will guide 
to the principal publications of 1889. 

During the winter of 1889-90 Dr. Daniel G. Brinton published two 
papers in the proceedings of the American Philosophical Society main- 
taining that the ethnic affinities of the ancient. Etruscans lay in the 
direction of the Libyans on the North African coast. His arguments 
were that the Etruscans were tall, blonde, and dolicho-cephalic, which 

ras also the type of the Libyans; that their social life and form of 
government was much closer to African than to Asiatic models; that 
their own traditions unanimously stated their advent on Italian soil to 
have been by sea from the south; and finally, that their language, 
what little we know of it, seems to have roots and forms, explainable 
by the Libyan dialects. This last argument Dr. Brinton expanded at 
some length in his second paper entitled “A Comparison of Etruscan 
aud Libyan Names,” in which he attempts to analyze a number of 
Etruscan personal mythological and geographic names by the various 
modern and ancient Libyan dialects. 

General Works.—Classifieation of races, Deniker. Classification of 
races, Lombard. Comparative ethnography, Forrer. Crossing of races, 





i ete i i i ee ee 


aE i ae ti i i ne 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 607 


Bonnafont. Degeneration of races, Kaarsberg. Egyptian classifica- 
tion of races, Poole. Ethnographic parallels, Andree. Ethnologic 
studies, Ollivier-Beauregard. Ethnology and anthropology, Lissauer 
and Kollmann. Origin of the races, Lamotte. Posture, influence on 
race, etc., Thompson. Pygmy races, Flower. Race and evolution, 
Fauvelle. Race and language, Holmes. Racial portraits, earhest, 
Petrie. Race in history, LeBon. Three human subspecies, Lombard. 

North America.—American Indians, Henshaw; MeLean. Arizonians, 
Inca-bone among the ancient, Matthews. Aztecs, Biart; Sotomayer. 
British Columbia, Boas; Br. Association, Hale. Indian and Israelite, 
Mallery. Indians of the District of Columbia, Mooney. Indians of 
Siletz Reservation, Dorsey. Eskimo, Hast Greenland expedition, 
Holm. Eskimo of Hudson Strait, Payne. Eskimo race and language, 
Chamberlain. Lucayan Indians, Brooks. Melungeons, Burnett. Mex- 
ico, Hale. Snanaimuq (Nanaimo) Indians, Boas. Onondaga customs, 
Beauchamp. Yaquis of Mexico, McKenzie. 

South America.—Botocudos, Branner. Brazil, races of, Lomonaco. 
Paraguay, inhabitants of, Stewart. Venezuela, ethnology of, Ernst 
Marcano. 

Hurope.—Anglo-Saxons at Rome, Tesoroni. Basques, Charency. 
Bosnia, Asboth. Etruscans, ethnic affinities, Brinton. Gypsies in 
western Europe, Bataillard. Gypsies, bibliography of, Crofton. Hun- 
garian, Filtoch. Lapps, Fuebert Dumonteil. Norway and its people, 
Bjorson. Rumanian ethnology, Pulszky. Russia, [kow; Leroy Beau- 
lieu. Slavie ethnology, Krauss. Sweden in heathen times, Montelius. 
Types of population in Vienna, Peis. Zigeuner, Weisbach. 

Asia.—Ainos, hair and eyes of, Lefevre; Térék. Annam and Ton- 
kin, Planchert. Aryans, D’Acy; Hale; Lapouge; Rendall; Sayce. 
Babylonian empire, races of, Bertier. Caucasus, anthropometry in, 
Von Erckert. Hittites, Dickerman. Hyksos, Tomkins. India, ab- 
original tribes of, Driver; Quarterly Rev. cLIx. Israeiite and Indian, 
Mallery. Japan, Dickson. Jews,~ comparative anthropometry of, 
Jacobs. Ostiaks, Samoyedes, and Ziriens, Rabot. Turkestan, Rus- 
sian, Capus. Samoyedes, Rabot. Western Asia, early races of. 

Africa.—Algeria and Tunis, Ober. Angolese, Darnes. Berbers in 
Marokko, Quedenfeldt; Rinn. Black races of Africa, Verrier. Bush- 
men, Cuvier; Topinard. Egypt, ethnographic types from, Thomkins. 
Hottentots, Deniker. Masai-land, Thomson. Morocco, Constant; 
Harris; Martiniere; Soller; Thompson. Negroes of subequatorial 
Africa, Hovelacque. Yoruba country, Batty. 

Oceanica.— Australia, Lumholtz. Borneo; Daly; Posewitz. Caro- 
line Archipelago, Kubary. Fiji Islanders, Trotter. Gilbert Island- 
ers, Parkinson. Baduwis in Java, von Ende. Hawaiian Islands, 
Coan. Malays, Bassler. Malay Archipelago, Langen. New Caledonian 
crania, Manouvrier. New Guinea, report. Report of special commis- 
sion for 1887 on the British New Guinea, Archiwol, Rev., Lond., 


608 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


111, 276, New Hebrides, Martine. Maoris, Tregear. Maoris, White. 
Moa, hunters of New Zealand, Me’Donnell. Nicobar Islanders, Man. 
Papuans, Hamy. Papuans, Schellong. Crania, Philippine Islanders, 
Struve. TheIsland of Reunion, Blondel. Solomon Islands, Woodford. 
Tasmanians, Ling Roth. 

By looking over the bibliographic list accompanying this summary it 
will be readily seen that there are many works of inestimable value to 
the ethnologist which wouid be indexed under other catch-words. Mr. 
Galton’s paper on gold working among the Peruvians, and Mr. Kina- 
han’s on Irish proverbs, were written—the former from a technical point 
of view, the latter for a folk-lore journal, but the student of the Peru- 
vians or the Irish could omit neither their arts nor their lore. The best 
the summarist can do is to base his index on the motive of the writer 
with such cross reference as he can make. 


V.—GLOSSOLOGY. 


The eighth international congress of Orientalists was held in Stock- 
holm and Christiania from the 2d to the 13th of September. The 
meeting was under the immediate patronage and presidency of His 
Majesty King Oscar. Never in the history of science have more 
elaborate preparations been made for the entertainment of such an 
assembly. 

The congress was composed of five sections, as follows: (1) Semitic 
and Islam. (a) Languages and literatures of Islam. (b) Semitic 
languages, other than Arabic; cuneiform texts and inscriptions. (2) 
Aryan. (3) African, including Egyptology. (4) Central Asia and 
the far East. (5) Malay and Polynesia. 

At the Paris Exposition the student of living languages did not lack 
for opportunities to investigate the natives of every part of the globe. 
In the separate exhibits, colonial headquarters, cafés, bazaars, and, 
above all, on the Esplanade des Invalides, the highest and the lowest 
could be investigated. 

An amusing example of the French desire to exhaust the possibilities 
of a subject was furnished by the placard posted in every available 
space by the proprietors of the Decauville Railroad. This was a narrow 
gauge tramway running to all parts of the Exposition, and the passenger 
was warned in more than twenty tongues not to expose his head or his 
arms or his legs to the trees along the route. 

The volume of Paul Regnaud, on the origin and philosophy of lan- 
guage, treats the subject purely from a natural history point of view. 
The study is divided into three parts: (1) Exposition of theories already 
proposed. (2) Attempt at anew theory. (3) Future of languages 
and linguistic studies. Under the first head are reviewed, language as 
a revelation, as an instinet, as an invention, as having a spontaneous 
origin. In the second part the evolution of language is consider d in 
in the two lines of form and sense. Upon the subject of the future of 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 609 


language, M. Regnaud, from purely natural reasons, does not hold to 
the possibility of a universal language. 

To follow minutely the literature of comparative language, no better 
guide can be found than Techmer’s Internationale Zeitschrift fur Allge- 
meine Sprachwissenschaft, founded in Leipzig in 1884, and now pub- 
lished in Heilbronn. The editor commences in the first number of vol. Lv, 
issued in 1888, and completes in the second number, issued in 1889, a 
bibliography of language publications in 1886. The first ten pages are 
devoted to journals and periodicals, with their contents. A liberal 
definition is allowed to the word language, so as to include papers on 
general ethnology. Then follow 162 pages of titles with elaborate digest 
in fine print, one of the most exhaustive helps to the general student. 
To leave no stone unturned for the reader’s convenience, Dr. Techmer 
furnishes at the close a syllabus of the entire catalogue, and with each 
satch-word the name of the authors who have written on that subject 
and the page where his title and review may be found. Would space 
permit, the whole syllabus should be here re-produced, but the classifi- 
cation without the names here printed will show the magnitude of the 
scheme: : 

Science of language in general. History of the science of language. 

I. Natural history and language: Relation of this study to anthro- 
pology. (1) Acoustic methods of expression, including phonetics, 
anatomy, storing of language, rhythm, metric; (2) optical and other 
nodes of expression ; (3) present condition of acoustic and optical ex- 
pression, phonetic writing, sound writing, shorthand, orthoepy and 
orthography, principals of transcription, universal speech, deaf-mute 
language. 

II. Psychological side of language study: (1) Relations to psychics ; 
2) roots; (3) suffixes, affixes; (4) words; (5) semiology and change of 
meaning; (6) analogy; (7) etymology; (8) psychological subject and 
predicate. 

III. Historical side of language study: (1) Phylogenetic develop- 
ment of speech; (2) origin and prehistoric development; (3) relations 
to mythology; (4) relation to the science of religion; (5) relation to 
ethnography ; (6) relation to aesthetics; (7) historic development ; 
(8) science of language and philology ; (9) paleography ; (10) conflict 
of languages ; (11) grammar in relation to logic and psychology. 

IV. Glossography, or the study of special languages: (a) languages 
not Semitic or Indo-germanic in Africa, America, Asia, Europe; (0b) 
Semitic languages; (¢c) Indo.germanic languages: Indic, Iranic, Greek, 
Latin, and its derivatives, Keltic, Slavic, Lithuanic, Germanic, Seandi- 
navic, English, Hollandic. Ontologic development of a language. 

In 1888 R. de la Grasserie, of Rennes, published a work on the divis- 
ions of linguistic study (Divisions de la Linguistique, Maissonneuve 
et Ch. Leclere (1888) Paris), in which he considers the subject under 
three heads: (1) The study of each language separately ; (2) the com- 

H. Mis. 224 o9 





610 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, ; 


parison of related languages; (3) comparison of non-related languages. 
The author remarks that in botany or zoology, classification must be 
founded upon the knowledge of the essential characteristics of the be- 
ings under investigation, their true resemblances and their differences, 
and the degrees ef importance among these last. The origin and rela-— 
tionship of each group must then be noticed. In this way a true 
synthesis of nature is the result. The following syllabus is followed 
by the author in a series of papers published in Techmer’s Zeitschrift : 

I, Classification of allied languages. 

Title 1. Partial and subjective classification (in abstract): (A) Allied 
languages; ascending, fixed, descending; (B) related languages; re-- 
lated, allied, isolated ; (C) allied languages, classed as if not related. 

March of morphological evolution. (1) Transition between the three 
systems of expressions, more or less linguistic, of thought, (a) syntactic 
or the order of words, (b) employment of relational words, (¢c) of phonic 
modification. (2) Transition in each of the three systems between the 
concrete and the abstract. (3) Transition in each of three systems 
between the subjective and the objective. (4) Transition in each of the 
three systems between the non-formal and the formal. 

Title 2: Classifications, objective and genealogie, of allied languages ; 
natural families: (1) Indo-germanic; (2) Semitic; (3) Uralic; (4)« 
Bantu; (5) Dravidian; (6) Malay-polynesian ; (7) Turkic; (8) Algon- 
kin; (9) Mandé; (10) Maya; (11) Hamitic. 

II, Ulassification of languages not allied. 

Title 1: Partial and subjective classification of unallied languages. 
Chapter 1. Purely phonetic classification. (A) From the point of view 
of the isolated word; (B) from the point of view of words united; (C)_ 
From the point of view of accent. Chapter 2. Classification purely — 
psychological. Chapter 3. Classification morphological. Section 1. _ 
Languages with imperfect expression, psychological languages. 1. 
Concrete psychological languages. (A) Non-formulated. This charae- 
teristic exists in the relations, the determinations of ideas in the same — 
proposition. (B) Formulated. ‘ 

(a) Subjective. The concretness is thus graduated. (1) From the — 
stand-point of necessity ; (2) from the stand-point of comprehension ; 
(3) from the stand-point of energy ; (4) from the stand-point purely — 
material, or purely intellectual, or both combined. (b) Objective: The> 
concreteness is thus graduated. (1) From thestand-point of necessity ; 
(2) from the stand-point of comprehension ; (3) from the stand-point of — 
energy; (4) from the stand-point of material or intellectual character, — 
or both combined ; (5) from the stand-point of application which is made 
of this concreteness in the principal ideas, or to those of determination 
or relation. 2. Abstract psychological languages; (A) analytical non- 
formulated languages; (B) analytical formulated languages. Section 
2. Languages with sufficient expression, either morphological languages, 
or with unmeaning (vides) words. The languages with non-significant 










PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 18389, 611 


words are: (1) Formulated or non-formulated ; (2) subjective or objee- 
tive; (3) abstract or concrete; (4) invariable or with phonetic varia- 
tions. Section 5. Languages with perfect expression, or languages with 
purely phonetic expressions. i. Proceeding from the modification of a 
phonetic (phoneme) radical of the full word and its principal application 
to lexicology. Class 1. Languages with subjective phonetic mutation. 
Class 2. Languages with objective phonetic mutation. Genus 1: Sys- 
tem of the Indo-Germaniec languages: (a) Umlaut, (b) Ablaut, (¢) phonic 
reduplication. Genus2: Systems of Hamitic, Nubian, Celticianguages, 
Genus 3: System of Semitic languages. (A) Semiticsystem. (a) Use 
of the system for determination. (b) Use for relation. (c) Use for lexi- 
cology. (B)System of diverse languages. 2. Proceeding from theaccord 
of a phoneme placed upon another radical. Class 1. Languages with 
subjective, phonetic accord. Group 1. Languages of the Bantu family, 
Group 2. Languages of the north Caucasus. Group 3. Indo-Germanie 
languages. Class 2. Languages with objective, phonetic accord. 
(A) Re-production upon the dominated word of the dominant word. 
(a) At the end of the dominated word; (b) at the beginning of the 
dominated word. (B) Re-production upon the dominated word of the 
end of the dominant word. 

Title 2: Total classification, natural and objective, of non-allied lan- 
guages. 

VI.—_TECHNOLOGY. 


In Berlin, close to the Ethnological Museum, is the Kunstgewerbe 
Museum. It is difficult to say which of these is the more interesting. 
In the Ethnographic Museum the ruling concept is chorographic, but 
also ethnic. Each of-the vast rooms is designed to cover a portion of 
_ the earth’s surface which shuts in a recognized body of humanity and 
of human arts. 

The Kunstgewerbe Museum contains much that is like the ethno- 
graphic collection, but the reigning concept is technographic. A trade, 
craft, art, profession is worked out ethnically, nationally, historically. 
That is, you are called upon to study the natural history of inventions. 

In Oxford, at South Kensington, in Cluny, in Amsterdam, indeed in 
many European cities, the most interesting collections are thus arranged. 

In the literature of anthropology, a great number of books, papers 
read before societies, and articles in periodicals, are devoted to the trac- 
ing out of separate industries. It is thus that in the National Museum 
Mr. Watkins traces the first wheel up to the latest paper car-wheel, or 
Captain Collins discloses the relation between the bull-boat of the 
Tigris or the Missouri and our last pontoon. 

An extremely interesting example of technology coming tothe aid of 
archeology is Mr. Edward B. Tylor’s explanation of the mythical fig- 
ure holding before the tree of life a cone-shaped object in Assyrian 
sculptures, This object resembling a fir-cone, the professor thinks, 


612 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 


is the inflorescence of the male date palm as it appears when freed — 
from its sheath ready to have its pollen dusted over the Bue flowers. 
(Academy, June 8.) 

Indeed, there is no end to the arts that are being traced to their 
simplest forms by the technographic method. The following list of 
references to the bibliography of this paper will indicate the variety of 
such studies : 

Anglo-Saxon industries, de Baye. Antler hatchets, Forrer. Archi- 
tecture, Christian, Holtzinger. Art, Anthropometry and, Duhousset. 
Artists, Roman, of the middle ages, Frothingham. Art, The deformed 
and diseased in, Chavot. Boomerang, The, Eggers. Bow, Com- 
posite, Balfour. Bracelets, Serpent-head, from Persia, Polak. Bronze, 
Origin of, Buthelot. Caricature, Beauregard. Carrying industry, 
Beginnings of, Mason. Cattle known to ancient Polynesians, Tregear. 
Coinage in India, Smith. Copper mines of Mould-builders, Lewis. 
Cradles of the Aborigines, Mason. Crosses, Ancient, in France, 
Jadart. Debasement of Pueblo art, Holmes. Distribution of Monu- 
ments, Peet. Dog, The, Mortillet. Electrotechny, Brackett. Flint- 
working, Messikommer. Food of Nevada Indians, Witherspoon. 
Food of the Japanese, Kellner. Gold Breastplate, Peruvian, Galton. 
Gold, Gaulish, Cartailhac. Gold work in Peru, Galton. Hair-dress- 
ing, Feminine, archeologic, LeBlant. Habitation, History of, Garnier. 
Habitation, History of, Lavenue. Habitations of mankind, de Varigny. 
Houses of the Kwakiutl, Boas. Industries of Ireland, McCarthy. 
Keramic in Bohemia, Hoernes. Land measures, Round. Magic lan- 
tern (Schattenspiel), Turkish, Von Luschan. Manufacture of stone im- 
plements, Fowke. Manufacture of stove implements, Moorhead. 
Metal, Early age of, Spain, Siret. Metallurgy of copper. Mine, 
Ancient, in Arkansas, Chapman. Mining in America, Ancient, Appy. 
Mining in North America, Ancient, Newberry. Primitive money, 
Stearns. Money, Elk-teeth for, Balfour. Mound-building, Cherokee, 
Mooney. Naval archeology, Henrique. Nephrite and Jadeite, Bahn- 
son. Nephrite and Jadeite, Clarke and Merrill. Pottery, Lustred, 
Mexican, Addis. Poisoned arrows in Melanesia. Precious stones of 
North America, Kuntz. Seulpture, Origin of Greek, Farnell. Sbtoe- 
maker, Navajo, Stephen. South American culture objects in the Leip- 
zig Museum, Reiss, etc. .Specialized forms of stone implements, Brown. 
Tattooing, Queen Charlotte Islands, Boas. Tattooing, Variot. Tex- 
tiles, prehistoric, Buschan. Terror in primitive art, Ferrie. Throwing 
sticks, Bahnson. Throwing knife of the Negroes, Schurtz. Time-indi- 
cators, Indian, Thompson. Tobacco, etymology of the word, Ernst. 
cEeenontarion by human beings, Mason. Weights and Measures, 
Babylonian, Lehmann. Weights, Babylonian, Long. Weights, The 
oldest, Brugsch. Woman’s share in culture, Mason, 





PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN i889. 613 


VIT.—ARCH A OLOGY. 


The pre-historic station of Lengyel, on the Danube, within the estate 
_ of Count Alexander Apponyi, in the comitat of Tolna, Hungary, is 
doubtless the most remarkable discovery of its kind in Europe during 
the year 1889. The station is a fortified enciente, within which have 
been found several groups of habitations and two cemeteries. Among 
the habitations, to the number of about two hundred, some were in 
form of a bee-hive dug in the loess of the Danube about three or four 
meters deep and two to three meters in diameter, and entered from the 
top. Alongside of these dwellings were other smaller souterrains, whose 
walls were formed of reeds and small branches interwoven and covered 
with a thick layer of clay, apparently hardened by fire. In these sou- 
terrains were many large jars similar to those found by Schliemann in 
Troy, and filled with different kinds of grain slightly parched. At 
Lengyel some of the habitations were above the soil. Their founda- 
tions are not more than a meter deep, and their walls were formed of 
wattling. But of the superstructure little can be said. One of the 
cemeteries belonged to the Neolithic period; the objects recovered in 
the other bring it into relationship with the palafittes and terramares, 
or the finds of the Villanova or first Hallstadian period. In the habita- 
tions and cemeteries over twelve thousand objects were found. Marquis 
de Nadailiae coneludes that Lengyel belongs to the ancient Greeco- 
Asiatie civilization, and that here we see traces of one of the immi- 
erations which have exercised such a grand influence on the primitive 
populations of Europe. 

The most original investigations into the Stone age made in the United 
States in 1859, were those of Mr. William H. Holmes, of the Bureau of 
Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, at Piney Branch, 1 mile 
north of Washington City, and those of Prof. F. W. Putnam in the 
Little Miami Valley, Ohio. The work of Mrs. Holmes is described in 
the January number of the American Anthropologist for 1890. The fol- 
lowing résumé will convey some idea of the digging: 

A hill slopes by a steep decline towards a running brook. Upon its 
sides is a dense growth of hard-wood timber and over its surface have 
been found for many years the rudely chipped stones called ‘ turtle- 
backs.” 

In the autumn of 1889 Mr. Holmes carried a trench up the sides of 
the hill, going down to bed-rock all the way. At first his trench was 
only a few inches deep, but the depth increased to 9 feet about 50 feet 
up the hill-side. At every depth however the same rude examples 
were found as occurred on the surfa@e, until suddenly the explorer came 
to a steep escarpment of bowlders in hard clay. The mystery was 
solved. Mr. Holmes had unearthed an aboriginal bowlder quarry, and 
the thousands of stones were the remnants of its occupation. Two 
questions are propounded by this discovery: the first is with reference 


614 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


to the antiquity of the workshop, the other to the function of the stone 
relics. Mr. Holmes inclines to the view that they are all refuse, the 
remains of unsuccessful attempts to make implements, and that the 
place is not very ancient. In this view he is not followed by all his 
colleagues. 

In the latter part of September, 1889, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, 
president of the Union Pacific Railroad, announced the finding of a 
clay image during the boring of an artesian well at Nampa, Idaho, a 
station on the Oregon Short Line Railroad, 20 miles from Boisé City, 
about half way between Boisé City and Smoke River, being 7 miles 
from the former and 12 miles from the latter. This region is covered 
with deposits of lava rock belonging to late Tertiary or Quaternary 
times. 

Beneath these lava deposits in California occur much gold-bearing 
gravel, and it was therein that Professor Whitney found the Calaveras 
skull. 

The finding is thus described by Professor Wright: In boring the 
well, the surface soil was penetrated 60 feet to the lava rock, which 
was found to be 20 feet thick. Below this for 200 feet were alternate 
beds of quicksand and clay ; then coarse sand was struck from which 
the image came up. Below this was vegetable soil and then sand rock. 
The image therefore lay buried to the depth of about 300 feet beneath 
deposits which had accumulated in a lake formed by some ancient ob- 
struction of the Snake River Valley, and over this accumulation there 
had been an outflow of lava sufficient to cover the whole and seal it up. 
The image is carved out of soft pumice-stone and has a coating of red 
oxide of iron. 

The subjoined list comprises the principal publications of the year 
in this department: 

Ancient stone implements, India, Ball. Ancient village sites in the 
District of Columbia, Proudfit. Antiquities of Chili, Reed. Antiqui- 
ties of man in America, Abbott. Archeology, Powell. Archeological 
glossary of the Middle age and of the Renaissance, Gay. Archeology 
in Europe, Cotteau. Archeology of Alabama, Holmes. Archeology 
of Canada, Boyle. Archeology of Finisterre, Du Chatelier. Arche- 
ology, Mexico, Seler. Archeology, Nicaragua, Bovallius. Archeology 
of North America, Haynes. Archeology of Ohio, Read. Archeology 
of France, Mas d’Azil, Dresch. Archeology of Servia, Kanitz. Arch- 
eology of Venezuela, Ernst. Bronzes discovered in Crete, Frothingham. 
Burial mounds, Thomas. Byzantine archeology, Diehl. Caches of flint 
implement, Smith. Chronology of the human period, Davis. Cup-stones 
in Perthshire, Gow. Egyptian archeology, Maspero. Egypt in time of 
Pharaohs, Loret. Emblematic mounds, Peet. Fort Ancient, Ohio, 
Moorehead. Geologic antecedents of man in Potomac Valley, McGee. 
Greek archeology, Smith. Guatemala sculptures, Bastian. Hallstatt 
in Austria, its civilization, Hoernes. Human remains in England. 


Ee ee 


; 2 
PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 615 


Beddoe. Human remains from Gourdan, France, Hamy. Ice age in 
North America, Wright. Celtic and Gaulish archeology, Bertrand. 
Lacustrian and palustrian villages, Castelfranco. Megalithie monu- 
‘ments, Gaillard. Mound explorations in Iowa, Harrison. Mound ex- 
plorations, Lowa, Starr. Mounds in Missouri, Blankinship. Neolithie 
period in Chareute, Chauvet. Nicaragua foot-prints, Peet. Oriental 
archeology, Clermont-Ganneau. Paleolithic man in America, McGee. 
Paleolithic period in the District of Columbia, Wilson. Pile structures 
in Venezuela, Forrer. Pleistocene Obsidian implement from the, Me- 
Gee. Pottery of the Potomac tide-water, Holmes. Prehistoric arch- 
eology in Europe, Cotteau. Prehistoric France, Carthailae. Prehis- 
toric man in America, Powell. Prehistoric Scandinavia, Undset. Pre- 
historic Sicily, Stillmann. Prehistoric station in Cochin, China, Holbe. 
The race of Lagoa Santa, Brazil, Hansen. Reindeer period in Vezere, 
ete., Girod. Relics from central New York, Beauchamp. Roman re- 
mains in Carniola, Haverfield. Rome, in the light of modern dis- 
coveries, Lanciani. Rude stone monuments east of Jordan, Conder. 
Rude stone monuments of Ireland, Bradley, Ruins in Cambodia, 
Fournireau, Russian archeological congress, Stieda. Shell mounds 
of the Potomac, Reynolds. Stone age in Italy, Castelfranco. Stone 
age in Sweden, Lanabee. Stonehenge, Evans. Stone monuments in 
Dakota, Lewis. Tertiary man, Arcelin. Viking age, Du Chaillu. 


VIII.—SOCIOLOGY. 


The firm hold which the methods of natural history have taken upon 
sociology is exhibited in the review of a threadbare subject with a 
reversal of public judgment. The efforts of Lord Kingsborough, Adair, 
and others to prove that the North American Indians were the lost 
tribes of Israel brought discredit upon their statements about the 
Indians. Colonel Mallery, as vice-president of the American Associa- 
tion in Toronto, reviewed the subject, re-affirmed the statements about 
both Indians and Israelites, and then proceeded to show that the simi- 
larities between the two peoples could be accounted for by a well-known 
principle in ethnology without assuming either consanguinity or contact. 

The British Association for the Advancement of Science did an excel- 
lent thing in appointing a commission to study the Indians of Canada. 
Dr. Boas has reported extensively upon the social life of the coast 
Indians of British Columbia, a branch of ethnologie science for which 
he had specially qualified himself. 

Mr. Stuart Culin, of Philadelphia, has utilized the presence of a large 
number of Chinese there to acquaint himself with some of their social 
customs. His studies in their apparatus of gambling have been prose- 
cuted with extreme care, and the result is a series of monographs of 

great value. 

The one absorbing topic among sociologists at present is the cause 
and prevention of crime. A congress of criminology was held in Paris 


616 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


during the exposition, at which gathered the most eminent students of 
the subject. The questions proposed to the congress were divided into 
three sections: 


Section 1, Criminal Biology.—The latest discoveries in criminal an- - 


thropology, Cesar Lombroso and L. Tenchini. Anatomical characteris- 
tics of criminals, Dr. Manouvrier. Rules for anthropometric and psy- 
chological researches in prisons and insane asylums, Prof. Sciamanna 
and Virgil Rossi. Conditions determining crime and their relative 
value, EK. Ferri. Infancy of criminals in relation to natural pre-disposi- 
tion to crime, Romeo Taverni. Organs and functions of sense among 
criminals, Dr. L. Frigerio and Dr. Ottolenghi. 

Section 2, Criminal Sociology.—Determination of the class of delin- 
quents to which a criminal belongs, R. Girofalo. Conditional liberation, 
Dr. Semal. Criminality in relation to the ethnography, Dr. Alvarez 
Taladriz. Ancient and modern foundations of moral responsibility, 
M. Tarde. Criminal process from a sociologic point of view, G. A. 
Puglhese. Anthropology from the stand-point of its judical application 
- to legislation and to questions of civil right, M. Fioretti. The cellular 
system from the stand-point of biology and criminal sociology, von 
Hammels. 

Section 3, Questions on which no reports or expositions were made.— 
Atavism among criminals, Dr. Bordier. The place of this study in 
anthropology, Dr. Manouvrier. Instruction in medico-legal studies in 
the faculties of law, Prof. Lacassagne. Anthropometry and description 
of criminals from fifteen to twenty years of age, Alphonso Bertellon. 
How to make the instructions of criminal anthropology serviceable to 
the police, MM. Anfosso and Rometi. Correctional education, Dr. Motet. 
Moral and ruling perversions of children, Dr. Magnan. Mental degen- 
eracy and simulation of idiocy, Dr. Paul Garnier. Influence of the 
professions on criminality, Henri Contagne. Degenerate and biological 
anomalies in women and girls, Drs. Belmondo and A. Marro. Vegeta- 
tive functions in criminals and defective persons, Drs. Ottolenghi and 
Rivono. Causes and remedies of murder, MM. Barzilai and V. Rossi. 
Political applications of criminal sociology, Pierre Sarraute. Criminal 
anthropology in ancient Egyptian society, Ollivier Beauregard. Crimi- 
nal anthropology in relation to sociology, A. de Bella. Moral and 
criminal responsibility of surd-mutes, M. Giampietro. Relation of crimi- 
nal anthropology with legal medicine, Dr. Succarelli. Penal law, its 
effects and methods from the point of view of anthropology, Vittorio 
Ollivieri. Criminal ‘sociology, Dr. Calajani. Contagion of murder, 
Dr. Aubry. Political assassins in history and in the present, Dr. Regis. 
The role of woman in the etiology of crime, Guiseppe d’Aguanno. 
Medico-psychological observations on Russian criminals, J. Orchanski. 

Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, has rendered a generous service to the 
history of ceremony in his sumptuous quarto, number vu, of the publi- 
cation of Konigliches ethnographisches Museum zu Dresden, upon the 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 617 


masks of New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. The author re- 
fers to Andree’s work (Arch. f. Anthrop. Xvi, 1886, 477, and Ethno- 
graphische paralleln, N. F’., 1889, 106); to Dall’s paper (3d. Rep., Bur. 
Ethnol., 1584, 67), and to the Berlin Museum publication, Amerika’s 
Nordwestkuste (1883, 1884). Tifteen plates accompany the text, done 
in heliotype process, the most excellent way of saving the peculiar grain 
of the material. 

The leading publications of the year relating to sociology are as fol- 
lows: 

A history of the ancient working people, Ward. Accouchement among 
Clallam Indians, Bissell. Anthropophagy, Zabarowski. Bilqula, mar- 
riage, Boas. Brain of a matricide, Hotzen. Brain of an Amuck runner, 
Zuckerkandl]. Brains of criminals, Fallot. ‘amping circles, Siouan 
order in, Dorsey. Castle-life in Middle Ages, Blashtield. Children’s 
games, Dorselshue, Udal. Chinese chess, Volpicelli. Chinese games 
with dice, Culin. Chinese marriage customs, Fielde. Class system of 
Australians, Howitt. Consanguineous marriage, Oakley. Crime, Morris. 
Crime and accident in Edward First’s time, Rye. Crime, its phys- 
iology and pathogeneses, Morris. Criminal anthropology, Belmondo. 
Criminal anthropology, Lombroso. Criminal characteristics, Hansen- 
Criminal characteristics, v. Holder. Criminal ethnography, erime in 
Creole countries, Corre. Criminal sociology, Colajanni. Criminality, 
Morrison. Criminality and occupation, Contagne. Criminals, Knecht. 
Criminals, classifications of, de Bella. Criminals, taste, hoariness, 
baldness, wrinkles of, compared with the normal, Ottolenghi. Defor- 
mation of the skull in Malecollo, Flower. Degeneracy and criminality, 
Fere. Degeneration in criminals, Kim. Delinquent classes, Ferri. 
Distribution of American totems, Wake. Domesday land measures, 
Pell. The ear of criminals, Gradenigo. Egyptian cosmetics, Virchow. 
Evolution of property, Letourneau. Gentes in camps, place of, Dorsey. 
Glossary of criminal anthropology, Rossi. Families, number of ehil- 
dren, Chewin. Forms of crime, Field. Heirship of youngest, Kaffir, 
Nicholson. Holidays, Gale. Humanitarianism, Salt. Immigration 
and crime, Round. Israelite and Indian, Mallery. Jewish mortuary 
inscriptions, Block. Kinship in Polynesia, Starcke. Labor and life 
of the people, Booth. Marriage, Mnichovski. Marriage customs, New 
Britain group, Danks. Message-sticks in Australia, Howitt. Muni- 
cipal governmentinGermany, Baxter. Mutilation, Ollivier-Beauregard, 
Naming children, Seely. Omaha mortuary customs, La Flesche. Popu- 
lation of Europe, primitive, Nadaillac. Parsee burial, Buckland. Par- 
tition of Africa, Debize. Pathogeny of vice, Lydston. Peasant life in 
Roumania, Sylva. Pedagogies, Bell. Penance, survival of, Howarth. 
Peons of Mexico, Croffut. ersonal identification, Galton. Physical 
education in Russia, Pokrowski. Place of Gentes in Siouan camps, 
Dorsey. Playing cards, Chelon. Political power, its origin, a study 
of Aryan, Janvier. Polygamy in Turkistan, Capus. Precocious mar- 


618 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


riages, Rouvier. Prehistoric trepanation, Hansen. Primitive family, 
Starcke. Prisons, art in, Laurent. Protection and free-trade, Ward. 
Punishment, ethies of, Lilly. Running a muck, Malay, Hagen. Russian 
social life, Vogue. Salutation, Ling Roth. Slave, The history of a, John- 
Ston. Slavers, Arab, American Exchange. Sociability and transform- 
ism, de Broglie. Social regulations in Melanesia, Codrington. Social- 
ism, Rae. Suffrage and its mechanism, Blodgett. Tattooing, etce., 
Joest. Tenement-house life, Riis. Thief-talk, Wilde. American to- 
tems, Wake. Totem clans in the Old-Testament, Matthews. Totemism 
in Britain, Gomme. Town-life as a cause of degeneracy, Barron. Tri- 
bal boundary marks, Stephen. Village communities, Gomme. Widow- 
hood in manorial law, Gomme. Womanamong thesouth slaves, Schu- 
lenburg. Woman’s place in nature, Allen. Woman’s position among 
the early Christians, Donaldson. Women, types of American, Boyesen. 


IX.—RELIGION AND FOLK-LORE. 


The folk-lorists are just encountering a difficulty which has con- 
fronted the archeologists and technologists for a number of years. It 
is this: How are we to account for tales and myths and lore found in 
lands distant by thousands of miles and centuries of time, and yet so 
similar in dramatis persone and incidents. Leaving out of view the 
nature theories of Miiller, Cox, and de Gubernatis as at present unpop- 
ular, we have two extremely active candidates for our acceptance in 
the opinions of Lang and his colleagues on one side and Benfey on the 
other side. The views of Andrew Lang and of Mr. Tylor are that simi- 
lar stimuli acting upon similar stages of culture and similar conditions 
produce similar results. The idea of Benfey is that many resemblances 
are too close to be accidental, and can be accounted for only by what 
Major Powell calls acculturation. The conflict is therefore fairly on, 
with the ablest of opponents on either side. 

The first annual meeting of the American Folk-Lore Society was held 
in Philadelphia, November 28 and 29, in the halls of the University of 
Pennsylvania. Dr. Daniel G. Brinton presided and Mr. Horace Fur- 
ness pronounced the address of welcome. A resolution was passed 
recommending a more extensive publication than the Journal of Ameri- 
ean Folk-Lore. The council was also instructed to provide a question- 
naire or guide to the collection of Folk-Lore, to be circulated in pam- 
phlet form. The meeting was made a very happy one by the courtesies 
of the authorities of the University and of the people of Philadelphia. 
The following papers were read: 

Additional collection a pre-requisite to correct theory in Folk-Lore 
and Mythology, W. W. Newell. Chinese secret societies in the United 
States, Stewart Culin. Superstitions connected with human saliva, 
G. L. Kittridge. Some saliva charms, Mrs. Fanny D. Beyen. Primi- 
tive man in modern belief, Henry Phillips. Voodooism in Missouri, 
Miss Mary A.Owen. The Kootenay Indians, Rev. E.F, Wilson. Chero- 

> 


elit 


i i 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 619 


kee theory and practice of medicine, James Mooney. Tolk-Lore of the 
bones, D. G. Brinton. Survivals of astrology, Munroe B. Snyder. 
Teutonic folk-names in America, Albert H. Smyth. Derivations of 
folk-tales, ete.,in the United States, W. H. Babcock. Louisiana Folk- 
Lore stories, Aleee Fortier. 

The bibliographic notices and references to sources of information in 
the Journal of American Folk-Lore, place the student immediately in 
relation with home and foreign literature upon this most popular branch 
of anthropology. 

The first congress of folk-lorists was opened in Paris on the 29th 
July, at the Trocadero. The occasion of the exposition brought together 
French, Spaniards, Italians, Russians, Poles, Finns, Swedes, English, 
American, and Chinese. The officers of the congress were: President, 
Charles Ploix; vice-presidents, Bruyere, de Rialle, Leland, Dagomanor, 
Nutt, Prato, Nyerop, Tchengkitong; secretary, Sebillot. The subse- 
quent meetings were at the Mairie of the sixth arrondissement, near St. 
Sulpice. The question of classification, tabulation, and analysis were 
referred to a committee. 

The next congress will be held in London, 1891. 

The Folk-Lore Society of London, the most active of all the organiza- 
tions devoted to this branch of anthropology, held its annual meeting 
on Tuesday, November 26. The policy of the society has been carried 
out in two directions, (1) the systematic collection of the remnants of 
British Folk-Lore, and (2) the classification of general folk-lore in such 
a Shape that the scientific value of each item may be tested and exam- 
ined. 

As the Folk-Lore Journal in its present shape did not sufficientiy rep- 
resent the scientific aims of the society, it was decided to issue the 
journal under a new title, Folk-lore. The Archeological Review will be 
fused into the new publication. 

The prospectus gives a good analysis of Folk-lore as it is regarded 
by the English Society, and is here appended: (1) Original articles, 
whether collections of facts or expositions of theory. (2) Reprints of 
English material, not easily accessible, and translations of little read 
languages. (3) A record of the progress of study in folk-lore and in 
allied branches of science. This record will comprise: (a) A bibliog- 


raphy of English and non-English books relating to folk-lore, mythol- 


ogy, archaic and savage institutions, medieval romantic literature, 
archaic history, ete. (b) Summaries of contents of foll-lore periodicals 
and citation of articles of interest to the folk-lorist in general period- 
icals. (c) Reports on well-defined sections of folk-lore, to be issued at 
stated times, briefly summing up the progress and results of study 
within each section during the interval from one report to another, 
each section to be intrusted to a member of the society, who will make 
himself responsible for the production of the report. 


620 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


‘The following sections are planned: 

Comparative mythology. Celtic and Teutonic myti and saga. In- 
stitutions: (a) archaic, (b) savage. Folk-lore in its more restricted use: 
(a) folk-tales and cognate subjects, (b) ballads and games, (c) folk-usages. 
Pre-historie anthrepology and archaic history. Oriental and medieval 
romantic literature. (4) Tabulation of folk-tales and analysis of cus- 
toms and superstitions. 

The impracticability of separating the study of comparative religion 
from folk-lore at present is seen in the titles given below, while in the 
common affairs of life no less than in the conduct of the gods the sav- 
age and the untutored mind live much in presence of a spirit world. 

The most important of these publications are the following: 

Amulets against evil eye, Tylor. Arab amulets, Pallary. Arab le- 
gend, Bolton. Aryan sun-myths, Morris. Ballads of London, Babcock. 
Bavarian folk-moot in sickness, Hofler (three papers). Blackfoot sun- 
dance, McLean. Bread-lore, Gregor. Budha’s alms dish and the Holy 
Grail, Nutt. Celtic axes as amulets, Corot. Celtic myth, Nutt. Chero- 
kee legends, Ten Kate. Cherokee plant-lore, Mooney. Comparative 
mythology, White. Cosmogony of the Mojave Indians, Bourke. Count- 
ing out rhymes, Indian, Matthews. Cross, svastika, etc., in America, 
Brinton. Death’s messengers, Morris. Devil and witch stories, Gregor. 
Egyptian “ Ka” (spiritual body), Edwards. English folk-tales in Amer- 
ica, weather-lore, and current superstitions, Bergen and Newell. Fairy 
stories, Colardeau. Folk-lore, African (the story of creation), Clodd. 
Folk-lore of Bahama negroes, Edwards. Folk-lore, Burmese, St. Jolin. 
Folk-lore, Cairene, Sayce. Folk-lore of Corea, Allen. Folk-lore, Kuro- 
pean, in the United States,Curtin. Folk-lore,German, White and Allen. 
Folk-lore, Huron, Hale. Folk-lore, Irish, White and Allen. Folk-lore, 
Magyar, Katona. Folk-lore, Mexican, Janvier. Folk-lore, New Eng- 
land, Currier. Folk-lore, New Hebrides, Codrington. Folk-lore, Ojib- 
wa, Hoffman. Folk-lore, Omaha, Dorsey. Iolk-lore, Omaha, tletcher. 
Folk-lore, Oriental, White and Allen. Jolk-lore, Pennsylvania Germans, 
Hoffman. Folk-lore, Scottish, White and Allen. Folk-lore, Scottish, 
Gregor. Folk-tales, Slavonic, Wratislau. Folk-lore, Teton, Dorsey. 
Folk-lore, Wexford, A.S.G. Folk-lore legends, White and Allen. Folk- 
lore, sub voce. Folk-medicine of Pennsylvania Germans, Hoffman. 
Gambling songs, Navajo, Matthews. Gezidees or devil worshippers, 
Brouski. Harvest customs, Frazer. Hoase that Jack built, Brewster. 
Human sacrifices in Babylonia, Ward. Ireland, holiday customs in, 
Mooney. Irish proverbs, Kinnahan. Kelpie stories, Gregor. Lama 
pantheon, Pander. Legends of Annam and Tonkin. The lizard in the 
ethnology of Oceanica, Giglioli. Louisiana nursery tales, Fortier. Mo- 
hawk legend, Chamberlain. Masks, New Guinea, Meyer. Myths and 
effigy mounds, Peet. Myth of the robin red breast, Fletcher. New fire 
among the Iroquois, Hewitt. Prehistory and Christian belief, Nada- 
illac. Priestly function among the lower races, Bastian. Plume sticks, 





PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 621 


Indian, Matthews. Popular superstitions, Berenger Feraud. Questions 
on customs, Frazer. Raven myth, Deans. Realism and naturalism in 
poetry and art, Lenoir. Religion of the Semites, Smith. Rhymes from 
old powder horns, Beauchamp. Sacred fire drill of Japan, Hough. 
Satyrs and giants, Petersen. Serpent ring in classical antiquity, Hoer- 
nes. Slavic moon myths, Krauss. Star names, Chinese, Edkins. Su- 
perstitions of Scottish fishermen, Gutherie. Swiss legends, Murray 
Annesley. Teutonic mythology, Rydberg. Thunder bird, Eells. Tonge 
superstitions, Roberts. Traditions of Winnebagoes, Martin. Viking 
age, du Chaillu. Voodoo-worship in Hayti, Newell. Winnebagoes, 
Traditions of, Martin. 

Upon the endowment of the late Lord Gifford for a chair in each of 
the Scottish Universities for teaching natural theology, defined to be 
‘the knowledge of God, the Infinite, the All, the first and only cause, 
the one and Sole Substance, the Sole Being, the Sole Reality, and the 
Sole Existence, the Knowledge of His Nature and Attributes, the 
Knowledge of the Relations which men and the whole universe bear to 
Him, the Knowledge of the Nature and Foundation of. Ethies and Mor- 
als, and of all Obligations and Duties hence arising,” Max Muller was 
elected to fill the chair in Glasgow for the first time. His lectures on 
Natural Religion upon this foundation are now published and form one 
of the important contributions of the year. 


X.—MAN AND NATURE. 


The study of the earth in its relation to man continues in two direc- 
tions, the investigation of man’s relation to geology and the accumula- 
tion of knowledge concerning climatology and the earthly forces effect- 
ual in human fecundity, longevity, vigor, health, ete. The most puz- 
zling enigma of the year has been previously mentioned, the finding at 
Nampa, Idaho, of an image over 300 feet beneath the surface. There 
is just enough of uncertainty about this discovery to keep the matter 
forever in dispute. A much more solid foundation for argument is laid 
in the diggings of Mr. Holmes on Piney Branch, in the District of Co- 
lumbia, where the ordinates of correct deduction were furnished by fol- 
lowing the original horizontal stratum and by the perpendicular face of 
the bowlder bed. 

A. few titles are herewith appended to show the drift of investigation: 

Acclimation at Panama, Vernial. Climate of tropical Africa, Vir- 
chow. Glacial period, Falsan. Man and nature, theories transformistes, 
de Quatrefages. The world’s supply of fuel, McGee. 


pital 


622 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANTHROPOLOGY, 1889. 


AspBott, C. C. Evidence of the antiquity of man in eastern North Awerica. Proce. 
Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 1888, Salem, XXXVII, 293-315. 

The descendants of palwolithic man in America. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVI, 145-153. 

ABERCROMBY, JOHN. The beliefs and religious ceremonies of the Mordvins. Folk- 
L. J., London, vil, 65-135. 

AsxovitcH, R. On weight and linear height of recruits. Voyenno-san. dielo, St. 
Petersb., 1x, 493, 516, 530, 545, 557. 

p’Acy, E. Les cranes de Cannstadt, de Neanderthal et de ’Olmo, mémoire présenté 
au Congres scientifique international des catholiques tenu a Parisen 1888. Paris: 
Saint-Aubin. 18 pp. 8vo. 

Questions aryennes. Rev, d’anthrop., Par., Iv, 3. s., 469-471. 

ADAM, LUCIEN. Notice grammaticaie sur la langue moretana. Rey. de ling., Par., 
XXII, 237-246. 

Appts, Y. H. Mexican lustred pottery. Harpers’ Mag., N. Y., Lxxu, 410-415, 2 ill. 

Atcotre, L. La primordialité de Vécriture dans la genése du langage humain. 
Paris: Emile Bouillon. | 8vo. 

ALLEN, G. Woman’s place in nature. Forum, N. Y., V, 258-263. 

ALLEN, H.N. Korcan tales. Being a collection of stories translated from the Korean 
folk-lore, together with introductory chapters descriptive of Korea. New York 
and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 193 pp. 8vo. 

ALLEN, W.F. The village community and serfdom in England. Trans. Wisconsin 
Acad. Sc., 1888-87, Madison, vi, 130-140. 

American Anthropologist. Organ of the Anthropological Society of Washington. 
Vol. 11in 1889. By the Society. Quarterly. 

American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, Chicago. Vol. x1 in 1889. 

American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass. (See Proceedings. ) 

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (See Proceedings.) 

American Journal of Archeology and History of the Fine Arts. Boston: Ginn & 
Co. Vol. v in 1889. [Organ of the Archeological Institute of America and of 
the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.] Quarterly. 

American Journad of Philology. Baltimore: The editor, B, L. Gildersleeve. Vol. x in 
1889. Quarterly. 

American Journal of Psychology. Baltimore: Murray. Vol. 11, No. 1, in November, 
1888. Quarterly. [From this year published at Clarke University, Worcester, 
Mass. ] 

American Naturalist. New York: Leonard Scott. Vol. xxi in 1889. Monthly. 

Anales del Museo Michoacano. Morelia: Escuela de Artes. Vol. 1 and 11 in 1889. 

Anales del Museo nacional de México. México: Escalante. Vol. Iv, pt., in 1888. 

ANDERSON, RAsMusS B. Teutonic mythology by Victor Rydberg. Translation from 
Swedish. London: Swan, Sonnenschein & Co., 1889. 

ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche. Neue Folge. 
Leipzig. 274 pp. 7 pl. 8vo. 

ANGER. Griiberfelder von Rondsen unweit Graudenz. Schrift. d. naturf. Gesellsch. 
in Danzig, n. F., vir, 125-127. 

Annales de ’Extréme Orient. Vol. Iv in 1889. 

Annales du Musée Guimet. Paris: E. Leroux. Vol. 1v in 1889. (See also Revue 
de Vhistoire des religions. ) 

Annual Report of the Peabody Museum. Cambridge, Mass.: F, W. Putnam, Director. 

Antiqua. Ziirich: Lohbauer. Vol. vit in 1889. Monthly. 

ANTON, G. Ein Fall von Mikrocephalie mit schweren Bewegungsstérungen. Wien. 
klin. Wehnschr., 01, 87-89. 

Appy, E. P. Ancient mining in America, Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 92-99. 








PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 623 


ARCELIN, A. L’homme tertiaire, mémoire présénté au Congres scientifique inter- 
national des catholiques, tenu & Parigen 1888. Paris: Saint-Aubin, 32 pp. 8vo. 

ArpiGo, R. Lascience expérimentale de la pensée. Rev. scient., Par., XL, 514-521. 

Archeological and ethnological papers of the Peabody Museuin. Harvard University, 
Cambridge : By the Museum. 

Archwological Review. Ed. by G. L. Gomme. London: David Nutt. Monthly. 
Vol. 11 in 1889. [Combined with the Folk-Lore Journal into a new periodical: 
“¢ Folk-Lore.” ] 

Archives de l’anthropologie criminelle, Paris. 

Archiv fiir Anthropologie. Organ der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, ete. 
Braunschweig: Vieweg. Vol. xvill, parts 3 and 4, in 1889. Also Correspondenz- 
Blatt, xx, Nos. 8-12; and Catalogue of anthropological literature, 152 pp. 

Archivio per l’ antropologia e la etnologia. Organo della Societa fale di antro- 
pologia, etnologia e di psicologia comparata. Firenze: Salvadore Landi. Vol. 
XVIII in 1889. Quarterly. 

Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, Palermo. Vol. vit in 1889. 

ARNOLD, HuGo. Denkmale des Jupiter Dolichenus zu Pfiinz und Faimingen. Beitr. 
z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miiuchen, vitt, 179-201, 3 tabs. 

ARNOZAN, X., et E. Reais. Un cas de crétinisme sporadique avec pseudo-lipomes 
symétriques sus-claviculaires, J. de. méd. de Bordeaux, xvii, 19-33, 1 pl. 

AsBoTH, J. DE. An official tour through Bosnia and Herzgovina, with an account 
of the history, antiquities, agrarian conditions, religion, ethnology, folk-lore, 
and social life of the people. London, Sonnenschein. 510 pp. Svo. 

Asuwin, C.G. Modern science and natural religion. J. ‘Trans. Victoria Inst., xx11, 
No. 90, 123-133. 

ASPELIN, J. A. Lappische Seidabilder? [Rev. in Intern. Arch. f. Ethnog.], Leiden, 
TE, 56.2 11S: 

Steinplatte aus dem Museum der kaiser]. archaeol. Gesellschaft, St. Peters- 
burg. [Rev. in Intern. Arch. f. Ethnog.], Leiden, 1, 55,56, 1 ill. Ausland 
(Das), Stuttgart. Weekly. 

Association Frangaise pour ’avancement des sciences, Paris, August, 1°39. 

AXENFELD, D. Intorno all origine delle nozioni dispazio. Boll. d. Osp. di S. Casa di 
Loreto, 11, 730-749. 

Intorno all’ organo di spazio. Bull. d. r. Accad. med. di Roma, x, 208-235, 

A.G., Vocabulaire du la langue Nékété et de Thyo (Nouvelle-calctonan Rev. de 
Ling., Par., xxi, 134-141. 

Bascock, W. H. The London ballads. Folk-Lore J., Lond., 27-35. 

BAHNSON, K. Ethnographical museums. Archieol. Rev., Lond., u, 1, 73, 145, 217, 289. 

——— G. Holm: ‘ Ethnologisk Skizze af Angmagsalikerne.” The same: ‘* Sagn og 
Fortellinger fra Angmagsalik.”—H. Rink: ‘Den déstgrénlandske Dialekt.” 
Intern. Archiv. f. Ethnog., 11, 236-239. 

—— Nefrit- og Jadeitsager i Europa. Aarbgger f. N. Oldkynd. og Hist., Kjgben- 
hayn, Iv, 149-169, 

——— Ueber siidamerikanische Wurfhéltzer im Kopenhagener Museum. Intern. 
Archiv. f. Ethnog., 11, 217-227, 1 pl. 

BaILey, A. W. H. On an old canoe recently found in the Irwell Valley, near Barton, 
with observations on prehistoric peat moss. Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. 
and Phil. Soc., 4. 8., U, 243-251. 

Battey, G. H. On the vitrified cement from an ancient fort. Mem. and Proc. 
Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 4. 8. u, 185-188. 

Baker, 8. W. African development: The Soudan. Fortnight, Reyv., N. Y., x1v1, 
551-572. 

BALFourR, HENRY. Note on the use of “elk” teeth for money in North America. J, 
Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 54. 

- On the structure and affinities of the composite bow. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 
XIX, 220-250, 2 pl. 





624 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


BALL, VY. Ancient stone implements in India. Proce. Asia. Soc., Caleutta, 192-194, 

BARBIER DE MONTAULT, X. Journal d’un voyage archéologique dans le divcese de 
Verdun. Nancy: Crépin-Leblond. 42 pp. 8vo. 

Barcus, J.J.L. Inscriptions arabes qui se voyaient eutrefois dans la ville de Mar- 

_Seilles. Nouvelle interprétation et commentaire. Paris: Goupy et Jourdan. 83 

pp. 8vo. 

BARNES, F. Specimen of a hermaphrodite. Brit. Gynec. J., Lond., rv, 205-212, 2 
phot. pl. 

Barron, G. B. Town life asa cause of degeneracy. [Abstr.] Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y.,: 
XXXIV, 324-330. 

BARTENSTEIN, JuLIus. Zur Kenntniss der Reaktionszeiten. Freiburg i. Br.: C. A. 
Wagner. 23 pp. 8vo. 

BARTHELEMY, F. Recherches archéologiques sur la Lorraine avant histoire. Nancy: 
Crépin-Leblond. 304 pp. 8vo. 

BARTHOLOMAE, CHR. Arisches. Beitr. z. indogerm. Sprachen, Géttingen, v, 1-43, 
185-247, 

BAssLeR, A. Reisen im Malayischen Archipel. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. An- 
throp., Berl., 120-123. ; : 

Bastian, A. Bedeutung amerikanischer Sammlungen. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. 
f. Anthrop., Berl., 98-105. 

Eisen. On some ancient sculptures from the Pacific slope of Guatemala. 

Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, 0, 2, San Francisco. Rey. in 

Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 31, 32. 

Ueber die priesterlichen Functionen unter Naturstimmen. Zeitsch. f. Ethol., 
Berl., 111, 109-154. 

BATAILLARD, P. Les débuts de Vimmigration des Tsiganes dans l'Europe occidentale. 
Bull. Soc. Vanthrop. de Par., 3.8., XII, 255-265. 

Batty, R.B. Noteson the Yorubacountry. J. Anthrop. Inst., London, xrx, 160-164. 

BAULIN, Basi. [Measurements of growth, weight, circumference of chest, capacity 
of lungs, manual strength, and state of instep in healthy soldiers.] St. Petersb. : 
A.F. Stolenburg. iii pp. ltab. 8vo. 

Baum, H. Ein Fall von Syndaktylie beim Hunde. Deutsche Ztschr. f. Thiermed., 
Leipz., xv, 81-90. 

Baur, G. On the morphology of the vertebrate-skull. J. Morphol., Bost., 11, 467- 
474, 

Baux, A. Note sur la métallurgie du cuivreen Sardaigne. Rey. archéol., Par., 3.5., 
XIV, 276-284. 

Bayer, J. DE. Etudes archéologiques. Epoque des invasions barbares. Industrie 
anglo-saxonne. Paris: Nogent-le-Rotrou. 141 pp., 17 pl. 8vo. 

Une nouvelle sculpture néolithique. Caen: Henri Delesques. 

BAxTER, S. Berlin: A study of municipal government in Germany. Bull. Essex 
Inst., XXI, 53-87. 

BEAUCHAMP, W. M. Additional notes on Onondaga witchcraft and Ho®-do’-i. J. 
Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 277-281. 

Anthropologists and the American Association. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, 

XT, O12, 313: 

Cayuga Indian relics. Amer. Naturalist, N. Y., xx, 401-406, 1 pl. 

—-— Onondaga customs. J. Am. Folk-L., 195-203. 

—— Onondaga tales. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 11, 261-270. 

— Rbymes from old powder-horns. J.of Am. Folk-L., 117-122. 

Silver brooches and crosses and iron axes. Am. Antiquar., XI, 248, 249. 

—— The great mosquito. J. Amer, Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 284. 

— The rarer Indian relics of central New York. Aimer. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 
108-116. 

BEAUREGARD, O. Ce que peut nous apprendre une figurine égyptienne. Bull. Soc. 
d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., X11, 10-20. 




















ie. | 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 18389. 625 


BEAUREGARD, O. La caricature il y a quatre mille ans. Bull. Soc. @anthrop., Par., 
3. 8., XII, 70-85. 

BEDDOE, JOHN. On human remains, discovered by General Pitt-Rivers at Woodcuts, 
Rotherly, etc. J.Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 2-11. 

Beitriige zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns. Organ der Miinchener 
Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Miinchen: Theo- 
dor Riedel. Vol. 1x. 

BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM. On reading asa means of teaching language to the 
deaf. Wash.: Gibson Bros. 1-7. 

BELL, E. The abbey church of Bernay. Archeol. Rev., Lond., iv, 57-63. 

Bewia, A. br Anormalita deidelinquenti. Anomalo, Napoli, 1, 65-68. 

—— Classificazione dei delinquenti: A Cesare Lombroso. [From Corso di sociolo- 
gia, Vol. v.] Anomalo, Napoli, 1, 109. 

BELMONDO, E. WL’ antropologia criminale di fronte ad una recente critica. Riv. sper. 
di freniat., Reggio-Emilia, xv, pt. 2, 259-272. 

BENEDIKT, M. Ein neues Diagramm der Medianebene. Neurol. Centralbl., Leipz., 
VUL, 121-123. 

Kraniometrie und Kephalometrie. Vorlesungen, gehalten an der Wiener all- 

gemeinen Poliklinik. Mit 36 Holzschnitten. Wien und Leipzig, 1888 (Ur- 

ban und Schwarzenberg.) [Rev.in Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., XVII, 285-286. ] 

Manuel technique et pratique d’anthropométrie cranio-céphalique (méthode, 
instrumentation), & Vusage de la clinique, de Vanthropologie générale et de lVan- 
thropologie criminelle. Traduit et remanié avec le concours de lVauteur par P. 
Keraval. Ouvrage precédé d’une préface de Charcot. Paris: Lecrosnier & Babe. 
171 pp., lL pl. 8vo. 

BENT, J.T. The Pisan game. Archeol. Rev., Lond., 11, 57-66. 

BERENGER-FERAUD. Contribution a l'étude des superstitions populaires; lesprit 
servant domestique. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., Iv, 152-180. 

Note sur un vestige des libérations chez les provengaux de nos jours. Rey. 
@anthrop., Par., Iv, 3. s., 404-411. 

BERGEN, F.D., and W. W. NEWELL. Current superstitions. J.Am. Folk-L., Bost. & 
NiY.; 1, 12-22: 

—— Omens of death; beliefs and customs of children. J. Am. Folk-L., mu, 105-112. 

English folk-tales in America. u. Johnny-cake. J.Am. Folk-L., Bost. & N. 

Y., 11,60-62. 

On the eastern shore. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 295-300. 

and W. W. NEWELL. Weather-lore. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 203-208. 

BERGER, P. Inscriptions céramiques de la nécropole punique d’Hadrumete. Rey. 
archéol., Par., 3, 8., XIV, 201-228. 

BERTHELEMY-SAINT HILAIRE. La législation hindoue. [Review ot Biihler, Jolly 
& Miiller.] J. d. Savants, Feb., 81-94; Mar., 129-143; Apr., 199-212; May, 
253-266. 

BERTHELOT. Sur l’origine du bronze et sur le sceptre de Pepi 1", roi @Egypte. 
Compt. rend. Acad. d.sc., Par., CV111, 923-925. [See also J.d. savants, Par., 1889, 
567-573. ] 

BERTHOLON. LEsquisse de i’anthropologie criminelle des Tunisiens musulmans. Lyon: 
A.Storck. 5Lpp. 8vo. 

BERTILLON, A. Les proportions du corps humain. Rev. scient., Par., xLu1, 524-529. 

Bertin,G. The racesof the Babylonian Empire. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 104- 
120, 1 pl. 

BERTRAND, A. Archéologie celtique et gauloise. Mémoires et documents relatifs 
aux premiers temps de notre histoire nationale, 2 edit, Paris: Burdin et Cie. 
xxxii,464 pp. gr. 8vo. 

BEZZENBERGFR, A, Zur lettischen Declination. Beitr, z, indogerm, Sprach,, Gottingen, 
V, 294-304. 

H, Mis, 224-40 




















626 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


acre anata 


BHIKSHU, SUBHADRA. A Buddhist catechism; an outline of the doctrine of the 
Buddha Gotama in the form of question and answer. Compiled from the sacred 
writings of the Southern Buddhists for the use of Europeans. With explanatory 
notes. London. Redway. 92 pp. 8vo. 

BIANCHI, STANISLAO. Un caso di sacralizzazione incompleta (unilaterale) fra la sesta 
ela settima vertebra cervicale memoria. Arch.p.]’ antrop.e la etnol., Firenze, 
XIX, 93-111, 5 figs. 

Biart, Lucien. Les Aztéques, histoires, mceurs, coutumes. 8vo. Paris. 

BINDER. Das Morel’sche Obr; eine psychiatrisch-anthropologische Studie. Arch. f. 
Psychiat., Berl., Xx, 514-564. 

BINGER.L.G. Du Niger an golfe de Guinée par Kong [customs, religions, and tribal 
divisions]. Bull. de la Soc. de géog., Par., X, 7. S., 329-371. 

BirMANN, H. A. Grand dictionnaire frangaise-allemand, allemand-frangaise. Paris: 
Garnier freres, 1839. 2 gr. in-4to. 1, fr.-all,, (iv) x, 1160 pp.; 11, all.-fr., (iv) xii, 
1259 pp. 

BIssELL,G.P. Description of the proceedings of the Clalam squaws of Puget Sound 
in some cases of difficulty in accouchement. Calif. M.J., Oakland, x, 227. 

BJORNSON, BJGRNSTJERNE. Norway and its people. Harpers’ Mag., N. Y., LxXxvill, 
419-434, 14 figs ; 801-803, 9 figs. : 

BLANCHERE, M.R.pE LA. L’art provincial dans l’Afrique Romaine. Revue archéol., - 
Par., 3.8., XIV, 258-267. 

BLANCHET, J. A. Tesséres antiques, thédtrales et autres. Rev. archéol., Par., 3.s 
XIV, 243-257. 

BLANKINSHIP, J.W. Peculiar earth-heaps in Missouri. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 
117. - 

BLASHFIELD, E, H.and E.W. Castle life in the Middle Ages. Scribner’s Mag.,N.Y., 

v, 3-26, 20 ills. 

Biocu, E. Das Ohr des Salto mortale-Fingers. Ztschr. f. Ohrenh., Wiesb., xx, 53-55. 

Biocn, Isaac. Inscriptions tumulaires des anciens cimetieres israélites d’Alger, 
recueillies, traduites, commentées et accompagnées de notices biographiques. 
Paris: Balay. iv, 147 pp. 8vo. 

BLODGETT, JAMES H., Suffrage and its mechanism in Great Britain and the United 

> States. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 63-74. 

BLOMBERG, CARL VON. 101 Kephalogramme ; eine psychiatrische Studie und Beitrag 
zur Anthropologie. [Jena.] Weimar: R. Wagner. 116 pp., 1 chart, 8vo. 

BLONDEL, ADRIEN. L’Ile de la Réunion. Bull. de la Soc. de géogr., Par., rx, 574-597. 

Franz. First general report of the Indians on British Columbia. British A. 

A. Se., London, 5-97. 

Indian skulls from British Columbia. Tr.N York Acad. Se., 1888~8), vi, 4-6. 

Marriage ceremonies of the Bilqula, Science, N. Y., xm, 505, 

Notes on the Snanaimuq. Am. Anthrop., Wash., U1, 321-328. 

On alternating sounds. Am. Anthrop., Wash., II, 47-53. 

Photographs of tatooed Indians from the Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C. Tr. 

N. York Acad. Se., vit, 115. ’ 

The houses of the Kwakiutl Indians, British Columbia. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 

Wash., 1888, x1, 197-213, 3 pl. 

Ueber seine Reisen in Britisch-Columbien. Verhandl. Gesellsch. f. ErdkunéGe 
zu Berl., Xvi, 257-269. 

Boerum, M. Aphrodite auf dem Bock. Jahrb. kaiserl. deutsch. archiol. {nst., Berl., 

Iv, 408-417. 

Botton, H. C. Arab legend of a buried monastery. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., i, 
227. 

BONAPARTE, Prince ROLAND. Le premier établissement des Néerlandais 4 Maurice. 
Paris, 1889. 60 pp.,5 pl. Gr. 8vo. 

Bonnaront. Deux obseryations de croisement de races, Bull, Soc. d’anthrop, de 
Par., 3, §.) XII, 20-28, 


9) 


& 
° 
> 
aa 


TT 








PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 627 


BonneET, Rk. Die stummelschwiinzigen Hunde in Hinblick auf die Vererbung er- 
worbener Kigenschaften. Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path., Jena, 1888-9, 
IV, 67-92, 1 pl. 

BONNET, Dr. Les gravures sur roches du Sud-Oranais. Rey. @ethnog., Par., vil, 
149-158, & figs. 

Booru, CHARLES. Labour and life of the people. Volume r: East London. Edited 
by. Contributors: Charles Booth, Beatrice Potter, David F. Schloss, Ernest Aves, 
Stephen N. Fox, Jesse Argyle, Clara E. Collot, and H. Llewellyn Smith. London: 
Williams & Norgate. 598 pp. &vo. 

BoreL, A. Pfahtbauer-Grab bei Bevaix. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir /’'reunde 
der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich, vu, 7, 8. 

Borsarki, Luter. Di un’epigrafe spettante alla Arginatura delle ripe del. Tevere. 
Bull, della Com. archeol. com. di Roma, Roma, xvu1, 165-172. 

BoTrarD. Crane de négre du Sénégal. Bull. Soe. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. s., X11, 38-41. 

Bou ie, M. La caverne de Malarnaud, prés Montseron (Ari¢ge). Bull. Soe. philomat. 
de Par., 1888-89, 8. s., 1, 83-86. 

BouRINOT, JOHN G. Federal government in Canada. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. 
in Hist. Polit. Se., 7. s., x, x1, xu. Baltimore. 172 pp. 8vo. 

Bourke, JOHN G. Notes on the cosmogony and theogeny of the Mojave Indians of 
the Rio Colorado, Arizona. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., 0, 169-189. 

BOURNEVILLE et COURBARIEN. Note statistique sur le réle de la consanguinité dans 
Vétiologie de Vépilepsie, de Vhystérie, de Vidiotie et de Vimbécillité. Progrés 
méd., Par., 2. S., Ix, 429-431. 

BovaLtius, Cart. Nicaraguan antiquities. Stockholm: Samson & Wallin. 41 tab., 
2ch. fol. 

Resa i Central America 1881/23. Jbid., 208 ill., 6 ch. 

BoYESEN, HJALMAR H. Types of American women. Fecrum, N. Y., Vu, 337-347. 

Boye, Davip. Archeological report of the Council of the Canadian Institute. 
Sessional Papers, xx1, Pt. v, No. 42. Toronto: Warwick Sons. 

Bone and horn, Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 31-34, 7 figs. 
Catalogue of specimens in the Provincial Archwological Museum. Rep.-Canad. 
Inst., Toronto, 48-101. 
Clay pipes. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 23-27, 8 figs. 
— Copper. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 39, 40, 3 figs. 
Crania. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 41, 2 figs. 

— Flint. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 35, 1 fig. 

Mills and mortars. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 38, 1 fig. 

Modern Indian dress, ete. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 42. 

Pottery. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 21-42, 5 figs. 

Stone pipes. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 28-31, 8 figs. 

—— Stone tubes. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 35-37, 6 figs. 

Boye, J. R. Thé Roman wall. Archwol. Rey., Lond., 1889-90, rv, 81-106. 

Boynton, 8.8. A Samoan legend. Overland Month., San Fran., x1v, 256-259. 

Brackett, C. F. Electricity in the service of man. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., v, 

643-659, 15 ills. 

Braprorp, W. Eviis. Physiological law governing the production of the human 
sex. Dix, Ils.9 pp. 24mo. 

Bravery, H. The rude stone monuments of Ireland. County Sligo and the Island 
of Achill. Academy, Lond., 364, 365. / 

BRANNER, JOUN C. Notes on the Botoctidos and their ornaments. Proc. Am. Phil, 
Soc. Phila., xxv1, 171-173, 10 figs. 

BREUILS, A. Grottes préhistoriques de la Ténarez. Paris: Foix. 20 pp. 8vo. 

Brewster, H, Pomeroy. The House that Jack Built. J. Amer, Folk-L., N. Y., U1, 
209-212. 

BRINCKER, H. Zur Sprachen- und Vélkerkunde der Bantuneger und verwandter 
Stimme Stidwest-Afrikas, Internat, Ztschr. f. allg. Sprachwissensch., v. 19-47. 














628 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


BRINKLEY, 8. H. Carlisle Fort. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 174-184, 1 fig. 

BRINTON, DANIEL G. Aims and traits of a world-language. New York: E. 8. Wer- 
ner, 1-23. 

On the stone giants of Orizaba. Proc. Numis. and Antiq. Soc. of Phila., 1889: 

A Lenape-English dictionary. From an anonymous MS. in the archives of 

the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, Pa., edited, with additions, by Daniel G. 

Brinton and Rey. Albert Sequaqkind Anthony. Phila.: Historical Soc. of Pa., 

1888. 236 pp. 8vo. [The Pennsylvania Student’s Series, Vol. 1, Phila., 1889. ] 

On the cradle of the Semites. Read before the Oriental Club of Philadelphia. 

The ethnic affinities of the ancient Etruscans. Phila. 24 pp. 8vo. Reprint 

from: Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxv1, October. . 

The Ta Ki, the Svastika and the cross in America. Proc. Am. Philos. Soe., 
Phila., xxv1, 177-187. 23 figs. 

British Association for the Advancement of Science. (See Report.) 

BroGuiz, Duc pr. Le transtormismé et la sociabilité de Vhomme; note présentée au 
Conegrés scientifique international des catholiques, tenu & Paris en 1888. Paris: 
Saint-Aubin. 4 pp. 8vo. 

Bronzezeit (Die) in Oesterreich. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, [145- 
149.] 

Brooks, W. K. The Lucayan Indians. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., xxxvi, 88-98; also 
communication before the National Academy at Washington. 

Brown, J.A. On some small highly specialized forms of stone implements found 
in Asia, North Africa, and Europe. J. Anthrop. Inst. Lond., xvui1, 154-139. 

Brown, Jr., R. The Etruscan numerals. Archol. Rev., Lond., m1, 376-410. 

Browsk1, L. E, The Gezidees, or devil-worshipers. Pop.Sc, Month., N. Y., xxxiv, 
474-482, 

BRUGMANN, KAkL. Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen 
Sprachen. Strassburg (1889) Trubner. [Academy, Oct. 26. ] 

Bruescu, H. Das iilteste Gewicht. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1-9, 3 figs. 

Miinnlichen Mestem. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 336-338. 

BRUNN, HEINRICH. Geschichte der griechischen Kiinstler. Zweite Auflage. Stutt- 
gart: Ebner und Seubert, 1889. [Rev. in Am. J. Archol., Bost., v, 57.] 

BRUNNHOFER, HERMANN. Ueber die durch Anhiingung u.s. w. gebildeten Infini- 
tive. Beitr. z. indogerm. Sprachen., Gottingen, v, 262-270. 

Bryce, JAMES. The American Commonwealth. New York: Macmillan, 1889. 2 vols. 
12mo. 

Buck, Cari D. Discoveries in the Attic Deme of Ikaria, 1888. 11. Stele of a war- 
rior. Am. J. Archeol., Bost., v, 9-17, 1 pl., 1 fig. 

The choregia in Athens and at Ikaria (fac-simile inseription), Am. J. Ar- 
cheol., Bost., v, 18-33, 2 figs. 

BUCKLAND, A. W. Gen. Pitt-Rivers’ explorations. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xv, 
200-204. 

Parsee burial in India. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvu11, 420. 

The monument known as ‘‘ King Orry’s grave” compared with tumuli in Glou- 
cestershire. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xv111, 346-353, 1 pl. 

BUEL, Ira M.  Effigies on the Fox River. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 185, 186. 

BuGGE, Sopuus. Om versenei kormaks saga. <Aarb, f. nord. Oldk. og Hist., Kjoben- 
havn, Iv, 1-88. 

Bunot pu Kersers, A. Histoire et statistique monumentale du département du Cher. 
Bourges: Tardy-Pigelet. 52pp. Ato. 

Bulletin de Ja Société archéologique de Touraine. T.7, 1° et 2° trimestres de 1888. 
Tours: Deslis fréres.. 393 & 480 pp. 8vo. 

Bulletin de la Société archéologique, scientifique et littéraire du Vendé6mois. 3° et 
4¢ trimestres, 1888. Vendéme: Lemercier. 8vo, 

Bulletin de la Société @anthropologie de Bruxelles, Bruxelles (1889), Tome Iv. 8vo. 





























_ ~ 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 629 


Bulletin de la Société Vanthropologie de Lyon, (1689), Tome v1. 

Bulletin de la Société de géographie. Paris: Soc. de géog., 7. s., vol. x, in 1889. 
Quarterly. 

Bulletin de la Société @ethnographie, 2° série, 1889. Alliance scientifique univer- 
selle, Institution ethnographique, Société Vethnographie, Société orientale, So- 
ciété sinico-japonaise, Société africaine, Société américaine de France, Société 
océanienne. Paris: Soc. d’ethnographie, 2. s., in 1889. 

Bulletin de l'Institut egyptien. (2s., pt. 10, in 1889.) 

Bulletin et mémoires de la Société archéologique du département d’Ile-et-Vilaine. 
Paris, 1858. 211 pp. 8vo. 

Bulletin et mémoires de la Société nationale des antiquaires de France. T. 48, 5° 
série, t. 8. (Mémories, 1887.) Paris, Nogent-le Rotrou. 3858 pp. 8vo.- 

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. New York; Printed for the Society. 
XXI in 1889. Quarterly. 

Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco, 1889. 

Bulletin of the Essex Institute. Salem, Mass. Vol. 1. : 

Bulletins de la Société Vanthropologie de Paris. Paris. [Organ of Paris Anthropolog- 
ical Society.] 3s., Vol. x1, in 1889. 

Bullettino della Commissione archeologica communale di Roma. Roma: R. Accad. 
dei Lincei. Xvitth year in 1889. Monthly. 

Bullettino di paleontologiaitaliana, 2.s.,2d year. | Filled with Italian archeology. | 

BuRNE, Charlotte 8. Derbyshire sayings.. Folk-LoreJ., Lond., vu, 291-293. 

Staffordshire sayings. Folk-Lore J., Lond., vu, 204. 

BURNETT, SwAN M. A note onthe Melungeons. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 347-349. 

BuRNHAM, W.H. Memory, historically and experimentally considered. Am.J. Psy- 
chol., Worcester, H, 39-90, 568-622. 

BuUSCHAN, GEORGE. Ueber priihistorische Gewebe und Gespinnste. Arch. f. Anthrop., 
Brnschwg., XVIII, 235-262. 

Busu, J. Foster. Biennial report of Medical Examiner-in-Chief, American Legion 
of Honor, 1887~89. [Anthropometry.] Bost: A. Mudge & Son. 54 pp. 8vo. 

Birscu1i, O. Devons-nous admettre un accroissement de plasma par intussusception ? 
[Trans]. from Biol. Centralbl., Erlang., 1888, vii, No. 6, by L. Bertrand. ] Bull. 
scient. de la France et de la Belg., Par., 3. s., 11, 145-149. 

ByRNES, T. Nurseries of crime. N. Am, Rev., N. Y., CXLIx, 354-362. 

CABLE, GEORGE W. Strange true stories of Louisiana, N. Y.: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 
Rev. in American, Phila., xix, 1890, 235, 236. 

CAMBEFORT, J. Une semaine de vacances dans l’Aveyron et la Lozére. Bull. Soc, de 
géogr. de Lyon, 151-175, 6 ills. 

CAMPBELL, ARCHIBALD. Waifs and strays of Celtic tradition. London: D. Nutt. 

CANTARELLI, Lurar. L’iscrizione diAncyra. Bull. d. Com.archeol. di Roma, Roma, 
“Xvi, 3-16; 57-68. 

Capus,G. Le Kafiristan et les Kafirs-Siahpouches, Rev. scient., Par., xii, 1; 237; 
XLIV, 424. 

Sur les causes et les effets de la polygamie et le mouvement de la population 
indigéne dans le Turkestan russe. Bull. Soc. V’anthropde Par., 3. s., xt, 164-171. 

Sur Vétiologie et la répartition géographique de Vendémie goitro-crétineuse. 
Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., Xl, 91-99. 

Carnoy, E. HENRI, and Jean Nico.aiprs, ‘Traditions populaires de l’Asie Mineure. 
Paris, 1889, Maisonneuve. 

CaRTAILHAC, EmMiIte. La France préhistorique d’aprés les sépultures et les monu- 
ments. Paris: F. Alean. 340 pp. 8vo, Huiticme Congres archéologique de Moscou. 
L’anthropologie, 1, 155. 

L’or gaulois. Rev. @anthrop. Par., Iv, 272-292, 19 ills. 
CASTELFRANCO, P. Agedelapierre en Italie. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., IV, 573-612. 
Les villages lacustres et palustres et les terremares. Rey. d’anthrop., Par., 
IV, 3. 8., 412-438. 


630 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


CASTELLANI, A. Delle scoperte avvenute nei disterri del nuovo Palazzo di Giustizia. 
Bull. d. Com. archeol. di Roma, Roma, xv, 173-180, 1 tab. 

CENTONZE, M. Sul cranio di un idiota. Anomalo, Napoli, 1, 68-73. 

CERMAK. Eine der priihistorische Ansiedelung bei siidlich gelegenen Ziegelhiitte in 
Caslan (B6hmen). Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 443-456. 

CHAMBERLAIN, A. F, A Mohawk legend of Adam and Eve. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., 
LI 228: 

Bibliography of the art and archeolegy of the aboriginal tribes of the Domin- 

ion of Canada and Newfoundland. Am. Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 102-118. 

Contributions towards a bibliography of the archeology of the Dominion of 

Canada and Newfoundland. A pamphlet. Canadian Inst., Toronto, 6 pp. 

Tales of the Mississaguas. I. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 141-147. 

The archeology of Scugog Island. Read before the Canadian Institute, 3 pp. 

The Eskimo race and language; their origin and relations. Proce, Canad. 
Inst., 1887-88, Toronto, 3. s., V1, 261-337. 

—— The language of the Mississaguas of Scugog. [Abstract.] Proc. Can. Inst., 
Toronto, 1890, 5. 

CHAPMAN, Bb. H. A circular enclosure formed by effigies. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, 
XI, 186-188. 

CHAPMAN, W. A. An ancient mine in Arkansas. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sc., 
V, 29-32. 

Cuarcot, J. M., et PAUL RicHER. Les difformes et les malades dans art. Paris, 
Lecrosnier & Babé. 168 pp. 4to, 

Les malades dans Vart. [Extrait du livre: Les difformes et les malades 
dans Vart, Paris: Lecrosnier et Babé, 1889.] N. iconog. de la Salpétriére, Par., 01, 
146-154, 3 pl. 

CHARENCEY, H. pe. Etude sur Voriginedes Basques d’aprés Jes données de la 
linguistique. Bull. de la Soc. de géog., Par., X, 7. 8., 445-456. 

Vocabulario tzotzil-espatiol, dialecto de los indios de la parte oriental del 
estado de Chiapas (México). Rev. dé ling., Par., xx, 247-273. 

CHATELLIER, P. pu. Le trésor de Saint-Pabu. Canton de Plondalmézeau (Finis- 
tere). Rev. archéol., Par., 3..s., X1v, 183-194. 

Cuavuvet, G. Coup d’eil sur la période néolithique dans le département de la 
Charente. Angouléme: Chasseignac. 17 pp. 8vo. 

L’archéologie préhistorique 4 la Faculté des lettres de Poitiers (1889). Cours 
de M. Liévre. Poitiers: Ruffec. 7 pp. 8vo. 

CHERVIN. Nombre d’enfants par famille d’aprés le dénombrement de la population 
de 1886. Rev. Vhyg., Par., x1, 119-143. ‘ 

Cuiris, M. Mémoire sur un tumulus de l’époque néolithique situé a la Collette, 
commune d’Escragnolles (Alpes-Maritimes). Draguignan: Olivier et Rouvier. 
Ipp. S8vo. 

CuupzInsKI, T. Sur les cranes de Luxeuil (Haute-Sadne). Bull. Soc. danthrop. de 
Par., 3. s., XII, 420-423. 

Sur un cas de plagiocéphalie observé chez un jeune macaque. Bull. Soc. 
danthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 121-123. 

CLarkKE, F. W., and Mrerriti, G. P. On nephrite and jadeite. Proc. U. S. Nat. 
Mus., 1888, Wash., x1, 115-130. 

CLarRKE, H. The right of property in trees on the land of another as an ancient 
institution. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xrx, 199-211. 

Cierisz, A, Recherches des lois qui président & la création des sexes. Par.: G. 
Rongier. 81 pp. 8vo. 

CLERGEAUD. Excursion de la Société archéologique de Tarn-et-Garonne (23, 24, 25, 
avril 1888). Montauban: Forestie. 35 pp. 8vo. 

CLERMONT-GANNEAU, C. Recueil @archéologie orientale. Paris. 8vo. 

CLopp, Epwarp. Notes on African folk-lore, etc. Folk-Lore J., Lond., 22-25. 

The philosophy of Rumpelstiltskin. Folk-L. J., Lond., yu, 135-163, 

> 



































PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 631 


CLopp, Epwarp. ‘The story of creation: a plain account of evolution. New York: 
Humboldt Pub. Co. 129 pp. 

CLOSMADEUC. Sépultures de V’ancienne abbaye de Lanvaux. Examen des ossements. 
Vannes: Galles. 17 pp. 8vo. 

CLoustTon, W. A. A group of Eastern romances. Privately printed. Lond. 

CLULOW, GEORGE. The origin and manufacture of playing cards. J. Soc. Arts, 
XXXVI, 571-579. 

Coan, T. M. The Hawaiian Islands, their geography, their volcanoes, and their 
people. Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., xx1, 149-166, 1 pl. 

CopRINGron, R. H. A folk-tale from New Hebrides. Archol. Rey., Lond., 1888-’89, 
i, 90. 

On poisoned arrows in Melanesia. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xrx, 215-219. 
On social regulations in Melanesia. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 306- 
aloe 

COLAJANNI, NAPOLEONE. Lasociologie criminelle. Tomei» Catania. 1 vol. [Rev. 
in Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 1v, 225-227. ] 

CoLARDEAU, E. Origine et philosophie des contes de fées. Conférence faite au Palais 
des Facultés de Clermont, le 20 janvier 1888. Clermont-Ferrand: Mont-Lonis. 19 
pp. 8vo. 

CoLEMAN, W.F. Retinitis pigmentosa, with special reference to the question whether 
it affords evidence of degeneration from the marriage of a near kin. N. Am. 
Practitioner, Chicago, I, 49-58. 

Conver, C. R. Exhibition of drawings of rude stone monuments east of Jordan, 
J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xrx, 65, 66. 

The early races of western Asia, J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xrx, 30-49, 1 pl. 

Congrés international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques. 10. session. 
Paris. 24 pp. 8vo. 

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN. Tangier and Morocco. Harper’s Mag., N. Y., UXXVIII, 752- 
771, 12 ills. 

CONWENTZ. Die Griiberfelder von Henriettenhof bei Zemblau, Kreis Neustadt. 
Schrift. d. naturf. Gesellsch. in Danzig, n. F., vu, 47-53. 

Cop-MARLET, Mara. Die Zigeuner unter den Siidslaven. Ethnol. Mittheil. a. Un- 
garn, Budapest, 305-311. 

Corr, E. D. An outline of the philosophy of evolution. Proc. Am. Phil. Soce., 
Phila., XXVI, 495-505. : 

Corot, H. Notice sur V’emploi des hachettes celtiques comme amulettes et talis- 
mans. Dijon: Darantiére. 14 pp. 8vo. 

Corre, A. Le crime en pays créoles. (Esquisse d’ethnographie criminelle.) Paris: 
G. Steinheil. 314 pp. 12mo. 

Les criminels; charactéres physiques. Par.: O. Doin. 427 pp. 12mo. 

Correspondenzblattt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie 
und Urgeschichte. Miinchen: Johannes Ranke. Vol. x1rx, 8-12, in 1889, 
Monthly. 4to. 

Cosmos, Guido Cora’s. Torino: Guido Cora. Vol. x. 

Cosmos. Revue des sciences et de leurs applications. Paris: By the journal. 
Founded in 1850, —th year in 1889. Weekly. 8vo. 

CoTTEAu, G. Le préhistorique en Europe ; congrés; musées; excursions. Paris: J. 
B. Bailliere et fils. 313 pp. 

COUES, ELLIOTT. Signs of the times, from the standpoint of a scientist. Chicago: 
Religio-Philosophical Publishing House. 1-44, 

CouTaGNg, H. De |’influence des professions sur la criminalité. Arch. de Vanthrop. 
crim., Par., Iv, 616-622. 

CrESCEN’, A. L’Irlande. Bull. Soc. de géog. de Lyon, 441, 442. 

CrorruT, W. A. The Peons of Mexico. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 80. 

Crorton, H. T. Hand-list of books, etc., in English, relating to the Gypsies. J. 
Gypsy-Lore Soc., Edinburgh, Constable, 1, 153-160. 


632 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889 


CroucH, ARCHER P. Glimpses of Feverland: or, a cruise in West African waters. 
London: Sampson Low. [Rev. in Nature, x1, 53.] 

CULIN, STEWART. Chinese games with dice. Phila. 21 pp. 

CULVER, G. E. A pos-ible elephant. Science, N. Y., xiv, 103. 

CUNNINGHAM, D. J. Eight true ribs in man. Nature, Jan. 10, xxxrx, 248. 

The spinal curvature in an aboriginal Australian. [Abstr.] Proc. Roy. Soe. 
London, XLyv, 301-303. 

CuRRIER, JOHN McNaAs. Contributions to the folk-lore of New England. J. Amer. 
Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 291-294. : 

CurtTIN, J. European folk-lore in the United States. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. & 
N. Y., 11, 56-59. 

CuviEeR, G. Femme de race Béshimane. [Revy.d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., Iv, 241-248.] 

DALGREN,E.W. Nagot om detfornaochnuvarande Mexico. Ymer, Stockholm, 1x,3-30. 

Day, D. D. Nativelife in British Borneo. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., xxx1v, 346-251. 

The Mexican Messiah. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, Peet, x1, 14-30. 

Dames, W. Bearbeitetes Elkgeweih aus dem Moore von Mickow in Meklenburg. 
Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 456. 

DANFORTH, GRACE. A law of heredity, or, possibly, maternal impressions. Texas 
Cour.-Rec. Med., Dallas, v1, 79-81. 

Danks, B. Marriage customs of the New] Britain group. J. Anthrop. Inst, London, 
1888-89, XVIII, 281-294. 

DARMESTETER, JAMES. Textes pehlevis relatifs au Judaisme. 15p. in-8vo. fev. in 
Rev. de ling., Par., xx11; 295. 

Darnis, A. Les Angolais a Paris. La Nature, Par., xvit, pt. 2, 131-133. 

DauBREE. Le diamant dans l'Afrique centrale. J. des Savants, Paris, Dec., 740-753. 

Davis, J. A. Fotalmeasurements. [At birth inrelation to sex.] Univ. Med. Mag., 
Phila., 1, 101. 

Davis, J. W. Chronology of the human period. School of Mines Quart., N. Y., 
x, 318-320. 

DEANS, J. The raven myth of the northwest coast. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, IIl., 
XI, 297-301. 

The story of the bear and his Indian wife. A legend of the Haidas of Qteen 
Charlotte’s Island, B. C. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. & N. Y., 11, 255-260. 

Drpize, Lt.-Col. Le partage politique de l’Afrique: 1' partie, les Allemands et les 
Anglais sur la cote orientale. Bull. Soc. de géog. de Lyon, Lyon, 49-61. 

DE CLERCQ, F.S.A. Dodadi ma-taoe en Goma mataoe of zielenhuisjes in het district 
Tobélo op Noord-Halmahera. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 204-212, 1 pl. 

Dexassus. Lareconnaissance des récidivistes par les signalements anthropométriques. 
Bul.. Soc. d. sc. méd. de Lille (1888), 70-82. 

Dr Moor, F. L’unité primitive du langage en regard de Genése x], 1, et de Vunité 
de Vespéce humaine. Gand: Sefier. 36 pp. 8vo. 

DENIKER, J. Dr. Obolonsky. Contribution 4 Vanatomie pathologique de ’herma- 
phrodisme chez Vhomme. (Beitriige zur pathologischen Anatomie des Herma- 
phroditismushominis.) Prague, 1888; in-8vo, 1p]. Rev. in Rev. d’anthrop., iv, 
Par., 100-102. 

Essai d’une classification des races humaines, basée uniquement sur les carac- 

teres physiques. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3.s., X11, 320-356. 

Les Hottentots au Jardin @acclimatation. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3.s.,1v, 1-27, 
3 figs., 2 tabs. 

Denis, H. L’économie politique et la constitution progressive de lasociologie au 
x1rx¢ siécle. Bruxelles: Alex. Berqueman. 36 pp. &vo. 

Dercum, F. X. A description of two Chinese brains. J. Nerv. & Ment. Dis, N. Y., 
n. 8., XIV, 421-433. 

DERODE, PHILLIPPE-E.-J. B.-J. Dela brachydactylie. Lille. 96pp. 4vo. 3.s.,No.54. 

DESCHMANN, C. Armbiinder mit Schlangenképfen aus Krain. Mitth. d. anthrop. 
Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 24. 

















PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 633 


DrevrzE, G. Les huit aventures de Gourou Paramartta. Contes Tamouls. (Deuxi- 
éme aventure.) Muséon, Louvain, vit, 529-540, 

Dewar, A’ The natural evolution of man. Westminister Rev., Lond., CxXxxm, 
519-529. 

DICKERMAN, LYSANDER. The Hittites. Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., N. Y., XX1, 325-358. 

Dickson, W. G. Gleanings from Japan. London, W. Blackwood & Sons. [Rev. 
in Nature, 1889, xL, 76,77. ] 

DrpELoT, C. Notes archéologiques sur la Catalogne. Paris: Champion. 20pp. 8vo. 

DieaL, C. Etudes @archéologie byzantine. L’église et les mosaiques du couvent 
Saint Lue en Phocide. Toulouse: Chauvin et fils. 77 pp. 8vo. 

Doan, T. M. Heredity: a physiological and psychological study. N. Eng. M. 
Month., Danbury, Conn., vit, 54-60. 

DONALDSON, H. H. The nervous system. Am. J. Psychology, 11, 299-314. 

DoNALDSON, Principal. The position of women among the carly Christians. The 
Contemp. Rev., Sept., 403-451, 

Dorsey, J. OWEN. Bassa linguistic notes. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 78-80. 

Indians of Siletz Reservation, Oregon. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 55-61. 

— Omaha folk-lore notes. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. N. Y., 1, 190. 

Ponka and Omaha songs. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. N. Y., 11, 271-276. 

——— Teton folk-lore. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 143-158, 133-139. 

—w— The places of gentes Siouan camping circles, Am. Anthrop., Wash., 0, 
375-379. 

Winnebago folk-lore notes. Am. Anthrop., Washington, D. C., 1, 140, 

Dovuatas, A. E. A portrait pipe from Central America. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, 
Ill., x1, 348-358, 1 pl. 

Drescu, J. La grotte du Mas-d’Azil et Vindustrie préhistorique. Foix: Gadrat. 
23 pp. 8vo. 

Drews, RicHARD. Ueber das Mongolenauge ais provisorische Bildung bei deutschen 
Kindern und iiber den Epicanthus. Arch. f. Authrop., Brushwg., XVII, 223-233, 
2 ills. 

DrikSSEN, F. Tie and dye work, manufactured at Semarang Island, Java. Internat. 
Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 106-108, 1 pl. 

Driver, W. H. P. Notes on the aboriginal tribes of the Pahdriyd Kariyés, and the 
Korods. Proc. Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta, 208. 

Du CHAILLv, PAvuL B. The Viking age; the early history, manners, and customs of 
the ancestors of the English-speaking nations. 2 vols., 1366 ills., and map. 
Lond.: Murry. [Rev. in Nature, vol. 41, 1889, 173.] 

Du CHATELIER, PAUL. Les époques préhistoriques et gauloises dans le Finistere. 
Inventaire des monuments de ce départemente des temps préhistorique 4 la fin de 
VYoccupation romaine. Paris: Lechevalier. 212 pp., 35 pl. 8vo. 

DUCHENNE, H. Infériorité pathologique et physiologique de la moitié gauche du 
corps humain. Gaz. d. hop., Par., uxu, 145. 

Duer,G. U. Iron axe inamound. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 188. 

Dunovsser. Anthropométrie scientifique et proportions artistiques. Rev. d’an- 
throp., Par., 3. s, Iv, 385-391. 

Dumont, A. Essai sur 1a natalité dans le canton de Paimpol (Cétes-du-Nord). Bull. 
Soc. Vanthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 273-315 

Le chemin de fer de la vallée de VEuphrate. Bull. de la Soc. de géogr., Par., 
IX, 557-573. 

DuMOUTIER, G. Choix de légendes historiques de VAnnam et du Tonkin. Traduites 

du chinois et accompagnées de commentaires. Rey. d’ethnog., Par., vit, 159-191. 
Van Miéu, le temple royal confucéen de Hanoi. Rey. d’ethnog., Par., vir, 493- 
502. 

DupratT, C. Sépultures antiques de Djidjeli. Recueil des notices et mémoires de la 
Société archéologique du département de Constantine, Constantine, 3. s., Iv, 396- 
399, 1 pl. 


634 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Duvar, Matruias. Un biologiste du xv® siécle. [Extrait de: L’Anatomie des 
maitres.] Rev. scient., Par., XLiv, 713-719. 

Le transformiste frangais Lamarck. Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., x1, 3. s., 
336-374, 

Dwicut, T. The anatomy of the contortionist. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., v, 493-505, 

Dyer, T. F. ToistteToN, The folk-lore of plants. N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. 12mo. 

Eccrrs, R. G. Descent and disease. Brooklyn M. J., 111, 98-118. 

EDKINS, JOSEPH. Star-names among the ancient Chinese. Chinese Rev., xvi, Nos. 
5,6. Rev. in Nature, Xxx1x, 309. 

Epwarps, AMELIA B, The nature of the Egyptian ‘‘Ka.” Academy, Lond., 12-14; 
27. 

Epwarps, C. L. Folk-lore of the Bahama negroes. Am. J. Psychol., Worcester, 11, 
519-542. 

EpWARDS, C. Rides and studies in the Canary Islands. London, Unwin. 380 pp. 
8vo. , 

EELLS, Myron. The thunder bird. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 329-336. 

The Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indiansof Washington Territory. Ann. 
Rep. Smith, Inst., 1887, pt. 2, Wash., 605-681. 

Eacrrs, H. A study of the boomerang. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1888, Wash., x1, 363- 
367. 

Euuis, THoMAS S. The human foot, its form and structure, functions and clothing. 
London: J. & A. Churchill. 151 pp. 8vo. 

EMERSON, ELLEN KUSSELL. Mortuary devices in runic and alphabetic signs, Am. 
Antiquarian, Mendon, X1, 236-241, 35 ills. 

Repetition in picture writing. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 381, 382. 

Emerson, Josepu. Animal worship among theGreeks. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, 
XI, 246. 

ENprE, L von. Die Baduwisauf Java, Mitth. d. anthrop, Gesellsch. in Wien, n.F., 
Dx, 3. 

ERCKERT, VON. Kopfmessungen kaukasischer Vélker. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschweg., 
XVIII, 263-281 ; 297-335. 

Ernst, A. Eino Fall heterotroper Retention des unteren linken Eckzahnes bei 
Cebus capucinus Geoffr. Verhandl. d Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 338. 

Gn the etymology of the word tobacco. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 133-142. 

Prihistorische und ethnographische Gegenstinde aus Venezuela. Verhandl. 

d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 467. 

Proben venezuelanischer Volksdichtung. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesell- 
sch., Berl., 525-534. — 

Ersuorr, 8. M. [Physical and psychical peculiarities of criminals.] Vestnik obsh. 
hig. sudeb, i, prakt. med., St. Petersb., 1, pt. 3, 53-65. 

ErsLEy, Kr. Unionsbrevet fra Kalmarm@det 1397. Aarbgéger f. N. Oldkyndighed 
og Hist., Kj@benhavn, 1v, 101-148, 4 figs. 

ESPERANTO. An attempt towards an international language. Translated by Henry 
Phillips, jr. Together with an English-International Vocabulary, compiled by 
the translator. New York: Holt & Co. 8vo. 

Ethnologische Mittheiluugen aus Ungarn. Zeitschrift fiir die Volkskunde der Bewoh- 
ner Ungarns und seiner Nebenliinder. Budapest: Redaction. 1st year, 1887-88. 

Evans, A. J. Stonehenge. Archieol. Rev., Lond., 11, 312-330. 

Fatuor, A. Le cerveau des criminels. Notes sur les deux assassins Esposito et Te- 
gami. Arch. de l’anthrop. crim., Par., 1v, 289-319, 3 pl. 

Note sur Vindice céphalique de la population provengale. Rev. d’anthrop., 

Par, 3:.8., IV, 322-327. 

Recherches sur indice céphalique de la population corse. Rev. d’anthrop., 
Par., Iv, 641-674. 

Fausan, A. La période glaciaire étudiée principalement en France eten Suisse. Paris: 
F. Alean. 364 pp.,3 pl. 8vo. 


























PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 635 


FARNELL, L. R. The origins and earliest developments of Greek sculpture. Archivol. 
Rev., Lond., 11, 167-184. 

FARMER, Prof. Americanisms, oldand new. A dictionary of words, phrases, and col- 
loquialisms peculiar to the United States, British America, West Indies, ete., their 
derivation, meanings, together with many anecdotes, historical, explanatory, 
folk-lore notes. 8vo. 

FAUVELLE. De la distinction 4 faire en anthropologie entre les caractéres de race et 
les caractéres évolutifs. Bull. Soc. @’anthrop. de Par., 3.s., x11, 135-144, 

De Vinstinet. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3.s., x11, 47-58. 

FELTON, CHARLES EK. The identification of criminals. Its value as a preventive of 
crime, and the importance of unity of action among prison officials in securing a 
fixed and general system. Chicago: Knight & Leonard Co. 26 pp. 18mo. 

Fért, C. Dégénérescence et criminalité. Essai physiologique. Paris: Alean. 183 
pp. 1s8mo. 

Ferousy, J. H. The philosophy of civilization ; a sociological study. London: Whit- 
tingham. 326 pp. 8vo. 

FERREF, Barr. The element of terror in primitive art. Am. Antiquar, x1, 331-348, 
Mendon, 8 figs. 

FERRI, ENrIco. Delittie delinquenti nella scienzae nellavita., Milano: Frat. Treves. 
81 pp. 12mo. 

Fick, A. Grundsprachliches m und x am Wortende. Beitr. z.indogerman. Sprach., 
Gottingen, Vv, 291-294. 

FIELDE, ADELE M. Chinese marriage customs. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., xxxiit, 241- 
246 ; 589-596. 

Chinese theory of evolution. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., Xxxvi, 397-400. 

FreLtp L. Development of the forms of crime. [Transl. from the German.] Open 
Court, Chicago, m1, 1765-1767. 

Finyon, H. Note sur Ja disposition des orifices de la base du crane de la Viverra an- 
tigua. Bull. Soc. philomat. de Par., 8.s., 1, 109. 

Note sur les caractéres de la base du crane des Plesictis. Bull. Soc. philomat. 
de Par., 8. s.,1, 106-108, 1 pl. 

Note su rune machoire humaine trouvée dans la caverne de Malarnaud pres de 
Montseron (Ariege). Bull. Soc. philomat. de Par., 8.s., 1, 69-82, 1 pl. 

Fintscy, Jorr. W. Land u. Leute in Ungarn von R. Bergner. Ethnol. Mittheil. a. 
Ungarn, Budapest, 242-246. 

Fiscuerr, L. HW. Ueberindischen Schmuck. Mitth.d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 
Ix, [173]. 

FIsHBack, W.M. Statehood for the Indians. N.Am, Rev., CxLviit, 648. 

FISHBOURNE. A case of sporadic cretinism, Austral. M.J., Melbourne, n.s., XT, 
200-205. 

Friescur, F. LA. Death and funeral customs among the Omahas, J. Am. Folk-Lore, 
Bost. & N. Y., m1, 8-11. 

FLETCHER, ALICE C. Leaves from my Omaha note-book. J. Am. Folk-Lore, N. Y., 
II, 219-226. 

FLetcuEer, R. Mythsof the robin redbreast in early Euglish poetry. Am. Anthrop., 
Wash., 11, 97-118. Also, Reprint. 

FLINT, EARL. Nicaragua foot-prints. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 306-311. 

FLower, W. H. Exhibition of an artificially-deformed skull from Mallicollo. J. 
Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 52-54. 

— The pygmy races of men. Notices Proc. Roy. Inst. Gr. Brit., Lond., x11, 266- 
283. 

Folk-Lore Journal. London: Elliot Stock, published for the society. [Merged with 
the Archieol. Review into ‘ Folk-Lore.” ] 

Forrer, R. Die Pfahlbauten von Venezuela. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir 
Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich, vu, 18-20. 


636 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Forrer, R. Ethnographisches Vergleichsmaterial. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt 
fiir Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich, v11, 14-16, 1 tab. 

Hirschhornhacken. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir Freunde der Alterthums- 

kunde, Ziirich, vu, 6-7, 3 figs. 

Unedirte Schwerter. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir Freunde der Alter- 
thumskunde, Ziirich, vit, 13, 14, 1 tab. 

Fortier, ALCEE. Louisiana nursery tales. J. Am. Folk-L., Bost. & N. Y., 1, 36-40, 

FOURNEREAU, L. Les ruines khmers du Cambodge-Siamois, avec carte dans le texte. 
Bull. Soc. de géog., Paris, x, 7. s., 242-278. 

FOWKE, GERARD. The manufacture and use of aboriginal stone implements. 20 pp. 
Svo. 

FRADENBURGH, J.N. Old heroes; the Hittites of the Bibie. New York: Hunt & 
Eaton. 166 pp. 

FRANCK, AD. Lacrime. J. d.savants, Paris, Oct., 577-591; Dec., 724-739. Also, Les 
principes du droit, Jan. and July, 1889. 

FrAzER, J.G. A South African Red Riding-hood. Folk-L. J., Lond., vit, 167, 168. 

Notes on harvest customs. Folk-Lore J., Lond., pp. 47-53. 

——— Questions on the manners, customs, religion, superstitions, ete., of uncivilized 
or semi-civilized peoples. J.Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 431-439. 

FrreamM, W. Agricultural Canada: a record of progress. [Rev.in Nature, x, 52. ] 

French Association. (See Association frangaise. ) 

FRESHFIELD, D. W. The Suanetians and their home. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 
XXXIV, 380-385. 

FRESSEL, JOHANNES. Die Skythen-Sagen: Die Urviiter der Germanen. Miinchen 
(1889), Lindauer, [Academy, July 6. ] Z 

Frickr, K. Ueber psychische Zeitmessung. 1. Die einfache Reaktionszeit. It. 
Zusanimengesetzte Reaktionszeiten. Biol. Centralbl., Erlang., 1x, 234, 437, 467. 

FRICKHINGER, A. Die Grenzen des friinkischen und schwhbiiischen Idioms. Beitr. z. 
Anthrop. u. Urgeseh. Bayerns, Miinchen, vit, 1-3. 

FRIDOLIN, J. Ueber defecte Schiidel. Arch. f. path. Anat., ete., Berl., cxv1, 261- 
265, 1 pl. ; b 

FRIEDEL, E. Kleine Metallfiguren zweifelhaften Alters. Verhandl. d. Berl. 
Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 51-61. 

Fr6uicH, H. Kérperlinge. Prag. med. Wehnschr., xtv, 396, 408. 

FROLING. Kiichenabfiille der Steinzeit bei Tolkemit. Schrift. der naturf. Gesellsch. 
in Danzig, n. F., vu, 9-13. 

FROTHINGHAM, A. L. Early bronzes discovered in the cave of Zeus on Mount Idain 
Krete. Am. J. Archzol., Bost., v, 48. 

Notes on Roman artists of the Middle Ages. Am. J. Archieol., N. Y., v, 182-188. 

Fry, Lord Justice. Imitation as a factor in human progress. Contemp. Rey., 
Lord., Isbister, May. 

FULBERT-DUMONTEIL. Les Lapons au Jardin d’acclimatation. Versailles: Cerf et 
fils. 32 pp. 16mo. 

GAILLARD, F. La restauration du dolmen de Roch’ennaud en Saint-Pierre. Bull 
Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., XII, 125-128. 

Les monuments mégalithiques et les fouilles de 1883 4 ce jour. (Erdeven, 
Plouharnel, Carnac, Quiberon, Locmariaquer.) Guide et itinéraire, avec indica- 
tion des acquisitions et des restaurations faites. Tours: Bousres. 56 pp. 16mo. 

GALE, H. The origin of holidays. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., xxx1v, 516-524. 

GALTON, F. Address delivered at the anniversary meeting of the Anthropological 
Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, January 22, 1889. J. Anthrop. Inst. 
Lond., xvi, 401-419, 

Anthropometric statistics from Amherst College, Mass., U. 8. A. J. Anthrop. 

Inst., Lond., xvii, 192-199. 

Exhibition of an ancient Peruyian gold breast-plate. J. Anthrop. Inst., 

Lond., xviii, 274, 























PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 637 


GALTON, F., Exhibition of instruments (1) for testing perception of differences of 
tint, and (2) determining reaction-time. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 27-29. 

Head growth in students at the University of Cambridge, by F. M. T. Nature, 
Lohd., xu, 317. 

Human variety. Nature, Jan. 24, xxXxIx, 296-300. 

—— La science de Vhérédité. Rev. scient., Par., xLiv, 193-196. 

Narrative of an explorer in tropical South Africa, being an account of a visit 
to Damara Land in 1851. London: Ward, Locke & Co., 1889. [Rev. in Nature, 
Lond., XL, 570-572. 

Natural inheritance. London: Macmillan & Co. 2€8 pp. 8vo. [Rev. in 
Nutare, XXX1Xx, 605, 604. ] 

On head-growth in students at the University of Cambridge. J. Anthrop. 
Inst., Lond., 1888-8), xvur, 155, 1 diag. Also, Nature, Lond., xxxvuu, 14. 

——— and A. A. SOMERVILLE. On the priuciple and methods of assigning marks 
for bodily efficiency. Nature, Lond., xu, 649-653. 

——— Personal identification and description, J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 177-191, 
Also, Nature, Lond., 1888~89, xxxviul, 173, 201. 

——— Remarks on replies by teachers to questions respecting mental fatigue. J. 
Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 157-168. 

——— Tables of observations. [Measurements of 400 persons.] J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xvii, 420-430. 

GAMBARA, FRANCESCO MARINIO e Luial. Contribuzioni allo studio delle anormalie 
del pterion nel cranio umano. Archiv. p. l antrop., Firenze, x1x, 271-305, 10 
figs. 

GARMAN, SAMUEL. Cave animals from southwestern Missouri. Bull. Mus. Compar. 
Zoo'., Harvard College, Cambridge, XVII, 225-239, 2 pl. 

On the age of the Andean medal. Bull. Essex Inst., x x1, 3-6. 

GARNIER, CH. L’histoire de Vhabitation humane. Paris. 

GasTErR, M. A gothic inscription from the land of Ulfilas. Archwol Rev., Lond., 
IV, 51-56. : 

GaTSCHET, A.S. Linguistic and ethnographic notes. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 
63-66 ; 129-132 ; 255-259. 

Popular rimes for Mexico. J. Am. Folk-L., Bost. & N. Y., 1, 48-53. 

Sex-denoting nouns in America languages. Trans. of the Am. Philological Ass., 
xx, 150-171. 

et R. GRASSERIE. Textes Timucua. Traduits et analysés. Rey. de linguist. 
et de philol. comp., Par., x x11, 320-346. 

GATTI, GIUSEPPE. L’ Ara marmorea del Campidoglio. Bull. d. Cominis. archeol. 
di Roma, Roma, Xvi1, 69-72, 1 tab. 

Trovamenti risguardanti la topografia e la epigrafia urbana. Bull. d. Com- 
mis. Archeol. di Roma, Roma, Xvil1, 35-49, 84-92, 145-158. 

GAUTHIER, JULES. Répertoire archéologique du canton de Roulans. Besancon: 
Jacquin, 16 pp. 8vo. 

Gay, V. Glossaire archéologique du moyen Age et de la renaissance. Paris: Bourlo- 
ton. Fasc. 4 et 5, pp. 481-806. 

GAYET, AL. Mémoires publiés par les membres de la mission archéologique fran¢aise 
au Caire, sous la direction de M. Maspero, membre de l'Institut. iT. Doo tasCes 
Les monuments coptes du musée de Boulag. Paris, 1889: Lerous. 35 pp. 4to. 

GELDNER, K. Yasna 33. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. Sprach., Géttingen, v, 248-262. 

German Anthropological Association. Annual meeting, Vienna, 1-89. Reported in 
Correspondenz-Blatt, 1x, and following numbers. 

GIACOMINI, CARLO. Sul cervello di un chimpanse. Torino: E, Loescher. 26 pp., 
1 pl. 8vo. 

GiaRD, A. Lecon d’ouverture du cours de Vévolution des étres organisés, prononcée 
a la Faculté des sciences de Paris, le 22 novembre 1888, Paris: Danel. 28pp. 8vo, 





638 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


GrarpD A. Les facteurs de ’évolution. Rey. scient., Par., xL1v, 641-648. 

GIFFEN, Roserr. The growth of capital. London (1889): Bell. [Rev. in Nature, Apr. 
17, 18902") 

GIGLIOLI, ENrico H. La lucertola nell’ etnologia della Papuasia, dell’ Australia e 

della Polinesia a proposito specialmente di una maschera singolare dal! isola Roissy 
Arch. p. Y antrop. e la etnol., Firenze, x1x, 113-116. 

On a singular obsidian scraper used at present by some of the Galla tribes in 
southern Shua. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 212-214, 1 pl. 

GILLES DE LA TOURETTE. Le masque de Pascal. N. iconog. de la Salpétriere, Par., 
11, 196-202, 1 pl. ° 

GILLET DE GRANDMONT. Le stéatopygie des Hottentotes du Jardin d’Acclimatation. 
Rey. @anthrop., Par., 3. s., Iv, 194-199. 

' Grrop, P. et E. Massénat. Les stations de ’Age du renne dans les vallées de la Vizere 
et de la Corréze. Paris: J.B. Bailliére et fils, iv, 19 pp. 4to. 

GLADDEN, WASHINGTON. Can our social ills be remedied? Forum, N. Y., vir, 18-27. 

Globus. Illustrirte Zeitschrift fiir Linder- und Vélkerkunde, Braunschweig, Vols. Ly 
and LVI in 1889. 

GLOGNER, M. Ueber einen physiologischen Unterschied der Haut des Europiers und 
der des Malaien. Arch. f. path. Anat., ete., Berl., cxv1, 540-542. 

GOETGHEBUER. Les catacombes de Gand. Gand: Leliaert, Siffer et C. 38pp. 8vo. 

GoGuUILLoT, L. Comment on fait parler les sourds-muets, Par.: G. Masson. 1 vol., 
3pp., 2ill. 8vo. 

GomMgE, G.L. Coorg folk-lore. Folk-Lore J., Lond., vir, 295-306. 

The conditions for the survival of archaic customs. Archwol. Rev., Lond., Iv, 

422-438. 

The village community at Ashton and Cote in Oxfordshire. Archiol. Rev., 

Lond., 11, 29-44. 

Totemism in Britain. Archeol. Rev., Lond., 111, 217-350. 

Widowhood in manorial law. Archeol. Rev., Lond., 11, 184-197. 

Goopa.L, T. B. Hereditary transmissions. Vet. J. & Ann. Comp. Path., Lond., 
XXVIII, 233-237. 

GoopE, G. Brown. Museum history and museums ofhistory. Knickerbocker Press, 
N.Y... 22 pp. 

GoopuHanrt, J. F. A case of sporadic cretinism. Illust. M. News, Lond., 1, 26. 

Gorvon, C. A. Notes on the ethnology of ancient chronology of China. J. Trans. 
Vict. Inst., Lond., xx111, 169-202. 

Gorr, J. H. Die Anthropologie unter der Leitung der Vereinigten Staaten. Cor.- 
Bl. d. deutsch., Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., ete., Miinchen, 1888, x1x, 137-144. Also 
transl.: Am. Anthrop., Wash., U1, 313-319. 

The German Anthropological Congress. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 313-319. 

GOULD, GEORGE M. The modern Frankenstein. Chicago. 25 pp. i2vo. 

Gow, J. M. Notes on cup-marked stones, old burying-grounds, and curing or charm 
stone near St. Fillans, Perthshire. Archieol. Rev., Lond., 11, 102-104. 

GRADENIGO, G. Le pavillon de Voreille au point de vue anthropologique. Ann. d. 
mal. de Voreille, du larynx, ete., Par., 1889, xv, 536-539. Also transl. : Wien. klin. 
Wehnschr., 11, 716. 

L’ orecchio nei delinquenti. Gior. d. r. Accad. di med. di Torino, 1889, 3. s., 
XXXVH, 223-229, Also: Boll. d.mal.d.orecchio, d. gola e d. naso, Firenze, vu, 
69-71. Also transl.: Arch. f. Obrenh., Leipz., xxvi11, 183-190. 

GRASSERIE, RAOUL DE LA. Vocabulaire timucua. Rev. de ling., Par., xxi, 168-185. 

GRATZIANOFF, N. A. [Physical development of children and young people in con- 
nection with hereditary dispositions and with the accomplishment of the object 
of schools.] St. Petersburg: P. P. Soikina. 92 pp.,7 tab, 8vo. 

GREGOR, WALTER. Bread. Folk-L.J., Lond., vir, 195-198, 

— Deyil stories, Folk-L. J,, Lond., vit, 287-290, 


























PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 639 


GREGOR, WALTER. Jobn Glaick, the brave tailor. Folk-L. J., Lond., vu, 163--165. 
The clever apprentice. Folk-L. J., Lond., 166, 167. 
Kelpie stories. Folk-L. J., Lond., vu, 199-201. 
Some follk-lore on trees, animals, and river fishing from the northeast coast of 
Scotland. Folk-L. J., Lond., pp. 41-44. 
The witch. Folk-L. J., Lond., vu, 277-236. 
GRINNELL, G. B. Pawnee hero stories and folk tales, with notes on the origin, cus- 
toms, and character of the Pawnee people. New York: Forest and Stream Pub. 
Co. 417 pp. 
GROFFIER, VALERIEN. Explorations et travaux scientifiques des missionnaires en 
1886 et en 1887. Bull. Soc.de géog. de Leon, 381-431. 
GRUNZEL, J. Zur Phonetik der altaischen Sprachen. Gesetz ihrer Vokal- und Kon- 
sonantenharmonie. Internat. Ztschr. f.allg. Sprachen, v, 47-84, 
GUIGNARD, Lupovic. Découvertes archéologiques dans le Loir-et-Cher en 1887. 
Caen: Delesques. 15 pp. 8vo. ; 
GUTHRIE, ELLEN E, Superstitions of Scottish fishermen. Folk-L. J., Lond., pp. 
44-47, 
G., A. S. Wexford folk-lore. Folk-L. J., Lond., pp. 38-40. 
HABERLANDT, M. Ueber Tulapurusha der Inder. Festschr. z. Begriissung. . . . d. 
deutsch. u. Wien. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 1889, 54-58. Also: Mitth. 
d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, 160-164. 
HaGEN, B. Ein Fall von ‘‘Amoklauten” eines Malayen. Mitth.d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
in Wien, n. F., 1X, Sitzungsb., 32. 
Einiges iiber Wachsthumsverhiltnisse ostasiatischer Vélker. Arch. f. Ohrenh., 
Leipz., XXVIII, 31. 
Hate, Horatio. Huron folk-lore. 2 The story of Tijaiha, the sorcerer. J. Am. 
Folk- Lore, Bost. N. Y., 11, 249-254. 
Remarks on North American ethnology; introductory to the report on the In- 
dians of British Columbia. British A. A.Sc., London, 1-5. 
The Aryans in science and history. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., XXx1v, 672-636. 
HALe, Susan. The story of Mexico. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 
HALLANDER, B. A demonstration of centers of ideation in the brain from obserya- 
tion and experiment. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 12-26. 
HAMBLETON,G. W. Physicaldevelopment. Illust. Med. News, Lond., v, 121-123, 1 pl. 
HammMonn, C. M. The prolongation of human life. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., Xxx1x, 
92-101. 
HammMonp, W. The elixir of life. N.Am. Rev.,N. Y., CXr1x, 257-264. 
Hamy, E. T. Etude sur les ossements humains trouvés par M. Piette dans la grotte 
murée de Gourdan. Rev. danthrop., Par., 3. s8., 1v, 257-271. 
Etude sur les Papouas de la mer dentrecasteaux. Rey. @ethnog., Par., VII, 
503-519, 
Un crane humain antique de Puy-de-Déme. L’Anthropologie, 1, 154, 
—— Fouilles en Espagne. J/d., 153. 
Pannes (Wor des tombeaux de Colombie. Jd., 154. 
HaNsEN, S. Larace de Lagoa Santa. Rev. @anthrop., Par., 3. s., IV, 75-77. 
Om forhistorisk Trepanationi Danmark. <Aarb. f. Nord, Oldk. og Hist., Kj@ben- 
havn, Iv, 170-185. 
Om Stigmata hos Forbrydere. [Characteristics of criminals.] Hosp.-Tid., 
Kjobenh., 3. R., vu, 417-423. 
Harrison, C. E., et al. Mound explorations at Toolesboro, Louisa County, Lowa. 
Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Se., v, 37-44. 
Harris, WALTER B, The local distribution of the tribes inhabiting the mountains 
of northwest Morocco, Proc. Roy, Geog, Soc., Lond., x1, 487-491, map. 
Hart, H, L, Women’s suffrage and national danger; a plea for the ascendancy of 
man. London; 1890, Remington, 196 pp. 8yo, 





640 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


TARTLAND, E. 8. Fairy births and human midwives. Archeol. Revy., Lond., Iv, 
328-343, 

HAVERFIELD, F. Roman remains in Carniola, ete. Archzol. Rev., Lond., 111, 
272-275. 

HayYNEs, HENRY W. The prehistoric archwology of North America. Archeological 
Inst. of America, 330-368. 

HerGer, Pau. La structure du corps humain et évolution. Bruxelles: H. La- 
mertin. 32 pp. 8vo. . 

HENNESSY, WILLIAM M. Mecca Ulad; or, the intoxication of the Ultonians, with 
translation and introductory notes. Dublin. 74 pp. 8vo. [Royal Irish Lecture 
Series, vol. 1, pt. 1.] 

HENNIQUE, P. A. Une page @archéologie navale; les caboteurs et pécheurs de la 
cote de Tunisie; péche des éponges. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et fils. 89 pp., 
63 pl. 8vo. 

Henry, V. Etudes de syntaxe comparée. Rev. de ling., Xx1I, Par., 33-59. 

HrensuHaw, HENRY WITHERBEE. Who are the American Indians? The Am. An- 
throp., Wash., 11, 193-214. 

Hensoupt, H. A naturalist’s rambles in Ceylon. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xx, 
690-707. 

HERRMANN, ANTON, Franzésische Colonisten in Siidungarn. Ethnol. Mittheir. a. 
Ungarn, Budapest, 340-341. 

HERSCHELL, G. On the effect upon the human body of a diet consisting entirely of 
lean meat and water. [Cannibals from Terra del Fuego. ] Lancet, Lond., 11, 950. 

Herre&, G. Observations sur deux squelettes de jeunes orangs. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. 
de Par., 3. s., X11, 378-391. 

Hewitt, J. N. B. New fire among the Iroquois. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 319. 

Sexual tradition. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 346. 

Hicxcox, J. H. United States Publications, Monthly Catalogue, Washington. 

HILTon, JAMES. Remarks on Jade. Arch. Journal, Lond., 1888, xLv, 187-205. 

Hins, EUGENE. La genése de la conjugaison frangaise. Rev. de ling., Par., xxn, 
147-167. 

Hrpxins, A. J. Musical instruments, historic, rare, and unique. Edinburgh: Black. 
(See Athenzeum, Jan. 5, 19.) 

HirscHBerG, J. Ueber die Augenheilkunde der alten Aegypter. Deutsche med. 
Wehnschr., Leipz., xv, 790, 807, 825, 845, 871, 887. 

Hirtu, F. Augenbrauen und Brauenschminke bei den Chinesen. Verhandl. d. Berl. 
anthrop. Gesellsch., Ber]., 495-505. 

Ancient porcelain. J. China Branch R. As. Soc., Shanghai, 1888, xxu, 

129-202. i 

Miiander und das Triquetrum in der chinesischen und japanischen Ornamen- 

tik. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 487-495. 

Salt monupoly in China. J. China Br. Roy. As. Soc. 

Zur Geschichte des antiken Orienthandels, Verhandl. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde- 
zu Berl., XVI, 1889, 46-64. 

His, W. Ueber das menschliche Ohrliippchen und iiber den aus einer Verbildung 
desselben entnommenen Schmidt’schen Beweis fiir die Uebertragbarkeit erwor- 
bener Eigenschaften. Cor,-Bl. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., etc, Miinchen, 
xx, 17-19. . 

Hircucock, E., and H. H. Seetye. An anthropometric manual giving the average 
and mean physical measurements and tests of male college students, and modes 
of securing them. Prepared from the records of the department of physical 
education and hygiene in Amherst College during the years 1861-2 and 1887-8, 
inclusive. 2. ed. Amherst, Mass.: J. E. Williams. 37 pp., 1 tab. 8vo. 

HOoERNES, M. Die Keramik der La Téne-Periode in BGhmen und Mihren. Mitth. d. 
anthrop, Gesellsch, in Wien, nu. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 28. 

















Te 


PROGRESS OF: ANTHROPOLOGY IN_ 1889. 641 


HoERNES, M. Grabhiigelfunde von Glasinac in Bosnien. Festschr. z. Begriissung .... 
 d. deutsch. u. Wien. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 1889, 28-43. Also: Mitth. 
d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, 134-149. 

Hallstatt en Autriche, sa nécropole et sa civilisation. Rey. @anthrop., Par., 

3. 8., IV, 328-336. 

La Tene-Funde in Niederésterreich. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, u. 

F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 65-70. : 

Ueber den gegenwirtigen Stand der Urgeschichtsforschung in Oesterreich. 
Mitth. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 1x, [68-72]. 

HoERNLE, A. F. RupoLr. On some new or rare Muhammadon and Hindi coins. J. 
As. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta, Lvu, n.s., pt. 1, 30-35. 

Schlangenringe im classischen Alterthum, Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in 
Wien, n. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 8. : 

HorrMann, O. Die kyprischen Glossen als Quellen des kyprischen Dialektes. Beitr. 
z. indogerm, Sprach., G6ttingen, v, 44-100. 

Horrman, W. J. Folk-lore of the Pennsylvania Germans. ut, 1. J. Am. Folk-Lore, 
Bost. & N. Y., 11, 191-202; 23-35. 

Folk-medicitie of the Pennsylvania Germans. Proc. Am. Phil. Soe., Phila., 
XXVI, 329-352. 

Grammatic notes and vocabulary of the Pennsylvania German dialect. Proe. 
Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxv1, 187-285. 

—— Notes on Ojibwa folk-lore. The Am. Anthrop., Wash , 11, 215-223, 

HGrier, M. Bayerische volksiibliche Ausdriicke in Krankheits-Fiillen und Benen- 
nungen von Korpertheilen. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, 
vu, 162-178. 

Ueber Votiv-Gaben. Ein Beitrag zu Volksmedizin und Aberglauben in Ober- 
bayern. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, Vit, 39. 

—— Volksmedicin und Aberglaube in Bayerns Gegenwart und Vergangenheit. 
Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, v111, 37. 

TLOHNGREN, F. Om irftligheten. [Heredity.] Upsala-Liikaref. Forh., xxiv, 1-38, 

Hoxe, J. On the philosophy of the transmission of hereditary diseases and other 
characteristics from parents to their offspring. N. Am, Pract., Chicago, 1, 294-297, 

HoLseé. Station préhistorique de My-loc, province de Bién-Hoa (Cochinchine). 
Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 108-112. 

Hovprer, A. B. The boté; description of a peculiar sexual perversion found among 
North American Indians. New York M. J., L, 623-625. 

’ H6vLpER, Dr. von. Ueber die kérperlichen und geistigen Higenthiimlichkeiten der 
Verbrecher. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., Xvi, 205-221. 

HOLLANDER, BERNARD. A demonstration of centres of ideation in the brain from 
observation and experiment. J.Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 12-26, 1 diag. 

HouM, G. Den éstgrénlandske Expedition, udfért i Aarene 1883-35 under Ledelse af 
... 2vols.in3.5 4 1., 352 pp., 10 charts, 7 pl., 360 pp., 421., lchart. 8vo. 
Kjébenhavn: F. Dreyer, 13888. 

Hoimes, T. V. Race and language. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 251. xvut, 439- 
440. 

Homes, W. H. Archeological collections from Alabama. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 
11, 350. 

—— Debasement of Pueblo art. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 320. 

Pottery of the Potomac tide-water region. The Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 246- 
252, 1 pl. : 
Textile fabrics of ancient Peru. Wash: Govy’t Printing Office. 17 pp., 11 figs 

HOLTZINGER, HEINRICH. Handbuch der altchristlichen Architektur. Form, Ein- 
richtung und Ausschmiickung der altchristlichen Kirchon, Baptisterien und 
Sculptur-Bauten. Stuttgart: Lbneru Seubert. 48pp. 8vo. [Rev.in; Am,J. 
Archexol., Bost., 1889, v, 64, 65. ] 


H, Mis, 224-——41 











642 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Hotz, R. Eine riithselhafte Fundstelle im Elsass. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt 
fiir Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich, v1, 2-6. . 

Horzen, O. Reperto del cerveilo di una matricida. [Transl. from: Vrtljschr. f. 
gerichtl. Med., Berl.] Arch. d. psichiat., etc., Torino & Roma, x, 186-194. 

HouGu, WatTer. An Eskimo strike-a-light from Cape Bathurst. Proc, U. S. Nat. 
Mus., 1888, Wash., x1, 181-184. 

Japanese sacred fire-drill. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 355, 356. 

HovELACQUE, ABEL. Bibliothéque anthropologique. 1x. Les négres del Afrique sus- 
équatoriale. (Sénégambie, Guinée, Soudan, Haut-Nil.) Paris: Lecrosnier & 
Babé. 482 pp. 8vo. 

Howarrtu, O. H. The survivalof corporal penance. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 
275-281, 2 pl. 

Howe, WiLL1AM W. Municipal history of New Orleans. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. 
in Hist. and Polit. Sc. Baltimore. 33 pp. 8vo. 

Howitt, A. W. Further notes on the Australian class system. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xvii, 31-70, 1 map. 

Notes on Australian message sticks and messengers. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 
XVIII, 314-332, 1 pl. ' 

Howortn, H. H. History of the Mongols from the ninth to the nineteenth century. 
Part m1. The Mongols of Persia. London: Longmans. [Academy, July 13.] 

Hucues, 8S. McK. On cuts on bone as evidence of man’s existence in remote ages. 
J. of Trans. Vict. Inst., Lond., x x11, 209-222. 

Hunter, A. F. French relics from village sites of the Hurons; the geographical 
distribution of these relics in the counties of Simcoe, York, and Ontario. Ann. 
Rep. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 42-46. 

Hurvevut, Gro. C. The Tukon district. Rev. Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., N. Y., Xx1, 
397-400. 

HutTcuinson, J. Notes on heredity. Arch. Surg., Lond., 1, 242-244. 

Ikow, C. WI. Emme: De la pluralité de types anthropologiques des habitants de la 
Grande-Russie et de la Petite-Russie. (Bull. de la Soc. imp. des amis des sciences 
natur. de Moscou, T. xxrx, fase. 4, p. 333.) Mev. in: Rev. @anthrop., 1v, Par., 
99, 100. 

Index-catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office. Washington: Govern- 
ment Printing Office. Vol. x. 

Index Medicus. A monthly classified record of the current medical literature of the 
world. Boston: G.S. Davis. Vol.1x. Monthly. 

Indian affairs. Report of Commissioner. Washington: Government Printing Office. 

Indian Annals and Magazine of Natural Science. Ed. by J. Murray. Bombay. 
Monthly. In 1889. 8vo. 

The Indian Antiquary. Bombay. 

Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie. Edited by J. D. E. Schmelz. Leiden: 
Trap. [Vol. 4 in 1889. Especially devoted to museums. } 

Internationale Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft. Heilbronn: Henninger. 
8vo. [First volume published in Leipzig in 1884. In 1889, 2 parts; Vol.1v, part 2; 
Vol. v, part 1. 

Jacos, G. Ejserne Hohlschiissel yon dem kleinen Gleichberge bei Rémhild. Arch. f. 
Anthrop., Brnschwg., XVUI, 283. 

Zwei noch nicht erklirte La Téne-Funde vom kleinen Gleichberg bei Rémhild 
(Herzogthum Meiningen, Kreis Hildburghausen). Arch, f. Anthrop., Bruschwg., 
XVI, 175. 

JacoBl, M. PurNam. The place for the study of language in the curriculum of edu- 
eation. Am. J. Psychol., 1, 1888, 91-110. 











JACOBS, JOSEPH, and IStDORE SPIELMAN. On the comparative anthropometry of 


English Jews. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 76-88, 1°pl. 
The fables of Esop. London: D. Nutt. 2 vols. 





~ Siemens 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 643 


JANVIER, J. L’origine du pouvoir politique étudiée principalement dans les langues 
aryennes. Saint-Brieuc: Prad’homme. 38 pp. 12mo. 

JaNvirr, T. A. Mexican superstitions and folk-lore. Secribner’s Mag., N. Y., Vv, 
349-359. . 
Jastrow, J. The psychology of spiritualism. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., XXXIV, 721-732, 

Hypnotism. Am. J. Psychology, it, 314-326. 

JentscH, H. Griiberfunde aus der Zeit des spiiteren provinzial-rémischen Einflusses 
bei Reichersdorf, Kr. Guben. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 
343-352. 

JoEst, WILHELM. Titowiren, Narbenzeichnen und Kérperbemalen. Ein Beitrag 
zur vergleichenden Ethnologie. Berlin: A. Asher & Co, 

Journal (The) of American Folk-Lore. Boston and New York: Issued by the American 
Folk-Lore Society. Vol. 1rin 1889. [Valuable bibliography in each number. } 

Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. XVIII, 
3 and 4; xrx, 1 and 2, in 1889. London: Triibner. 

Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay. 

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta: G. R. House. 

Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai, new series 
in 1889. Bi-monthly. 

Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society. Edinburgh: Constable. Vol. 1 in 1889, 

Journal of the Military Service Institution. New York: By the Institution, Vol. x 
in 1889. Bi-monthly. 

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. London: Triibner. 
Quarterly. Vol. xxX1, new series, in 1889. 

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. London: Stanford. Quarterly. 

Journal of the Society of Arts. London: Bell. Vol. xxxvi in 1889. 

Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of 
Great Britain. London: By the Institute. Vol. xxi in 1289. 

JOHNSTON, H. H. The history of a slave. Lond. Rev. Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., N. Y., 
Kx, 422. 

Jones, W. HENRY, and Lewis L. Krorr. The folk tales of the Magyars. London, 
1889, 

JOUSSEAUME, Dr. Sur Vinfibulation oumutilation des organes génitaux de la femme, 
chez les peuples des bords de la mer Rouge et du golfe Aden, Rey. d’anthrop., 
Par., 3. 8., IV, 675-686. 

JoussetT, P. Evolution et transformisme des origines de l’état-sauvage ; étude @an- 
thropologie. Ouvrage precédé d’une lettre du T. R. P. Monsabré. Paris: J. B. 
Bailliére et fils. 24 pp. 12mo. 

Juia, J. De Voreille au point de vue anthropologique et médico-légal. Lyon: A. 
Storck. 120 pp. 8vo. [Bibliotheque @anthropologie criminelle et des sciences 
pénales. } 

KAARSBERG, H. S. Slegtens Degeneration. [Degeneration of race.] Ugesk. f. 
Leger, Kjébenh., 4. R., x1x, 184-183. 

Kanitz, F. I. Die priihistorischen Funde in Serbien bis 1889. u, Aeltere und 
neuere Grabdenkmalformen im Kdénigreiche Serbien. Mitth. d. anthrop. Ge- 
sellsch. in Wien, 1889, n. F., rx, 150-159, L pl... Also: Festschr. z. Begriissung.. . 
d. deutsch. u. Wien. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 44-53. 

Katona, Lupwic. Allgemeine Charakteristik der magyarischen Folklore. 11, Eth- 
nol. Mittheil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 259-264, 

Finnische Mirchen. (Fortsetzung.) Ethnol. Mittheil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 
268-270. 

KELLNER, O., und T. Morr. Untersuchungen iiber die Ernihrung der Japaner. 
Ztschr. f. Biol., Miinchen u. Leipz., n. F., vir, 102-122. 

Kern, H. Oudjavaansche Absolutieven. Bijd. taal- land- en Volken kunde., van 
Neder., ’s Graven., IV, 5.s., pt. 1, 44-54, 








644 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


KINAHAN, G. H. Barnes’ inscribed-Dallans, County Donegal. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xvitt, 171-174. 

On an inscribed rock surface at Mevagh, Rosguile, County Donegal, Ireland. 

J. Authrop. Inst., Lond., xvi11, 170, 1 pl. 

Some Irish proverbs. Folk-Lore J., Lond., pp. 35-88. 

Kine, A. F. A. What is the normal posture for a parturient woman? Am. J. Obst., 
IND Ys, XX, 3-23: 

KirdAty, Paur. Kédlmdn Kirdly cséngeloje. Ethnol. Mitteil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 
366. 

Kirn. Ueber die psychische und somatische Degeneration der Verbrecher. Cen- 
tralbl. f. Nervenh., Leipz., x11, 453-457. 

Knecut. Der Verbrecher in anthropologischer, iirztlicher und juristischer Bezie- 
hung. Deutsch von E. O. Friinkel. Hamburg: J. F. Richter. [Rev.] Irren- 
freund, Heilbr., xxx, 84, 102. 

KNOLLMANN, J. Europiiische Grundrassen. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. An- 
throp., Berl., 330-333. 

Korner, A. Apparat zur Projection der Centralfurche auf die Aussenfliiche des 
Schidels. Deutsche med. Wehnschr., Leipz., xv, 587. 

Koren, A. Anthropologiske Underségelser. Haarets og Pinenes Farva. [Anthro- 
pological researches. Color of hair and eyes.] Forh. i. d. mil.-med. Selsk., Kris- 
tiania, 1, 68-72. 

Krauser, A. Bedeutung des Hakenkreuzes. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., 
419. 

Krauss, Fr. §. Das Burgfriiulein von Pressburg. Ein Guslarenlied der bosnischen 
Katholiken, Ethnol. Mitteil a. Ungarn, Budapest, 237-258, 279-292. 

Ein Spottlied aus Slavonien. Ethnol. Mitteil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 348-349. 

South slavic moon-myths. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., xxxiv, 615-618. 

Siidslavisches. Ethnol. Mitteil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 378-381. 

Kkiz. Vorlage von geschnitzten und gezeichneten Funden aus diluvialen Schichten- 
der Héhlen Kiilna und Kostelik in Maihren. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien. 
n. F., rx, [114-118]. 

















Kruszewskt, N. Prinzipien der Sprachentwickelung. Internat. Ztschr. f. allgem’ 


Sprachwissensch., v, 133-145. 

KuBary, J. S. Ethnographische Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Karolinen-Archipels. 
Leiden: Trap. 

KuLkaA, R. Beitriige zur Vorgeschichte Oesterreichisch-Schlesiens. Mitth. d. an- 
throp. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, 13-24. 

Kunpb, R. Ueber seine Reisen im siidlichen Kamerungebiet. Verhandl. Gesellsch. f. 
Erdkunde, Berl., xvi, 308-317. 

Kuntz, GEORGE F. Catalogue of a collection of precious and ornamental stones of 
North America, exhibited at the Parisexhibition by Tiffany & Co. N. Y. 5-32. 

LABASTE, F. Qu’est-ce que l’étre vivant? Définition nouvelle. Compt. rend. Soc. 
de biol., Par., 9. 's., 1. 5-8. 

LaBorpgE, J. V., et G. Hervé. Le général Faidherbe. Paris: Hennuyer. 8 pp. 8vo. 

LACOUPERIE, TERRIEN DE. The oldest Chinese characters. Academy, June 15, 415- 
417. 

LAGNEAU, G. Mortalité des militaires francais dans les colonies. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. 
de Par., 3. s., XU, 157-161. 

-Mortalité des soldats et marins frangais dans les colonies. (Bulletin de l’Aca- 
démie de médecine, 12 féevrier 1889.) [ Rev. in: Rev. d’anthrop., Par., Iv, 346-348. ] 

LAMARCK, PIERRE-ANTOINE DE MONET DE. [1744-1829.] Le transformiste frangais 
Lamarck; par M. Duval. Bull. Soc. @’anthrop. de Par., 3. s., XII, 336-374. 

Lamp, D. 8S. An eighth sternal rib. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 0, 75-77, 

Lamotte. Sur Vorigine des races; travaux récents, Progrés méd., Par., 2. 8., IX, 
451. 





a ahaa et 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 645 


ee ae 
vo. 


LANCIANI, Ropotro. A history of Ancient Rome in the light of recent discoveries, 
with 100 illustrations. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. [Rev.in: Am, 
Antiq., Chicago, x1, 135, 136. ] 

Tl foro di Augusto. Bull. d. Com. archeol. di, Romaa, Roma, Xvi1, 26-34, 

= 73-79. 

- LAaNnGeEN, A. Berichte und Individual-Aufnahmen aus dem malayischen Archipel, 

Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 123-125. 

LANGLEY, 8S. P. On the observations of sudden phenomena. Bull. Philosophical 
Soc. of Wash., Wash., 41-50, ill. 

LANNOIS, M. La surdi-mutité et les sourds-muets devant la loi. Arch. de Vanthrop. © 
erim., Par., Iv, 440-471. 

LAPOUGE, G. DE. Crénes modernes de Montpellier. Rev. danthrop., Par., Lv, 687- 
699; 

Questions aryennes, Rev. d’anthrop., Par., Iv, 181-193. 

LARRABEE, W. H. TheStone Agein heathen Sweden. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., xxxv., 
504-509. 

La société lécole, et le laboratoire Vanthropologie de Paris & VExposition Universelle 
de 1889, Palais des arts libéraux. Instruction publique. Paris (1889), Imprim. 
Réunies. 360 pp. 

LAUNAY, G. Répertoire archéologique de Varrondissement de Venddme, rédigé sous 
les auspices de la Société archéologique, scientifique et littéraire vendémois. 
Vendéme: Lemercier. ii, 168 pp. 8vo. 

LAURENT, E. Les beaux-arts dans les prisons. [Extr.] Arch. de l’anthrop. crim., 
Par., IV, 266-288. 

LAVERNUE. Histoire de Vhabitation au Champ de Mars. Cosmos, Paris, 38°, 2557 
258. 

Histoire de Vhabitation les Berréres et les Semites. Cosmos, Paris, 38°, 291-295. 

Lr Biaut, EDMOND. Quelques notes d’archéologie sur la chevelure féminine. Paris. 
S pp: 8°. ; 

Le Bon, G. The influence of race in history. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., xxxv, 495-503. 

LEFEVRE, H., et COLLIGNON. La couleur des yeux et des cheveux chez les Ainos, 
Rev. d’anthrop., Paris, Iv, 129-141, 2 ills. 

LEGRAIN, M. Hérédité et alcoolisme; étude psychologique et clinique sur les 
dégénérés buveurs et les familles divrognes. Avec une préface de Magnan. 
Paris: O. Doin. 431 pp. 8vo. [Rev. in: Am. Anthropologist, 11, 368. ] 

LEHMANN, C.F. Altbabylonisches Maass und Gewicht und deren Wanderung. Ver- 
handl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 245-328. 

Leipy, JosEPH. Notice of some fossil human bones. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Se. 
II, 9-12, 2 plates. 

LEITNER. The science of language and of ethnography, with general reference to 
the language and customs of the people of Hunza. J. Trans. Victoria Inst., 
xxi, No. 90, 109-121. 

LELAND, CHARLES G. Children’s rhymes and incantations. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 
i, 113-116. 

LemckeE, H. Burgwall von Stettin. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 
Berl., 116-120. 

LemMkE, Frl. E. Priihistorische Vergriibniss-Plitze in Kerpen, Grablauken und KI. 
Karnitten, Ostpreussen. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 110-112. 

Lenoir, P. Histoire du réalisme et du naturalisme dans la poésie et dans Vart depuis 
Vantiquité jusqu’a nos jours, Paris: Quantin. x, 769 pp. 8vo. 

LEROY-BEAULIEU, ANATOLE. L’empire des Tsars et les Russes, wie tome. Paris: 
Hachette. [Mev.in: Academy, Lond., 178, 179. ] 

LETOURNEAU, C. L’évolution dela propriété. Paris: Motteroz. xxvi,52l pp. 8vo. 

LEVEQUE, CH. Physiologie de l’attention. J. des savants, Paris, Sept. to Dec., 513- 
526, 623-666, 753-766. 











646 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1839. 


Lewis, A. L. Onrude stone monuments in the country of che Carnutes (depart- 
ment Eure-et-Loir, France). J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 66-75. 

Lewis, T. H. A new departure in effigy mounds. Science, N. Y., 1-3, ill. 

Copper mines worked by the Mound Builders. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 

293-296. 

Sculptured rock at Trempeleau, Wisconsin. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xxi, 

782-784, 1 pl. 

Stone monuments in southern Dakota. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 159-165, 4 ills. 

LICHTENSTEIN, A. Das Riesenmidchen Elizabeth Lyska. Verhandl. Berl. anthrop. 
Gesellsch., Berl., 510-514. 

LicrER, F. Ruines romaines de la Frétiniére. Le Temple. Paris: Fleury et Dangin. 
18 pp.,3 pl. 8vo. 

Litty, W. 8. The ethics of punishment. Fortnightly Rev., Lond., n. s., XLVI, 
112-122. 

LIsLE DU DRENEUC, P. DE. Nouvelles découvertes d’idoles de ’Amazone. Paris: 
Pru@homme. 20 pp. 4vo. 

LissAvER. Das Griiberfeld von Amalienfelde auf der Oxhéfter Kiimpe. Schrift. d. 
naturf, Gesellsch. in Danzig, n. F., vir, 40-43. 

La Téne-Griiber in Liebenthal. Jd., vir, 110. 

Referat iiber eine Schrift des Prof. Kollmann, iiber: Die Beziehungen der 
Ethnologie zu den Resultaten der Anthropologie. Jd., vit, 112. 

Litucow, R. A. DouaLas. Heredity a study: with special reference to disease. 
London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox. 247 pp. 12 mo. 

LguBic, SIME. _Popis arkeologickoga odjela nar. zem. muzeja u Zagrebu. Odsjek 1. 
Lyezak I. Egipatska sbirka-Predhistoricka sbirka. La 36 Tabla. Zagrebu, C. 
Albrechta. 8vo. 1928. Rev. in: Zeit. f. Ethnol., Berl., rv, 1889, pp. 202, 203. 

LOMBARD. Comparaison des trois souse-espéces humaines entre elles. Bull. Soc. d’an- 
throp. de Par., 3. s., x1, 411-417. 

LomBarRD-DuMAs. Le-préhistorique 4 Sommiéres (Gard). Nimes: Roger et Laporte, 
16 p. 8 vo. 

LompBarb. Principes de la classification des races humaines. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. 
de Par., 3.s., X11, 185-193 ; 411-417. 

Lomproso, C. L’ uomo delinquente in rapporto all antropologia, alla giurisprudenza 
ed alle discipline carcerarie. 4th ed. Vol. 1. Delinquente nato e pazzo morale. 
Torino: Fratelli Bocca. lix, 600 pp., 21 pl., 4 diag. 8vo. 

e R. Lascat. La pazzia, la criminalité ed il delitto politico. Arch. di 

psichiat., etc., Torino, x, 473-483. 

e OTTOLENGHI. Crani di Torinesi ignoti. Gior. d. r. Accad. i med. di Torino, 
3. 8., XXXVII, 390-392. 

Lomonaco, A. Sulle razze indigene del Brasile. Arch. per l’antrop., Firenze, x1x, 
17-92 ; 187-270, 1 pl. 

Lone, ALBERT L. A collection of Babylonian weights. Am.J. Archzol., Bost., v, 
44-46. 

LoranGcE, A. L. Den Yngre Jernalders sverd. et bidrag til Vikingetidens Historie 

og teknologi. Bergen: John Griegs Bogtrykkeri. 8 pl. 1 vol. 

Loret, Vicror. L’Egypte au temps des Pharaons; la vie, la science et art. Avec 
18 photograyures dont douze d’apreés des dessins & la plume et 4 la sépia de Charles 
Loret. Paris: J. B. Bailliére et fils. 316 pp. 12mo. 

Lupsock, Sir J. Problematical organs of sense. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., XxxrIx, 
101-107. 

Lumno.z, Cart. Among cannibals. An account of four years’ travels in Australia, 
and of camp-life with the aborigines of Queensland. New York. 8vo. Plates 
and maps. 

A residence among the natives of Australia. Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., X XI, 

1-34, 1 pl., 1 map. 


























ae taal i Hite 


— 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 647 


LuMHo.Lz, CarRL. Au pays des cannibales. Voyoge d’exploration chez les indigenes de 
VAustralie orientale (1880-1834). Ouvrage traduit du norvégien, avec l’autorisa- 
tion de auteur, par V. et W. Molard. Paris: Lahure. xii+449 pp. 8vo. 

LUSCHAN, FELIX Vv. Anthropologische Studien, in: Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und 
Kibyratis, Band ii, herausgegeben von Eug. Petersen und F. v. Luschan. Mit 40 
Tafein und zahlreichen Illustrationen im Text. Wien: Carl Gerolds Sohn. 

Das tiirkische Schattenspiel. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 1-9, 4 pl, 
81-90, 125-141. 

Lypston, G. F. The pathogeny of vice; a study in crime, pauperism, inebriety, 
and prostitution. West. M. Reporter, Chicago, x1, 241. 

MacCartHy. Manufacturing industry in Ireland. Harpers’ Mag., N. Y., LXXVIII, 
194-206, 9 ills. : 

MacpDONALD, D. Oceania: linguistic and anthropological. London: Sampson Low, 
Marston & Co. 8vo, 

McDonne tt, Lt.-Col. The ancient moa-hunters at Waingongoro. Trans. N. Zeal. 
Inst., Lond., xx1, 4. s., 438-441. 

McFARLANE, 8. Among the cannibals of New Guinea; being the story of the New 
Guinea Mission of the London Missionary Society. Philadelphia: Presb. Bd. of 
Pub. 192 pp. 

McGer, W.J. An obsidian implement from Pleistocene deposits in Nevada. Am. 
Anthrop., Wash., 11, 301-312, 1 fig. 

Paleolithic nan in America; his antiquity and environment. Po». Sc. Month., 

N. Y., XXx1x, 20-36. 

The geologic antecedents of man in the Potomac Valley. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 
I, 1-8, 227-234. 

—-— The world’s supply of fuel. The Forum, N. Y., vu, July, 553-566. 

McKenzir, A. 8S. Taquiof Mexico. Am, Anthrop., Wash., 11, 299-300, 

MACLAY, ARTHUR COLLINS. Mito Tashiki: a taleof OldJapan. N. Y.: G. P. Put- 
nam’s Sons. [fev. in: American, Phila., xrx, 111, 112.] 

M’LEAN, J. The Blackfoot sun-dance. Proc. Canad. Inst., 1837~’88, Toronto, 3. s., 
Vi, 1-7, 321-237. 

The Indians: their manners and customs. Toronto: Wm. Briggs, 78 and 80 
King st. Kast. 18 ills. 

Mackircuigr, D. Earth-houses and their inhabitants. Archieol. Rey., Lond., Iv, 
393-421. 

The Finn-men of Britain. Archwol. Rev., Lond., 1v, 107-129. 

Magazine of American History. New York. Ed: Mrs. Mary J. Lamb. Vol. 21 in 
1889. 

MAGNAN. Etat mental et stigmates psychiques des héréditaires dégénérés. Tribune 
méd., Par., 2.s., XXI, 131-134. 

Makowsky, A. Loéssfunde bei Briinn und der diluviale Mensch. Mitth, anthrop. 
Gesellsch, in Wien, Wien, n. F., 1x, [179-186]. 

Ma.urry, G. Israelite and Indian: a parallelin planes of culture. Pop. Sci. Month., 
N. Y, XXXVI, 52,193. Also, reprint: Salem Press Pub. and Print. Co.: 49 pp. 8vo. 

——- Philosophy and specialties. Philoso. Soc. of Washington, XI, 3-39. 

Man, KE. H. The Nicobar islanders. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi11, 354-394, 4 pl., 
1 map. 

Man, J. C. DE. De begraafplaats ‘‘ Bloemendaal” te Dornburg. Nederl. Tijdschr v. 
Geneesk., Amst., 2. R., xxv, 441-458. 

MANOUVRIER, L. Crane néo-calédonien. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. 8., X11, 147. 

MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO. Fisiologia dell odio. Milano: Frat. Treves. 407 pp. 8vo. 

MaRCANO, G. Ethvographie précolombienne du Vénézuéla (région des Raudals de 
VOrénoque). Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 391-402. 

Ethnographie précolombienne du Vénézuéla. Mém. de la Soe. d’anthrop. de 

Par., 2. s., 1V, 1-85, 57 figs., 1 map. Also: Paris: Hennuyer. 97 pp.,20pl. 8vo. 




















648 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Marcano, G. Ethnographie précolombienne du Vénézuéla; vallées d’Aragua et de 
Caracas, 1889. Paris, Ed. Baltenweck. 91 pp., 16pl. Svo. 

Vallées d’Aragua et de Caracas. Mém. Soe. @anthrop. de Par., 2. s., rv, 3-86, 
53 figs., 19 pl., 1 map. 

MARCHESETTI, C.DE. Die Nekropole von S. Lucia bei Tolmein im Kiistenlande. 
Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 1x, [149-153]. 

Priihistorische Funde in den Héhlen von S.Canziano bei Triest. Verhandl. 
d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 421. 

Marcou, J. Nouvelles recherches sur Vorigine du nom d’Amérique. Bull. Soc. géogr., 
Par., 7. 8., IX, 630-672. 

MARICOURT, RENE DE. Superstitions du pays de Galles. Mém. de la Soc. de Par., 
Iv, 87-98. : 

MARTIN, ELIZABETH S. Traditions of the Winnebagoes. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, 
XI, 243-245. 

Martine. L’habitation, les mceurs et les coutumes des Néo-Hébridais. Rev. san. 
de la Province, Bordeaux, v1, 66-68. 

MARTINIERE, H.M.P. pe La. Morocco, London: Whittaker & Co. [Rev.in: Nature, 
Lond., 1839, XL, 202. ] 

MASCHKOVSKI, MECHISLAFF. [Measurements of diameter of chest of healthy and 
phthisical persons.] St. Petersb., S. Volpjanskago. 87 pp. 8vo. 

MaskKA, K. J. Die miihrischen Mammuthjiiger in Pred-most. Cor.-Bl. d. deutsch. 
Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., ete., Miinchen, xx, 9-11. 

Ein viertes Jadeitbeil in Miihren. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 

IX, Sitzungsb., 42-45. 

Loéssfunde bei Briinn und der diluviale Mensch. Mitth. anthrop. Gesellsch. in 
Wien, X1x, 46-64. 

Mason, Otis T. An account of the progress in anthropology in the year 1886. Ann. 
Rep. Smith. Inst., 1887, pt. 2, Wash., 523-567. 

Cradles of the American aborigines. Ann. Rep. Smith. Inst., 1887, pt. 2, 

Wash., 161-212. 

The beginnings of the carrying industry. Am. Anthrop., Wash., u, 21-46, 

8 figs. 

The human beast of burden. Ann. Rep. Smith. Inst., 1887, pt. 2, Wash., 

237-2355. 

The savage’s side-arms. Am. Anthrop., Wash., U, 77,78. 

Woman’s share in primitive culture. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, Peet, x1, 1-13. 

Masprero, G. Egyptian archeology: translated from the French by Amelia B. Ed- 
wards. 2. ed. London: Grevel. 368 pp. 8vo. 

Masson, D. Notes from the North Highlands. Archeol. Rey., Lond., 1888—289, 11, 
45-50. 

Matériaux pour l’histoire primitive, ete.,de ’homme. Paris: Reinwald. In 1889 
merged into L’anthropologie. 

MATTHEWS, WASHINGTON. Are there totem-clans in the Old Testament? Am. 
Anthrop., Wash., 1, 345. 

Boletin de la Sociedad antropologica de la Isla de Cuba, Habana. Am. An- 

throp., Wash., 11, 367, 368. 

Counting-out rhymes among Indian children. Am. Anthrop., Wash., U, 320. 

—— De loreille au point de vne anthropologique et médico-légal. Parle Dr. J. 
Julia. Lyon, 1889. [Bibliothéque d’anthropologie criminelle et des sciences pé- 
nales.] Rev. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 366, 367. 

Hérédité et alcokolisme; étude psychologique et clinique sur les dégénérés 

buveurs et les families Vivrognes. Par le docteur M. Legrain, ete. Paris. Rev. 

in: Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 368, 369. : 

Navajo gambling songs. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 1-19. 

Noqoilpi, the gambler: a Navajo myth. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 89-94. 












































- 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 649 


MATTHEWS, WASHINGTON. One more skull of the Neanderthal race. Am. Anthrop., 
Wash., 11, 53, 54. 

Plume-sticks (Kethaions bahos) among the northern tribes. Am. Anthrop., 
Wash., 11, 46. 

— The descent of man. [Rev. in: Am. Anthrop. Wash., 1, 20.] 

The Inca bone and kindred formations among the ancient Arizonians. Am. 
Anthrop., Wash., 11, 337-345, 6 figs. 

Mavunorr, Cu. Rapport sur les travaux de la Société de géographie et sur les pro- 
grés des sciences géographiques pendant année 1888. Bull. Soc. d. géogr., Paris, 
x, 7. s., 5-110. 

Maury, ALFRED. Les langues de la Chine avant les Chinois. J. d. savants, Paris, 
Aug., 473-485; Sept., 357-566. . 

MEISNER. Die Koérpergrésse der Wehrpflichtigen im Gebiete des Unterleibes, insbe- 
sonderein Holstein. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 188889, xvu1, 101-133, 1 map. 

MELusINE. Revue de inythologie, littérature populaire, traditions et usages. Paris: 
Le Chevalier. Monthly. 

MEssIKORMMER, H. Das Stricken der Netze zu Robenhanusen. Antiqua. Unterhal- 
tungsblatt fiir Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich vir, 20, 21. 

Eine Besuch im archiiologischen Museum zu Chambéry, Antiqua. Unterhal- 

tungsblatt fiir Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich. vir, 8-13. 

Zur Bearbeitung des Feuersteins. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir Freunde 
der Alterthumskunde, Ziirich, vu, 17, 18. 

MestTorF, J. Dolehein Frauengriibern der Bronzezeit. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
Wien, n. F., rx, [118-122]. 

Steinaltergriiber unter Bodenniveau und ohne Steinkammer, Verhandl. d. 
Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 468-474. 

Mryer, A. B. Lung-Ch’iian-yao oder altes Seladon-Porzellan. Abhandl. kénigl. 
zool. u. anthrop. Museum zu Dresden, 40. 

Masken von Neu-Guinea und dem Bismarck Archipel. Konig. ethnog. Mus. 
zu Dresden, with 15 heliotype plates. 4to. 

Meyer, E. Eine verschollene Etruskerstadt. Cor.-Bl. d. deutsch. Gesellsen.f. An- 
throp., ete., Miinchen, xx, 1-4. 

Migs, JOSEF. Eine neue Methode den Schiidel darzustellen. [Text in French and 
German.] Miinchen: J. Lindauer. 21 pp., 1 pl. Oblong &vo. 

MILLET, RENE. Provincial France, social life, administrative morals. [La France 
provinciale, vie sociale—Mceurs ‘administratives.] Paris: Hachette. Mev. in: 
American, Phila., xrx, 1890, 235. 

MILLIGAN,SEATON F.,and ALICE L. MILLIGAN. Glimpsesof Erin. [ ev. in: Academy, 
Lond., 315, 316. ] 

Mind. Quarterly Journal of Psychology and Philosophy. 

MINDEN, G. Angeblicher Blnutdienst der Juden. Verhandl. d. Ber]. anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 537-540. 

MINGAZZINI, G. Sopra 30 crani ed encefali di delinquenti italiani. Riv. sper. di 
freniat., Reggio-Emilia, x1v, pt. 2, 1-48, 1 pl., 1 tab. 

MIscHNEwsky, V. [Definition of stature, circumference of breast, and weight. ] 
Voyenno-san. dielo, St. Petersb., Ix, 281. 

Mittheilungen der anthropoiogischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Wien: Hoélder. Vol. x1 
in 1889. 

Mivart, G. Where Darwinism fails. Forum, N. Y., vil, 264-273. 

MNIcHOvsKI. Brak. Marriage. Kieff: S. V. Kuljenko. 77 pp. 16mo. 

MODIGLIANA, E. Les boucliers des Nias. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 1 
214-217. 

MorrettT, C.R. In the Mogui country. Overland Month., San Fran., X1v, 243-256. 

Mosstsovics, A. VON. Ueber einen seltenen Fall von Polydactylismus beim Pferde, 
Anat. Anz., Jena, Iv, 255. 














650 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Mooney. Exhibition of cross-bows, long-bows, quivers, ete. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., x1x, 213-215. 

Monry, W. Lot meads and commonable lands. Archzol. Rev., Lond., 1v, 344-365. 

MoNNIER MARCEL. Cordilléres et Amazone, 1886-27. Bull. Soc. de géogr. de 
Lyon, Lyon, 89-118. 

MOoNTELIUS, O. Das Alter der Runenschrift im Norden. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 
Xvi, 151-170. 

The civilization of Sweden in heathen times. Translated by Rev. F. H. 
Woods. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 214 pp. 

MONTGOMERY, WILLIAM E. History of land tenure in Ireland. New York, Mac- 
millan. 8vo. ; 

MOoOREHEAD, WARREN K. Fort Ancient, the great prehistoric earthwork of War- 
ren County, Ohio. Cincinn., O.: Robert Clarke & Co. 1 map, 35 ills. 

MorEAU DE TourRSP. De Ja contagion du crime et de sa prophylaxie. Ann. dhyg., 
Par., 3. s., XXII, 161-168; Paris: Chaix. 11 pp. 8vo. 

MorGan, J. pr. Note sur Vusage de svst®me pondéral assyrien dans l’Arménie russe 
a Pépoqne préhistorique. Rev. archéol., Par., 3. s., xIv, 177-187. 

MorGan, J. H. Supernumerary auricles. I]lust. M. News, Lond., 11, 265. 

Morice, A. G. The Western Dénés; their manners and customs. Proc. Canad. Inst., 
Toronto, 3. 8., Vil, 109-174. 

Morison. Beitrag zur Frage von der Pigmentbildung in der Negerhaut. Monatsh. 
f. prakt. Dermat., Hamb., 1x, 485-490. 

Morison, Mrs. O. Tsimshian proverbs. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., 0, 285, 286. 

Aryan sea-myths: the origin of religions, with an introduction by Charles 
Morris. London: Triibner. 8vo. 

Mooney, J. Cherokee mound-building. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 167-171. 

- Cherokee plant lore. The Am. Anthrop., Wash., 1, 223, 224. 

Folk-lore of the Carolina Mountains. J. Am. Folk-Lore, 95-104. 

Indian tribes of the District of Columbia. ‘The Am. Anthrop., Wash., 1, 

259-266, 1 pl. 

The holiday customs of Ireland. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxv1, 377-427. 
[MacCalla & Co., 1 vol., 50 pp. 8vo.] 

Moors, T. J. Man and hisdevelopment. Times & Reg., N. Y. & Phila., xx, 507-512. 

Mooreneap, W. K. A wonderful pipe. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 117-119, 1 fig. 

Fort Ancient. J. Cincin. Soc. Nat. Hist., x11, 83-92. 

-——— The manufacture and use of aboriginal stone implements. Ohio Archzol. & 
Hist. Quart., Columbus, 11, 514-533. 

Morris, C. Aryan sun-myths: the origin of religion, with an introduction by C. 
Morris. Troy, 1889, Knight. ii-+-, 192 pp. 

Morris, J. Crime; its physiology and pathogenesis; bow far can medical men aid 
in its prevention? Maryland M. J., Balto., xx, 501-512. 

Morris, Ricuarp. Death’s messengers. Folk-L. J., Lond., vit, 179-191. 

Morrison, O. ‘Tsimshian proverbs. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. & N. Y., 1, 285. 

Morrison, R. B. Notes on the formation of pigment in the negro, Med. News, 
Phila., Lv, 393-395. 

Morrison, W. D. Reflections on the theories of criminality. J. Ment. Sc., Lond., 
XXXV, 14-23. 

MortTILueT, A. DE. Cimétiere ancien prés de Biskra (Algérie). Bull. Soc. @’anthrop., 
Par., 3. 8., XI, 720-724. 

L’allée couverte de Dampont, commune d’Us (Seine-et-Oise). Paris: A. Hen- 
nuyer. 15 pp., 9 figs. 8vo. 

MortTiLieT, G. bE. Lechien. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. s., XII, 425-402. 

Réforme des livres d’enseignement. Paris. 1-4. 

MouLg, H. J. Batcombe Cross. Folk-Lore J., Lond., 25, 26. 





























5 iva gma nas aca aah a rl 


$0)! 


SK el ee 


7 ee ore re 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN. 1889. 651 


MULLER, Max. Natural religion. London: Longmans. [Academy, Aug. 10.] 

MULINER. Prihistorische Kisenfabrikation in Krain, Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
Wien, n. F., rx, [174-178]. 

Murpocu, J. E. A remarkable Eskimo harpoon from East Greenland. Proc. U. 8. 
Nat. Mus., 1888, Wash., x1, 169-171. 

MurRRAY-AYNSLEY, Harriet G. M. Various Swiss legends. (Translated from the 
Freuch of Alfred Cérésole.) Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 168-173. 

Various Swiss legends. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, II1., x1, 302-305. 

Muséon, Le. Revue internationale. Etudes de linguistique, d’histoire et de philo- 
sophie. Publiées par des professeurs de différentes universités. [Société des 
sciences, Société orientale. Vol. vitr in 1889. Quarterly. ] 

NADAILLAC, DE. La station préhistorique de Lengyel (Hongrie). [Abstract.] L’An- 
thropologie, 145-149. 

Les découvertes préhistoriques et les croyances chrétiennes. Paris. 15 pp. 8vo. 

Les premiéres populations de ’Europe. Paris: E. de Soye et fils. 71 pp. 

SYDNEY B.J.SKERTCHLY. Mortiers de la Californie. Rev. in: Rev. d@’anthrop., 
Par., Iv, 96-99. 

NANSEN, FRiIpTJOF. Journey across the inland ice of Greenland from east to west. 
Pr.c. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., vii, 469-487. 

Nauk, J. Die Bronzezeit in Bayern. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, 
[95-102]. 

NAVILLE, E. The historical results of the excavations at Bubastis. J. Trans. Vic- 
tovia Inst., xx, No. 90, 138-167. 

NEHRING, W., und A. BEZZENBERGER. Ein altes Denkmal der litauischen Sprache. 
Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. Sprach., G6ttingen, v, 139-148. 

NEVELOS, LuDWiGc. Scheibensonntag. Ethnol. Mitteil.a. Ungarn, Budapest, 338-380. 

NEWBERRY, J.S. A man of Spy, or newly-discovered paleolithic skeletons from the 

_ vicinity of Liege, Belgium. [Abstr.] Tr. N. Y. Acad. Se., vii, 132-136. 

Ancient mining in North America. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, i64-167. 

NEWELL, W. W. Proverbs and phrases. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 153, 154. 

—-— Reports of Voodoo worship in Hayti and Louisiana. J. Am. Folk-L., Bost. 
& N. Y., 11, 41-47. 

New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Boston. Vol. XL in 1889. 

NICHOLSON, B. Heirship of the youngest among the Kafirs of Africa. Archveol. 
Rey., Lond., 11, 163-166. 

Nicuois, 8. H. The philosophy of evolution. Boston, New Ideal Pub. Co. 341-366 
pp. (Vol. 1, No. 14.) 

Nicouas, A. Considérations sur Vappareil hyoidien de Vhomme et ses anomalies. 
(A propos d’un cas (ossification de la chaine hyoidienne.) Rey. biol. du nord de 
la France, Lille, 1, 321-345, 1 pl. 

Sur le projet de langue scientifique internationale. Union méd., Par., 3. s., 
XLVII, 859, 887. 

Nicotuccl, G. Eredita ed etavismo. Anomalo, Napoli, 1, 129-137. 

NIEMANN, G. K. De boegineezen en Makassaren. Linguistische en ethnologische 
studien. Bijd. taal- land-en Volke. Neder.-Indié, ’s Graven., Iv, 5.s., pt. 1, 74-88. 

Nispit, J. F. Marriage and heredity. A view of psychological evolution. London: 
Ward. 243 pp. 8vo. 

NOCENTINI, Lupovico. Names of the sovereigns of the old Corean states, and chro- 
nological table of the present dynasty. J. China Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc., 1888, 
n. 8., XXII, 90-99. 

Notes dart et WVarchéologie, publication mensuelle la Réunion artistique... No. 1 
(mars). Paris: Mersch. 16 pp. 8vo. 

Nutt, A. Celtic myth and saga. A survey of recent literature. Archeol. Rev., 
Lond., 11, 110-142. 

The legend of the Buddha’s alms-dish and the legend of the Holy Grail. Ar- 
cheol. Rev., Lond., 111, 257-271. 














652 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


OAKLEY, J. Consanguineous marriages and retinitis pigmentosa in children. Prov. 
M. J., Leicester, vill, 329. 

OBER, FREDERICK A. A look at Algeria and Tunis. Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., N. Y., 
XXI, 287-324, 2 ill. 

OERTEL, HANNS. Japonica. J. Am. Folk-L., N. Y., 11, 149-152. 

Ohio Historical and Archeological Quarterly. Columbus: Smythe. Vol. — in 1889. 

OHLENSCHLAGER, F. Das germanische Griiberfeld bei Thalmiissing. [Zrom: Augsb. 
allg. Ztg., 2. Beil., 1887, No. 187 and 188.] Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch- 
Bayerns Miinchen., vii, 93-101. 


OLIVER, E. E. Coins of the Chaghatai Mughals. Proc. Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta, 


208, 4 pl. 

Coins of the Muhammadan kings of Gujarat. J. As. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta, 
LVI, n.8., pt. 1, 1-12, 3 pl. 

OLLIVIER-BEAUREGARD. En Orient. Etudes ethnologiques et linguistiques a travers 
les Ages et les peuples. Paris: Maissoneuve. viii, 252 pp. 8vo. 

Mutilation pénienne. Bull. Soc. @’anthrop. de Par., 3.s., X11, 153-155. 

ONFFROY DE THORON. Les Phéniciens & Vile d’Haiti et sur le continent américain. 
Les vaisseux d’Hiram et de Salomon au fleuve des Amazones. Louvain: Charles 
Peeters. 141 pp., 1 pl. 8vo. 

O'REILLY, H. Cinquante ans chez les Indiens. Traduit de l’anglais, avee une préface, 
par Hector France. Paris: Chamerot. xii, 348 pp. 18mo. 

ORNSTEIN, B. Ein Beitrag zur Verer bungsfrage individuell erworbener Higenschaften. 
Cor.-Bl. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., ete., Miinchen, xx, 49-53. 

Makrobiotisches aus Griechenland. Arch. f. Anthrop., Broschwg., xvi, 
193-204. 

OrtTvay, T. Durehbohrung und Bohréffnung an alten Steinwerkzeugen. Mitth. d. 
anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 1x, [89-94]. 

Osporne, H. F. The paleontological evidence for the transmission of acquired 
characters. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xx11t, 561-566. 

O’SHEea. La tombe basque. Etude des monuments et usages funéraires des Euska- 
riens. Paris: Lechevalier. 6vo. - 

OssowskI,G. Der grosse Kurhan von Ryzanowka. Antiqua. Unterhaltungsblatt fiir 
Freunde der Alterthumskunde, Dresden, V1, 33-39, 2 tabs., 4 figs. 

Sprawozdanie z badan paleoetonologicznych w kurhanach ukrainskich. 
[Compte-rendu des fouilles palethnologiques dans les kourhans d’Ukyraine. 
Revuee.] Bull. internat. de Acad. d. se. de Cracovie, Iv, xxxi. 

OTTOLENGHI. Il gusto nei criminali in rapporto coi normali. Arch. di psichiat., ete., 
Torino, x, 332-338. (Gior. d. r. Accad. di med. di Torino, 3. S., XXXVII, 218-222.) 

La canizie, la calvizie e le rughe nei criminali in rapporto ai normali, agl 
epilettici ed ai cretini. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, x, 41-51, 1 pl. 

OweEN, R. Is man left-legged? Science, N. Y., x1v, 442. 

PALANQUE, C. Une chevauchée archéologique au pays de Gascogne. Auch: Capin. 
20 pp. 8vo. 

Pauuary, P. Les amulettes arabes. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., xm, 26-34. 

PALLIARD, J. Zwei neue Jadeitobjekte aus Miihren. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
Wien, n. F., rx, [178-180]. 

Patmer, A. N. Quasi-totemistic personal names names in Wales. Archeol. Rev., 
Lon., Iv, 152. 

PAaNDER, E. Das lamaische Pantheon. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx1, 44-78. 

Panton, J. H. The caves and potholes at Rockwood, Ontario. Proc. Can. Inst., 
Toronto, XXIV, 244-253. 

PANTOUCHOFFE, I. I. On the growth of some trans-Caucasian races. Med. Sbornik, 
Tiflis, No. 50, 157-187. 

Parker, E. H. The military organization of China prior to 1842, as described by 
Wei Tiian. J. China Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc., 1888, n. s., xx1I, 1-21. 

















—s ~~ —-~ ee 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. _ 650 


PARIS, GASION. Chants populaires du Piémont. J. d. savants, Paris, Oct., 611-621; 
Sept., 526-545; Nov., 666-675. ~ 

PARKINSON, R. Beitriige zur Ethnologie der Gilbertinsulaner. Internat, Arch. f. 
Ethnog., Leiden, u, 31-42, 6 ills.; 90-106. 

PATTERSON, G. The Stone Age in Nova Scotia, as illustrated by a collection of relies 
presented to Dalhcusie College. Proc. & Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Nat. Se., Hali- 
fax, VU, 231-252. 

PauuHAN,F. L’art chez enfant. Rev. phil., Par., xxvitt, 596-606. 

PAULITSCHKE, P. Die Wanderungen der Oromo6 oder Galla Ost-Afrikas. Festselir. 
z. Begriissung ... d. deutsch. u. Wien. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 59-71, 1 
pl. Also: Mitth.d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. i*., rx, 165-177. 

PayNngE, F.F. Eskimo of Hudson’s Strait. Proce, Canad, Inst., Toronto, 3. s., VI, 
213-230. 

Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, in connection with Har- 
vard University. xxur. An. Report in 1889. Vol. 1x, no. 3. 

Pecror, Désiré. Indication approximative de vestiges laissés par les populations 
précolombiennes du Nicaragua. Paris. 11,51 pp. 

Peekx,C. E. Exhibition of terra-cotta tablets froin Babylonia. (Deseribed by T. G. 
Pinches.) J.Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvuir, 102. 

Pres, A. Ueber den Typus der Bevélkerung Wiens. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
in Wien, n. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 34. 

Pret,S.D. Amap of the emblematic mounds, showing the origin and object of effi- 
gies. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, XI, 3-92, 7 figs. 

Animal effigies and tribal history. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, I1., xr, 383-387. 

Autochthonous origin of the American civilization. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, 
ILL., x1, 314-320. 

Burial mounds viewed as monuments. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, II1., X1, 
359-378, L map, 1 pl. 

Geographical distribution of monuments. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 267-292, 
5 figs. 

Indian myths and effigy mounds. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 32-61, 20 figs. 

The age of the Nicaragua foot-prints. Am, Antiquar., Chicago, x1, 120, 121. 

The animals known to the effigy- builders. Am, Antiquar., Mendon, IIL, x1, 
139-163, 37 ills. { 

The architecture of the civilized races of America. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, 
XI, 205-235, 35 ills. 
—— The history of the knife. Am. Antiquar., Chicago, x1, 122-128, 16 ills. 
The Naga, or hooded suake,in America. Am. Antiquar., Chicago, xt, 121. 

The so-called elephant mound in Grant County, and effigies in the region 
surrounding it. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Se., 1883-37, Madison, vir, 205-220. 
Premer, E, Ein Fall von Mikrocephalie. Arch. f. path. Anat., ete., Berl., cxv, 349-352. 

Prey, O.C. Domesday measures of land. Archwol. Rev., Lond.. 11, 350-360. 

The identification of ancient and modern weights, and the origin of ‘ grains,” 
Archeol. Rey., Lond., m1, 316-349. 
PELLWITz, W. Die Telchinen. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. Sprach., Gottingen, v, 148-154. 
Einige Verwandte der Wurzel pa und die Priiposition lat. ad, osk. az im Grie- 
chischen. Beitr. z.ind’g’ma. Sprach., G6ttingen, v, 158-160. 

PENAFIEL, A. Explication de l’édifice mexicain & VExposition internationale de 
Paris de 1889. Rev. Vethnog., Par., vit, 192-200. 

Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Phila. Hist. Soc., Vol. XIII, in 
1889. 

PENTA. Le degenerazioni criminali. Riv. d’ ig. prat. e sper., Napoli, 11, 124-130. 

PETERS, JOHN P. Notes from the Kast. O. Test. Stud., N. Y., 1x, 325-329. 

PETERSEN, EUGENIO. Satiri e gigante. Bull, d, Com. archeol, di Roma, Roma, 
XVII, 17-25, 2 tabs. 





654 : PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


PETERSEN, HENRY. En Altertavle som Mindesmzrke om Biskop jens Andersen Bael- 
denak. Aarb. f. Nord. Oldk. cg Hist., Kj@benhavn, tv, 89-100, 2 pl. 

PETITHAN. La Tee de la race belge, ses causes et ses remedes; proposi- 
tion et rapport A la Société de médecine publique, 1883. Bruxelles: H. Lamer- 
tin. 31 pp. 8vo. 

Perriz, W.M.F. The earliest racial portraits. Nature, Lond., xxx1x, 128-130. 

The treatment of small antiquities. Archxol. Jour., Lond., 1888, x1v, 85-89. 

Perrone, A. Contribuzione alla teoria dell atavismo in un cago varo di poli- 
mastia maschile (6 mammelle). Progresso med., Napoli, 111, 516-524, 1 pl. 

Pryrecave, A. Notice historique et archéologique sur inmenane: Sainte-Marguerite. 
Compitgne: Mennecier & Cie. ii, 146 pp. 8vo. 

Prat, ALFRED. Projet d’un port de guerre ct de commerce a Cabourg (Calvadcs), 
Bull. de la Soc. de géog., Par., Ix, 598-629. 

Piverit, T. The physiognomy of fe mouth. [Zransl. from: Rey. scient., Par.] 
Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., Xxxxv1I, 678-687. 

Piers, H. Aboriginal remains of Nova Scotia; illustrated by the Provincial 
Museum collections. Proc. & Trans, Nova Scotian Inst. Nat. Sc., Halifax, vu, 
276-290, 1 pl. 

Pinttz, Epouarp. Les subdivisions de l’époque magdalénienne et de Vépoque 
néolithique. Angers: Burdin et Cie. 25 pp. 8vo. 

Nomenclature de Vére anthropologique primitive. Angers: Burdin et Cie. 
12 pp. 8vo. 

PILLING, JAMES C. Bibliography of the Muskhogean languages. Bureau of 
Ethnol., Wash., 1-114. 

PiLLoy, J. Etudes sur d’anciens lieu x de sépultures dans l’Aisne. Saint-Quentin: 
Poétte. 52pp.,2pl. 8vo. 

Ping, T. A local tradition of Raukawa 
Inst., Lond., xx, 4. s., 416-418. 
PiscHEL, R. Pali thahati und dahati. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. Sprach., Gottingen, v, 

121-126. 

PITRE, G. L’ Omerta. Arch, di psichiat, ete., Torino., x, 1-7. 

PLaucuuTt, E. Exposition universelle. L’Annam et le Tonkin. Rev. scient., Par., 
XLIV, 337-342. 

PLONGEON, ALicE D. Here and there in Yucatan. Miscellanies. New York: 
John W. Lovell. 146 pp., 12 pl. 12mo. 

PoxrowskI, E. Matériaux pour servir a l’étude de V’éducation physique chez les 
différents peuples de empire Russe. Rey. d’ethnog., Par., vi, 520-567, 39 figs. 

Pouak, J. E. Alte Armbiinder mit Schlangenképfen aus Persien. Mitth. d. 
anthrop. Gesellsch, in Wien, n. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 22 

Po_k, W. M. Relation of medicine to the problem of socialism. Med. Rec., N. Y., 
XXXVI, 673-676. 

PomMEROL, F. Sur Vanthropologie de la Limagne. Clermont-Ferrand: Mont- 
Louis. 10 pp. 8vo. 

PooLr, REGINALD STuarT. Die agyptische Classificirung der Menschenrassen. 
Archiv f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., XVIII, 337-340. 

Popp, K. Roémer-Castell bei Pfiinz. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, 
Miinchen, vi, 117-126, 3 pl. 

PorTsER, G. H. Spiritualistische Ueberbleibsel im Volksglauben. Arch. f. path. 
Anat., etc., Berl., cxv, 192-196. 

Porter, J. H. Notes on the artificial deformation of children among savage and 
civilized peoples; with a bibliography. From the Report of the National 
Museum. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. pp. 213-237. 

Posmwitz, THEODOR. Borneo: Entdeckungsreisen und Untersuchungen; Gegen- 
wiirtiger Stand der geologischen Kenntnisse; Verbreitung der nutzbaren 
Mineralien. Berlin: Friedlander, 1889, [Rev.in: Nature, XL, 49,50. ] 











a legend of Maungatahi, Trans. N. Zeal. 


== 


PO — 


et oTTwre: hl 


or 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 655 


Pott, A. F. Einleitung in die allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft. Zur Litteratur der 
Sprachenkunde Amerikas. Internat. Ztschr. f. allg. Sprachwissensch,, v, 3-19. 
PoucHer et H. BeEaurREGARD. Traité d’ostéologie comparée. Par. G. Masson. 
1 Vol. 3pp.,2ill. 8vo. 
PowELL, J. W. Pre-historic man in America. Forum, N. York, vitt, 489-503. 
Problems of archeology. Forum, N. York, vViit, 638-652. 

Price, J. E. Roman remains in Essex. Archeol. Rev., Lond., wu, 92-102; 350- 
342. . 

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Phila.: By the 
Aead., vol., 3d ser. completed in 1881. 

Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society. Worcester, Mass.: Ch. Hamilton, 
new series, in 1889. : 

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 39th 
meeting in Toronto, 1889. 

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, in 1889. 

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta: Thomas, Monthly, 1865- 
1889. 

Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto. Being a continuation of the ‘* Cana- 
dian Journal” of Literature and History. 3 .s., in 1889, whole No. vol. Xx1. 
Toronto: Copp, Clark Co. 

Proceedings of the ninteenth annual session of the American Philological Associa- 
tion, held at Burlington, Vt., July. - Boston. 

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography. 
London: Edward Stanford. n.s., XI, published in 1889. 

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London: By the Society, 
1889. 

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Published by the Academy. Ser. 111, Vol. 
I, in 1889, 

Prouprit, 8. V. Ancient village sites and aboriginal workshops in the District of 
Columbia. The Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 241-246,2 pl., 1 map. 

Puiszky, Fr. Alternativen zur rumiinischen Ethnologie. A. H. Caroli Fejérvary de 
Keresztes, Commentatio de moribus et ritibus Ruthenorum, Ethnol. Mittheil.a 
Ungarn, Budapest, 338-380. 

Putnam, F. W. The Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology in 
Cambridge. Proc. Am. Antiq. Soc., Oct. 23, n.s., v1, No. 2. 

Twenty-second report of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and 

Ethnology, Dec. 31, 1888. 

Paleolithic man in Eastern and Central North America. Part 111, Proc. Bos- 
ton Soc. Nat. Hist., xx1v, May, 1889. 

Remarks on Paleolithic Implements. Am. Anthropologist, 11, No. 3, July, 
1889. : 

QUATREFAGES, A. DE. Histoire générale des races humaines. Introduction a ’étude 
des races humaines. 

Les théories transformistes ; variation et transmutation, Vhomme et la nature ; 
especes intermédiaires. Rev. scient., Par., XLIV, 69-72. Sélection physiologique. 
J. des savants, 1889, April, 223-236; May, 288-302. 

QUEDENFELDT, M. Eintheilung und Verbreitung der Berberbeyélkerung in Marokko. 
Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., Berlin, 111, 81-108; 1v, 157-201. 

QuUILLE, D. DE. The stone elephant of Inyo. Overland Month.,San Fran., xiv, 113- 
U7. 

QUINCEY, THOMAS DE. Bekenntnisse eines Opiumessers. Stuttgart: Rob, Lutz, 1588, 
8, Zweite Auflage. [Rev.in Arch. f. Authrop., Brnschwg., XVUI, 289. | 

QuinckE, G. Ueber periodische Ausbreitung und deren Einfluss auf Protoplasma- 
bewegung. Verband]. d. vaturh.-med. Ver. zu Heidelb., n. F., lv, 269. 

RaBaup, E. Caudal appendage in man, Leonard’s Ilust, M. J., Detroit, X, 39. 








656 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1882. 


Rapot, Cu. Les ostiaques, les samoyeédes et les ziriénes dapres les travaux de M. 
Sommier. Rev. @’ethnog., Par., xv1t, 121-148, figs. 18. 

Rak, JOHN. II socialismo contemporaneo. Prima traduzione italiana autorizzata 
dall’ autore, con un cenuo sul socialismo in Italia di Angelo Bertolini. Firenze: 
Le Monnier, LXXXXVI,495 pp. 8vo. 

Raun, J. Rupotr. Beschreibung des Schlosses Chillon. Mitth. d. antiquar. Gesell- 
sch. in Ziirich, Leipzig., xx, 155-175, 4 tabs. 

RaNKE, J. Bericht iiber die gemeinsame Versammlung der Deutschen und der 
Wiener anthropologischen Gesellschaft zugleich xx. Allgemeine Versammlung 
der Deutschen anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien vom 5. bis 10. August 
1889, mit Ausflug nach Budapest vom 11. bis 14. August. Mitth. d. anthrop. 
Gesellsch. iz Wien, n. F., rx, 49-188. 

Die Kérperproportion des bayerischen Volkes. Beitr, z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. 

Bayerns, Miinchen, v1'1, 49-92. 

Ueber die Ortsnamen im Reis und seinen niichsten Angrenzungen. Beitr. z. 

Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, 4-7, vul. 

Ueber héhere und niedrigere Stellung der Obren am Kopfe des Menschen. 

Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x [140-142]. 

Ueber Hiigelgriiberfunde bei Parsberg, Oberpfalz, von Dr. Heinrich Scheide- 
mandel. Parsberg, 1886. 8vo. [Rev.] Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, 
Miinchen, viit, 102-105. 

Rapport sur le congrés de Bourg en 1888. Bull. Soc. de géogr. de Lyon. Lyon, 119- 
131. 

Ray, MME. DE. Sixiéme voyage en Orient. Bull. Soc. de géogr. de Lyon. Lyon, 
221-264. 

Ray, 8S. H. Sketch of Api grammar. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvur, 295-303. 

Re, CAMILLO. Sulle nuove scoperte del palazzo Senatorio. Buil. d. Com. archeol. 
di Roma. Roma, xvil, 181-184. 

Sulle odierne scoperte del Campidoglio. Bull. d. Camp. archexol. di Roma, 
Roma, XVII, 80-83. 

Reap, C. H. On Antiquities from Huasco (Guasco), Chili. J.Antbrop, Inst., Lond., 
XIX, 57-62, 2 pl. 

Reap, M. C. Archeology of Ohio. Pub. by Western Reserve Historical Society, 
Cleveland, O. [Rev. in: Am. Antiq., Chicago, x1, 133. ] 

Records of the Past. New series, Vol. 1. Bagster: London. 

Reece, B. Public schools as affecting crime and vice. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVI, 319-328. 

ReGAiA, E. Visono emozioni? Archiv. p. l antrop., Firenze, X1x, 347-386. 

REGNAUD, Pau. Le systeme de agglutination devant la logique et devant les faits. 
Rey. de Ling., xx11, Par., 60-65. 

Observations sur le réle de ’évolution phonétique et de ’analogie dans le dé- 

veloppement du langage. Rev. d. ling., Par., XXII, 233-236. 

Quelques remarques sur les parfaits latins, 4 propos du livre de M. Enault 

intitulé: Des parfaits en grec et en latin. Rey. de ling., XxuI, Par., 66-72. 

Remarques sur l’assimilation dans les langues indo-européennes. Rey. d. ling., 

Par., Xx11, 316-319. 

Sur Vorigine et la valeur de V’idée de racine et de suffixe dans les langues Indo- 
européennes. Rey. phil., Par., XXVv1m, 531-538, 

REIcHARD, P. Die Wanjamuesi. Zeitschr. f. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde, Berl., XXIv, 
246-260. 

Rep, T. Intermittent sensations. Nature, Lond., XL, 318. 

REIN, J. J. The Industries of Japan, together with an account of its agriculture, 
etc. From travels and researches undertaken at the cost of the Russian Gover- 
ment. London; Hodder and Stoughton. Maps. and ill, (Atheneum, Apr. 6, 
1889. ) 
































PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 657 


REINACH, 8S. Antiquités nationales. Description raisonnée du musée de Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye. Paris: Firmin-Didot et Cie., xvi-328 pp. gr. 8vo. 

Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1889, at New- 
castle-on-Tyne. Besides the Anthropological papers read, was the following: 

Fifth report of the committee appointed for the purpose of investigating and pub- 
lishing reports on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social 
condition of the Northwestern tribes of the Dominion of Canada, Plates 1-vJ, 
97 pp. 

REINACH, 8. Le Musée de Pempereur Auguste. Rev. @anthrop., Par., 3. s 
28-36. 

Samuel Zarza. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3.s., 1v, 142-151. 

REISCHEL, G. Zur Statistik der Koérpergrésse in den drei preussischen landriithli- 
chen Kreisen Erfurt, Weissensee und Eckartsberga. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brn- 
schwg, XVIII, 135-150, 1 map. 

RENDALL, G. H. Thecradleofthe Aryans. London: Macmillan. Ss pp.8vo. [ Rev. 
in: Nature, Vol. 41, 128.] 

RENAN, ERNEST. Histoire du Peuple @Israél. Paris: Calmanun Levy. [See: Athe- 
neum, Feb. 2.] 2 vols. 

RENovARD, A. Le matérial de industrie textile. Rev. scient., Par., xLrv, 618-624. 

RETTERER, I. Protoplasma. Dict. encycl. d. sc. méd., Par., 2. 8., xxvur, 561-604, 

Retzius, G. Alphonse Bertillon’s antropometriska metod att identitiera brottslingar. 
Hygiea. Festband Letc.], Steckholm, No. 10, 1-36. 

Revue WVanthropologie. Paris: G. Masson, 18 years, 1883, 3. ser., Iv, 8vo, quarterly, 
Merged into L’Anthropologie. 

Revue de l’histoire de religions. M. Jean Neville, director. Paris: E. Leroux, Vol. 
ur, 1889. Annales du Musée Guimet. [Excellent bibliographers of religion 
and kindred subjects. ] 

Revue des traditions populaires. Paris, Vol. tv, 1889. Monthly. Organ of Société 
des traditions populaires au musée d’ethnographie du Trocadero. Paris: Mai- 
sonneuve. 

Revue Wethnographie. Paris, Ed. E. T. Hamy; founded in 13883. Merged into 
L’Anthropologie. 

Revue de linguistique et de philologie comparée. Paris: Maisonneuve, Vol. xxxu, 
in 1889. . 

Revue scientifique; founded in 1863. Paris: Lagrange, vols. 43 and 44, 3. s., 10th 
year, 1889. 

REYNOLDs, ELMER R. The shell mounds of the Potomac and Wicomico. The Am, 
Anthrop., Wash., U1, 252-259. 

Riccarpi, P. Communicazione preventiva. I tipi degenerati; contribuzione a VP 
antropologia del sordomutismo. Modena, 1889, Vicenzi. 4 pp. avo. [Repr. 
from: Rassegna, Modena, Iv. | 

—— Contribuzione all antropologia del sordomutismo; memoria. Archiy. p. VY an- 
throp., Firenze, Xx, 305-345. 

—— Nuove ricerche intorno agli sforzi muscolari di compressione. Rassegna di 
sc. med., Milano, Iv, 592-598. 

Ricuiy, H. Gewisse grosse Graphitgefisse. Mith. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, 
n. E., 1X, [194-197]. 

RipsDALE, KE. A. Cosmic evolution: being speculations on the origin of our environ- 
ment. London: H. K. Lewis. 

RieDEL, J. G. F. Bijdrage tot de kennis der dialecten op het eiland Timor.  Bijd. 
taal- land- en Volke. van Neder., Graven., Iv, 5. 8., pt. 1, 1-9. 

—— Bijdrage tot de kennis van de Banggaaische of Bangaajasche Taal. Bijd. taal- 
land- en Volke. van Neder., ’s Graven., 1v, 5. 8., pt. 1, 13-19. 

—— Bijdrage tot de kennis-van het Sawusch dialect. Bijd. taal-land- en Volke. 
van Neder., ’s Graven., Iv, 5. s., pt. 1, 10-12. 


M. Mis. 224 42 


2) UVa 





658 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Rus, Jacosp A. Howthe other halflives. Studies among the tenements. Scribner’s 
Mag., N. Y., vi, 643-662, 19 ills. 

VAN Run VAN Arete J. A. Een bezoek aan de aroe-baai. Bijd. taal- land- en 
Volke. van Neder. Indie, ’s Graven., Iv, 5. S., pt. 1, 55-73. 

Rink, H.,and F. Boas. Eskimo tales and songs. J. Am. Folk-Lore, N. Y., 1, 123-131, 

RINN, Louts. Les origines berbéres. Etudes linguistiques et ethnologiques. Paris, 
Challamel et Cie. 8vo. 

RISDALE, E. A. Cosinie evolution, being speculations on the origin of our environ- 
ment. London: E. K. Lewis. 130 pp. 16mo. 

Rive, L. DE La. Sur la genése de Ja notion espace. Rev. phil., Par., xxvu, 
452-462. 

Roserts, E. H. Chips from Tonga superstition. Am. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 100- 
104. 

RoBIN, P. Cas de syndactylie. Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 124. 

Rosion, F. Recherches récentes sur la religion de ’ancienne Egypte. Le Culte. V. 
Les temples égyptiens. Muséon, Louvain, Vil, 552-562. 

RépicER, F. Zur Frage der Becken- und Schalensteineim Fichtelgebirge. Cor.-Bl. 
‘d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., etc., Miinchen, xx, 7; 14. 

ROEDEL. Tagesfragen vom vorgeschichtlichen Menschen. Monatl. Mitth. a. d. Ge- 
samnitgeb. d. Naturw., Berl., vi, 1; 37; 60. 

Rocer, G. H. L’hérédité dans les maladies infectieuses. Gaz. hebd. de méd., Par., 
Ses XXVI, 657 ; 670; 685. 

Rottet, Er. De la mensuration des os longs des membres dans ses rapports avec 
Vanthropologie, la clinique et la médecine judiciaire. These de Lyon. [ Rev. in: 
tev. d’anthrop., Par., 1v, 349-353. (Internat. Monatsch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., 
Leipz., V1, 345; 353.) (Arch. de Vaanthrop. crim., Par., 1v, 137-161.) 

RoMAnes, G. J. On the mental faculties of an Anthropopithecus calvus. Nature, 
Lond., x1, 160-162. 

Mental evolution in man, Origin of human faculty. London (1888): Kegan 
Paul & Co. [Academy, Feb. 23]. 

—— Origin of human faculty. Brain, Lond., x11, 289-307. 

Romi.tiy, Huau Hasrines. From my verandah in New Guinea. London, 1889, D. 
Nutt. [Introduction by Andrew Lang. ] 

ROSENTHAL, J. Zur Frage de Vererbung erworbener Kigenschaften. Biol. Centralbl., 
Erlang., 1x, 510-512. 

Ross, JANET. The Land of Manfred, Prince of Tarentum, and King of Sicily. 
Rambles in remote parts of Southern Italy, mah special reference to their his- 
torical associations. London: John Murray, 1889. [ ev. in: Nature, Lond., x1, 
413. ] 

Rossi, G. B. pe. Statua del buon Pastore. Bull. d. Com. archeol. di Roma. Roma, 
XVII, 131-139, 2 tabs., 1 fig. 

Rossi, VirGiLio. Glossario alfabetico per la antropologia criminale e Ja medicina 
legale ad uso dei giuristi. Torino, frat. Bocca, 94 pp., 7 tab. 8vo 

Roru, H. Ling. Au account of the aborigines of Tasmania: their manners, cus- 
toms, wars, hunting, food, morals, language, origin, and general characteristics, 
collected from all sources, from the time of their first contact with Hakonuens 
until their final extermination. London: Triibner & Co. 300 pp.  8vo. 

On salutations. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 164-181. 

Rowunp, J. H. Communal house demolition. Archeol. Rev., Lond., tv, 366-374. 

—w— Domesday measures of land. Archieol. Rey., Lond., tv, 150-140. 

RounpD, WILLIAM M. F. Immigration and crime. Forum, vii, 428-440. 

RovuvikErR, J. Des mariages précoces et de leurs couséquences. Ann. de gynéc., 
Par.. XXXI, 185-190. 

RUNGE, G. Das russische weibliche Becken in antropologischer Beziehung. Ztschr. 
f. Geburtsh. u. Gynak., Stuttg., xvi, 131-143. 





PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 659 


RYDBERG, VIKTOR. Teutonic mythology. Authorized translation from the Swedish 
by Rasmus B. Anderson. London: Sonnenschein & Co., x11, 706 pp. 8vo. i 

Ryper, J. A. Proofs of the effects of habitual use in the modification of animal 
organisms. Proc, Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxvi, 541-558. 

Rye, W. Notes on crime and accident in Norfolk, temp. Edward I, Archieol. Rev., 
Lond., 11, 201-215. 

SALMON, P., et Ficatier. L’Yonne préhistorique. Paris: Chaix. 48 pp. 8vo. 

SatsoTro, G. Sulla donna delinquente. Arch. di psichiat., ete., Torino, x, 262-271. 

~ Sart, H.S. Humanitarianism. Westminster Rev., Lond., cxxvi, 74-91. 

SANDERSON, J. 8. B. Biology. Nature, Lond., xn, 521-526. 

SANFORD, E. C. Personal equation. Am. J. Psychol., Balt., 11, 1-38; 271-298. 

SaportTa, Marquis de. Sur la cause ou l'une des causes possibles de la faible nata- 
litéen France. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 217-224, 

SARGENT, D. A. The physical development of women. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., v, 
172-185, 2 charts. 

SaRRAZIN,G. Zur Geschichte des Rhotacismus in den germanischen Sprachen. Beitr. 
z. Indogermansprach., G6ttingen, Vv, 270-283. 

SavaGeE, M. J. The effects of evolution on the comivg civilization. Boston: New 
Ideal Pub. Co, 367-2892 pp. (Vol. 1, No. 15.) 

Saycg, A, H. Cairene folklore. Folk-Lore J., Lond., vit, 191-195. 

—— The primitive home of the Aryans. Contemp. Rey., Lond., 106-119. 

SCHAAFFHAUSEN. Ueber die heutige Schiidellehre. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
Wien, n. F., 1x, [133-138]. 





SCHELLONG, O. Das Barlum-Fest der gegend Finschhafens (Kaiserwilhelmsland), 
- Intern. Archiv. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 145-162, 1 tab., 13 figs. 


—— Ueber Familienleben und Gebriiuche der Papuas der Umgebung von Finschha- 
fen (Kaiser Wilhelms Land). Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 10-25. 
“SCHILLER, H. Der Roémerhiigel bei Kellmiinz an der Ier. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. 
Urgesch. Bayern, Miinchen, vir, 8-21, 3 pl. 
SCHLEUNING, W. Veliain Lucanien. Jahrb. kaiserl. deutsch. archiiol. Inst., Berl., 
1v, 169-194. 
ScHMELTZ, J. D. E. Schilde von den Talaut- oder Nanusa-Inseln. Intern. Archiv. f. 
Ethnog., Leiden, u, 163-164. 
——— Ueber Chinesische Nakenschemel, nebst einigen vergleichenden Notizeu. 
Intern. Archiv. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 11, 164-168. 
SCHNEIDER, A. Andokides. Jahrb. kaiserl. deutch. archiiol. Inst., Berl., rv, 195-207, 
SCHNELLER, E. Vorgeschichtliche Spaziergiinge in der Umgebung von Miinchen. 
Altes und Neues. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, vii, 127-146, 
2 pl. 
ScHuRADER, O. Ejinige deutsche Baumnamen und Verwandtes. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. 
Sprach., Gottingen, v, 284-290. 
Studienauf dem Gebieteder griechischen Wortbildung. 1. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. 
Sprach., Gottingen, v, 127-139. 
SCHULENBERG, W. vy. DerSalomonsknoten. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, 
| n. F., 1x, Sitzungsb., 41. 
Die Frau bei den Siidslaven. Ethnol. Mitteil. a. Ungarn, Budapest, 264-267. 
SCHULTZE, 8. 8. Die Skelettgriiber bei Ronty, im Kreise Karthaus. Schrift. d. naturf. 
Gesellsch. in Danzig, n. F., vu, 84. 
Hiigelgraber oder Mogilnos. Schrift. d. naturf. Gesellsch. in Danzig, n. F., 
Vil, 57-59. 
Scuumacuer, K. Archiiische Vasen aus La Tolfa. Jahrb. kaiserl. deutsch. 
Archiiol. Inst., Berl., rv, 228-253. 
Scuurrz, HEINRICH. Das Wurfmesser der Neger. Jntern, Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 
ul, 9-31, 1 ill. 





660 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN. 1889. 


SCHULTZ, OTTo. Die Ortsgottheiten in der griechischen und rémischen Kunst. Ber- 
lin. 84 pp. 8vo. [Rev. in: Am. J. Archxol., Bost., v, 62.] 

SCHWALBE, G. Inwiefern ist die menschliche Ohrmuschel ein rudimentiires Organ? 
Arch, f. Anat. u. Entweklngsgesch., Leipz., Suppl.-Bd., 241-269, 1 pl. 

SCHWALBE, G., und W. PriTzNeR. Varietiiten-Statistik und Anthropologie. Anat. 
Anz., Jena, Iv, 705-715. 

SCHWANFELDER, A, Neujahrswiinsche der Schwaben in Brestowatz. Ethnol, Mitteil. 
a. Ungarn, Budapest, 346-34. 

Science. Weekly. New York. Vol. x11 in 1889. 

Scomr, Henry A. Can the race problem be solved? Forum, vu, 365-376. 

SEARCY, J. IT. Heredity. Med. Rec., N. Y., xxxvi, 314. 

SEELAND, N. La Kashgarie et les passes du Tianchan. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3. 8., 
IV, 37-74, 306-321, 531-572. 

SEELY, F. A. Curious system of naming children. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 1, 46. 

SELER, E. Archiologische Reise in Mexico. Verhandl. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdk. zu 
Berl., xvi, 95-115. 

Caractére des inscriptions aztéques et mayas. [Transl. from: Ztschr. f. 

Ethnol., Berl., 1888, 1, 41.] Rev. @ethnog., Par., vu, 1-113. 

Caractére des inscriptions aztéques et mayas. Rev. d’ethnog., Paris, 1-113. 

Der altmexikanische Federschmuck des Wiener Hofmuseums und iiber mexi- 
kanische Rangabzeichen im Allgemeinen. Verband]. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. 
Anthrop., Berl., 63-85. 

SEMAL. Des prisons asiles pour criminels aliénés et instinctifs. Bruxelles: F. Lar- 
cier. 57 pp. 12mo. 

Serei, G. Antropologia e scienze antropologiche. Darwin el’ antropologia; pre- 
sente ed ayvenire del antropologia; l’ uomo terziaroin Lombardia; V antropologia 
biologica; la sociologia e lV’ organismo delle societa umane; fra gli indiani 
d’ America; costumi funerarii; sulle natura dei fenomeni psichici; la stratifica- 
zione del carattere e la delinquenza; natura ed origine della delinquenza. 
Messina: C. de Stefani. 383 pp.,1 pl. 8vo. 

Le degenerazioni umane. Milano: Frat. Dumolard. 228pp. 8vo. 

SERRURIER, L. De anthropologische wetenschappen. [ Rev. in: Intern. Arch. f. 
Ethnog.] Leiden, 11, 75,76. 

Snore, T. W. The distribution and density of the old British population of Hamp- 
shire. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi, 344-346, 2 pl. 

SHUFELDT, R. W. Remarks upon extinct mammals of the U.S. [Reprint.] Ameri- 
can Field, Chicago, xxx11, 1-38, 13 ills. 

The drawings of a Navajo artist. Mag. Am. Hist., N. Y., xxii, 463-468. 

Sizvers, R. Ruminationin man. (Merycismus.) St. Louis Clin. Phys. & Surg., 
111, 393-397. (Finska liik.-siillsk. handl., Helsingfors, xxx1, 383-406. ) 

Smncuarr, A. C. The hand-book of Jamaica for 1889-90, London: Edward Stanford, 
Jamaica, Govt. Print. Estab. [Itev. in: Nature, Lond., x1, 593.] 

Srret, H., and L. Sirer. The early age of metal in the south-east of Spain. J. An- 
throp. Inst., London, xviu, 121-132, 1 pl. 

SKEEL, Mary H. Superstitions of childhood on the Hudson River. J. Am. Folk- 
Les NG Xe Wy LASs 

Smitru, C. Recent archeological research. No. 1v. Greck archeology in modern 
times. Archeol. Rev., Lond., m1, 297,315. 

SmirH, DEC. Additional notes on Onondaga witchcraft and Ho®-do’-i. J. Am. Folk- 
Lore, Bost. & N. Y., 1, 277-281. 

Onondaga superstitions. J.Am.Folk-Lore, Bost. & N.Y., 1, 282. 

SmitH, G. Woman’s place in the state. Forum, New York, vii, 515-530. 

SmirH, HaRLiIn I. Nestsof flintimplements in Michigan. Am. Antiquarian, x1, 249- 
250. 




















PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889 G61 


Smit, V.A. The coinage of the early or imperial Gupta dynasty of northern India. 
Am. J. Archeol., N. Y., 189, 190. 

Smitu, W.G. Paleolithic implements from the hills near Dunstable. Nature, Lond., 
XL, 151. 

SmitH, W. RoBERTSON. The religion of the Semites. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 
488 pp. 8vo. [Academy, Nov. 30, Dec. 7. ] 

SnyDER, B. F. Anchor stones. Ann. Rep. Smith. Inst., 1887, pt.2, Wash., 683-688, 
3 pl. 

SNYDER, JOHN. Prejudice against the negro. Forum, N. Y., vit, 218-224. 

SOLLER, CHARLES. Le Maroc et le Soudan occidental Vile d’Arguin. Bull. Soc. de 
géog. de Lyon, 433-439. 

SoMMER, STEPHEN, ed Enrico H. Giciioii. Il dottor Finsch alla Nuova Guinea. 
Rassegna. Archiv. p. l’ antrop., Firenze, xrx, 169-186. 

Note di viaggio. Arch. p. V antrop. e la etnol., Firenze, xrx, 117-157, 10 
pL., 2 figs. 

SoTOMAYER, DAmMaso. Los Aztecos desde su advenimiento 4 la America hasta la 
elevacion y caida del Imperio Mexicano. Por el Presbitero Damaso Sotomayer. 
Tomotl. Mazatlan, 1887. fol. pp. 221. Am. Antia., Chicago, x1, 1889, 10. 

Peregrinacion de los Aztecos y nombres geograficos de Sinalofa. Por el Lic. 
Eustaquio Buelna. Mexico, 1837. 8vo. p. 140. Am. Antiq., x1, Chicago, 70. 

SPENCE, Davip. Peculiarities and external relations of the Giwlic language. Proce. 
Canad. Inst., Toronto, 3. s., VI, 238-243. 

StarckE,C.N. Kinship in Polynesia. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., xxxv, 392-395. 

The primitive family in its origin and development. New York: Appleton. 
315 pp. 12mo. 

Starr, F. Mound explorations in northwestern Iowa. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. 
Se., v, 110-112. 

STARRETT, HELEN E. The housekeeping of the future. Forum, N. Y., vii, 108-115. 

Stearns, R. E. C. Ethnoconchology. A study of primitive money. Ann. Rep. 
Smith. Inst., 1887, pt. 2, Wash., 297-334, 9 pl. 

STEMPF, V. Die Sprache des basken Erstlinge von Herrn Bernhard Dechepare, rector 
zu Alt-Sanct-Michael. Rev. de ling., xx, Par., 73-95. 

STEPHEN, A. M. The Navajo shoemaker. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1888, Wash., x1 
131-136. 

Tribal boundary marks. The Am. Anthrop., Wash., 11, 214. 

STEVENSON, W.H. The derivation of place-names. Archievl. Rev., Lond., 11, 104-107. 

The long hundred and its use in England. Archieol. Rey., Lond, 1v, 313-327. 

STEWART. On the inhabitantsof Paraguay. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvii, 174-176. 

Strepa,L. Der vi. russische Archiologen-Congress in Jaroslawl 1887. Mitth.d. 
anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., rx, 1-7. 

STILLMAN, W.J. Prehistoric Sicily. Nation, N. Y., XLvuit, 302-304. 

Stokes and BrotuErs. Child lore. New York. 128 pp. 

Sr. Joun, R. F. Str. ANDREW. Indo-Burmese folk-lore, Folk-L. J., Lond., vu, 
306-3138. 

STRACHAN, J. Postverbal aspiration in old Irish. Beitr. z. ind’g’ma. Sprach., Got- 
tingen, V, 100-120. 

Srruve. Photographischer Atlas von Philippinen-Schiideln. Verhandl. d. Berl. 
Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 49. 

Striper, A., W. Reiss, und B. Kopprer. Kultur und Industrie siidamerikanischer 
Volker nach den im Besitze des Museums fiir VOlkerkunde zu Leipzig befindlichen 
Sammlungen. Berl.: A. Asher & Co. 

STUCKMAN, C. Urgeschichtliche Notizen aus Hannover. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brn- 
schwg., Xvit, 171-175. 

SuckiinG, C. W. Sporadic cretinism. Illust. M. News, Lond., 11, 178; 219-222; 
Brit. M. J., Lond., 1889, 1, 895. 


’ 





662 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Surron, J. B. Supernumerary mammie and nipples in man, monkeys, cows, etc. 
Aw. J. M.Se., Phila., n.s., xCVII, 247-257. 

Svoronos, JAN- N. Etudes arckéologiqnues et numismatiques. Paris: Ch. Gaulon, 

SyLva, CARMEN. Peasant lifein Roumania. Forum, N. Y., vit, 452-465. 

SzonaBatuy, J. Funde aus dem Léss bei Briinn. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. 
Wien, n.F., 1x, [143-145]. 

SzropoLa, Emericu. Wie reiten die Toten so schnell. Ethnol. Mitteil. a. Ungarn, 
Budapest, 341, 342. 

TarILLeBors, EMite. L’archéologie & V’Exposition universelle. Dax: Labégue. 8 
pp. 8vo. 

TaLBor, E.S. Statistics of constitutional and developmental irreguJarities of the 
jaws and teeth of normal, idiotic, deaf and dumb, blind, and insane persons. 
Dental Cosmos, Phila., xx x1, 510-526, 

TarpDE, G. Le crime et l’épilepsie. Rev. phil., Par., xxv, 449-469. 

TARENEZKY, A. J. Some remarks on anthropological methods of investigations in 
the Jiving subjects. Vrach, St. Petersb., x, 935; 1011. 

Tassin, A. G. Among the Apaches. Overland Month., San Fran., xiv, 311; 374. 

TAuTAIN, Dr. Contribution 4 ’étude de la langue foule (ponlar). Rey. d. ling., 
Par., XX11, 347-366. 

TAYLOR, GrorGk. Formosa, the island and its inhabitants, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., 
Lond., 1889, x1, 224-239, 

Trcumer, I’. Bibliographie 1886. Internat. Ztschr. f. allg. Sprwissensch., rv, 160- 
338. 

Tren Karr, H. Legends of the Cherokees. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. & N. Y., 1, 
53-55. 

The Hemenway southwestern archeological expedition. [ev. in: Intern. 
Archiv fiir Kthnog. Bd. 11.] 2 pp. 

Ten Karr, H. F. C., Jr. Verbeteringen en aanvullingen van ‘‘Reizen en Onder- 
zoekingen in Noord-Amerika.” [Extract.] Tijdschr. v. h, Kon. Neder]. Aardr. 
Gen. 14 pp. 

TrsoRONI, D. The Anglo-Saxons at Rome. Archol. Rey., Lond., rv, 32-50. 

THomas, Cyrus. Burial mounds in the northwestern section of the United States. 
[ Rev. in: Am, Antiqar., Chicago, x1, 136. ] 

The circular, square, and octagonal earthworks of Ohio. Wash.: Gov’t Print. 
Of, 3& pp., 11 pl., 5 figs. 

—— The problem of the Ohio mounds. Washington: Gov’t Print. Of., 1889. 54 
pp., 8 figs. 

Tnhomkins, H.G. Remarks on Mr. Flinders Petrie’s collection of ethnographic types 
from the monuments of Egypt. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xvi1, 206-239, 2 pl. 

THompson, A. The influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of the 
tibia and astragalus in the different races of man and the higher apes. J. Anat. 
and Physiol., Lond., xx111, 616-639. 

THOMPSON, GILBERT. An Indian dance at Jemez, New Mexico. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 
I1, 351-355. 

Indian time indicators. Am. Anthrop., Wash., u, 118. 

THOMPSON, JoserH. Travels in the Atlas and Southern Moroeco. London: George 
Philip & Son. [Rev. in: Nature, 1889, x, 149.] 

THomson, A. On the osteology of the Veddahs of Ceylon. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 
XIX, 125-159, 1 tab. 

THOMSON, Basin H. New Guinea: Narrative of an exploring expedition to the 
Louisiade and D’Entrecasteaux Islands. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., x1, 525- 
542, 

THOMSON, I. How I crossed Masailand. Scribner's Mag., N. Y., vi, 387-405, 3 pl. 

Tuvot, J. B. Les ruines romaines de la foret de Chabridres. Guéret: Amiault. 16 
pp. 8vo. 


a 


tt ea iat aie ae 


en 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889, 663 


THURN, EVERARD F. im. Primitive Games. Timehri, Georgetown, Guiana, n. s., 
Vol. 111, 270-307. 
TISCHLER. Beitriige zur Geschichte des Sporns, sowie des vor- und nachrémischen 
Emails. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 1x, [162-168]. 
Tissor, V., et C. Amero. Les peuples étranges de Amérique du Sud. Paris: 
Firmin-Didot. 224 pp. 8vo. 
TompPkINs, H. G. Notes on the Hyksdés or Shepherd Kings of Egypt. J. Anthrop. 
Inst., Lond., x1rx, 183-199. 
TOPINARD, P. Carte de la couleur des yeux et des cheveux en France. Rev. d’an- 
throp., Par., 3. s., 1v, 513-530. 
Carte des langues de Amérique du Sud. [Abstract from: L’Anthropologie. ] 
pp. 151--153. / 
Documents sur la couleur des yeux et des cheveux en Norveége, recueillis par 
les Drs. Arbo et Faye, mis en @uvre et résultats. Rey. d’anthrop., Par., rv, 293- 
305. ; 
La descendance de ’homme ; la main dans la série animale. Rev. @’anthrop., 
Par., 3. 8., IV, 371-374. 
L’anthropométrie aux Etats-Unis. [Rev.] Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., Iv, 
337-345. 
La stéatopygie des Hottentotes du jardin d’acclimatation. Rey. d’anthrop., 
Par., IV, 194-199, Lill. ; 249-252. 
Le Canon des proportions du corps de Vhomme européen. Rey. d’anthrop., 
Par., 1V, 3. 8., 392-403. 
Les anciens Etrusques. [Abstract from: L’Anthropologie.] p. 151. 
Les anthropoides du Jardin Zoologique de Londres. [ Abstract from: L’An- 
thropologie]. pp. 150, 151. 
— Musée broca. [Abstuact from: L’Anthropologie.], pp. 149, 150. 
—— Présentation de quatre Boshimans vivants. Paris, 1887-8. [ Rev. in: Arch. 
f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., X vill, 287.] 
Francis Galton. Sur la fatigue intellectuelle. [Rev. in: Rev. d’anthrop., rv, 
Par., 87, 88. 
von T6ROK A. Ueber den Yezoer Ainoschiidel aus der ostasiatischen Reise des 
Herrn Grafen Bela Szechenyi und iiber den Sachaliner Ainoschiidel des kénigl. 
zoologischen und anthropologisch ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden. Ein 
Beitrag zur Rassen-Anatomie der Aino. (Erster Theil.) Arch. f. Anthrop 
Brnschwg., XvilI, 15-100, 2 pl. 
Ueber ein Universal-Kraniophor. Ein Beitrag zur Reform der Kraniologie. 
Internat. Monatschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Leipz., v1, 224, 1 pl. 
TOWNSEND, E, L. Dental irregularities of the native races, South Calif. Pract., 
Los Angeles, Iv, 249-252. 
Tracy, P. Ethnographical exposition of the Champ de Mars, Am. Anthrop., 
Wash., II, 350. 
Trapp, M. Ueber verschiedene, im Jahre 1888 in Miihren gemacht vorgeschicht- 
liche Funde. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F°., rx. [Sitzungsb., 30.] 
TREGEAR, Edward. The knowledge of cattle amongst the ancient Polynesians. 
Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., Lond. xx1, 4. s., 447-476. 
—— The Maoris of New Zealand. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 97-123. 
TRENT, WILLIAM P. English culture in Virginia. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. in 
Hist, and Polit. Se., 7. 8., V, V1, Baltimore, 141 pp. 8vo. 
Trihvépy, J. Les anguipédes bretons. Saint-Brieuc: Pru-@homme. 24 pp. 8vo. 
Tromp, 8. W. Mededeeling omtrent geestenhuisjes in West-Borneo. Intern. Archiv. 
f. Ethnog,, Leiden, 11, 163, 1 ill. 
Trotrer, C. Among the Fiji Islands. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., xxx1v, 644-652. 
TRUHELKA, C. Das Griiberfeld von Glasinae in Bosnien und seine priibistorischen 
Befestigungen. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, [159-161.] 





664 PROGRESS OF ANTIIROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


TRUHELKA, C. Die Nekropolen von Glasinac in Bosnien. Mitth. d. anthrop. Ge- 
sellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, 24-45. 

TURNER, W. Anthropology. Nature, Lond., 1889, x1, 526-533. Also [Abstr.]: Med. 
Press & Cire., Lond., n. s., XLVI, 327-330. 

Tytor, E. B. On a method of investigating the development of institutions; ap- 
plied to laws of marriage and descent. J. Anthron. Inst., Lond., vir1, 245-272. 

Notes on the modern survival of ancient amulets against the evil eye. J. 
Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 54-56. 

UDAL, J. S. Dorsetshire children’s game. Folk-Lore J., Lond., vir, 202-264. 

UnpDsET, I. Le préhistorique scandinave. Rev. d’anthrop., Par., 3. s., rv, 700-709, 

Om den nordiske stenalders tvedeling. Aarb. f. nord. Oldk. og Hist., Kjében- 

havn, Iv, 186-198. 

Terramaren in Ungarn. Festschr. z. Begréss. —— ——d. Deutsch. u. Wien, 
anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 1: 89, 19-27, 2 pl. Also: Mitth. d. anthrop. 
Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., rx, 125-133, 2 pl. 

VasHEzZ, A. Etudes darchéologie préhistorique; 1° le dolmen de Vandragon ; 2° le 
nom primitif de la source des eaux de Saint-Galmier. Lyon: Mougin-Rosand. 
20 pp. 8vo. 

VALENTINI, P. J. J. The Portuguese in the track of Columbus [1493]. Bull. Am. 
Geol. Soc., N. Y., XX1, 35-56, 1 map, 359-379. 

VAN DEN GHEYN, R. P. L’origine européenne des Aryas; mémoire présenté au Con- 
grés scientifique international des catholiques tenu & Paris en 1888. Saint Dizier: 
Saint-Aubin. 47 pp. 8vo. 

DF VARIGNY, H. Exposition universelle; Vhistoire de Vhabitation humaine. Rev. 
scient., Par., XLIi1, 688-691. 

VarIoT, G. Expériences sur la régénération des épithéliums pigmentaires. Bull. 
Soe. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. s., XII, 41-47. 

Les tatouages et les peintures de la peau. Rev. scient., Par., xLIv, 395-401. 

—— Observations sur Ja pigmentation cicatricielle des négres, et recherches. 
microscopiques sur les nevi pigmentaires d’un mulitre. Bull. Soc. @anthrop. 
de Par., 3..s., X11, 463. 

Taches pigmentaires chez un mulatre ; maiformations congénitales des doigts 
chez des prisonniers. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 3. .s., xt, 162-164. 

VaTER. Schiidel aus Spandau, Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 477. 

VAUVILLE, O. Grattoirs et lissoirs concaves des époques quaternaire et de la pierre 
polie. Bull. Soc. @anthrop. de Par., 3. s., x11, 63-70. 

Vaux, R. Some thoughts on the sun and cross symbols. Proe., Am. Phil. Soce., 
Phila., xxv1, 476-481. 

Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und 
Urgesebichte. Red. von Rud. Virchow. Berlin: A. Asher & Co. Monthly. 
VERNIAL, P. Note sur V’acclimatement dans Visthme de Panama. Bull. Soc. 

@anthrop. de Par., 3. s., X11, 85-91. 

VERRIER, E. Les races noires de l’Afrique (section africaine), discours d’ouverture 
prononcé a la séance de la Société d’ethnographie du 31 janvier 1889. Clermont: 
Daix freres. 16 pp. 8vo. 

VIAND. Grand-Marais. Causeries sur Noirmoutiers. Nantes: Mellinet et Cie. 
12 pp. Svo. 

Vines, 8. H. An examination of some points of Prof. Weismann’s theory of heredity. 
Nature, Lond., xi, 621-626. 

VINSON, JULIEN. Bibliographie basque: le second ouvrage de Tartas. Rev. 
de linguistique, Paris, xx11, 299-315. 

Grand dictionnaire frangais-allemand-franecais, par H. A. Birmann, professeur 

a Ecole polytechnique, ete. Paris: Garnier fréres, 4to. Rev. de ling., Par., 

XXII, 293-295. 

L’imprimerie et la librairie 4 Bayonne. Rev. de ling., Par., xxit, 211-232. 























PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 665 


VINSEN, JULIEN. Littérature tamoule ancienne. Rey. de ling., Par., XIIX, 1-32; 107- 
P33; 
Sammlung franzisischer Neudriicke, hgb. von Karl Vollmiller. Rev. in: Rey. 
de ling., Xx1I, Par., 101, 02. 
% ——— Petit glossaire pour servir & Vintelligence des auteurs décédents et symbo- 
listes, par Jacques Plowert. Jbid., 102, 103. 
Suomalais-ugrilaisen seuran Aikakauskirja. Journal de la Société Finno- 
Ougrienne. [Rev.] Rev. de ling., Par., 1880, xxi, 370. 

Syllabaire do la langue arabe, par O. Hondas, professeur a l’Keole des langues 
orientales. Paris: Maisonneuve et Ch. Leclerc, 1889, in-$vo. cart. de 45 pp. [ Rev. ] 
Rev. deling., Par., xx11, 200-201. 

Vircuow. Altiigyptische Hauskatzen, Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 458-463. 

Alterthiimer aus Transkaukasien. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, 18®9, 
n. F., rx, [102-107 ]. 

Analysen von moderner figyptischer Augenschminke und Augensalbe, Ver- 
handl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 44-48. 

Emit Scumipt. Anthropologische Methoden. <Anleitung zum Beobachten 
und Sammeln fiir Laboratorium und Reise. Leipzig: Veit & Co. 3836 pp. Rev. 
in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., Xx1, 29, 30. 
Cranes de Afrique orientale. (Comptes rendus de Académie des sciences de 
Berlin. Sednce du 2mai.) [Rev. in: Rev. @anthrop., Par.,1v, 3. 8., 451-457. ] 
——— Crania Americana ethnica. Mitth. d.anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, [138- 
140]. 

Gustav LEIPoLpT. Die Leiden des Kuropiiers im afrikanischen Tropenklima 
und die Mittel zu deren Abwehr. Ein Beitrag zur Férderung der deutschen Ko- 
lonisationsbestrebungen. Leipzig, 1887: Duneker & Humblot. 112 pp. Rev. 
in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx1, 28. 

Lieut.-Gen. Pirr Rivers. Excavations in Cranborne Chase, near Rushmore. 
ul. Privately printed. 1888, 4, 287 pp., pl. Lxxv-cLiX, ill. and tables, Lev. in: 
Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 26-28. 

KARL DESCHMANN. Fiihrer durch das Krainische Landes-Museum in Laibach. 
Laibach, 1888: Verlag des Landes-Museums. kl. 8, 179 S. Rev. in: Ztschr. f. 
Ethnol., Berl., 28, 29. 

Kopfmaasse von 40 Wei- und 19 Kru-Negern. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. 
f. Anthrop., Berl., 85-93. 
Mihwerkzeuge mit abgepasstem Handgriff ausden Vierlanden, Verhandl. d. 
Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 485-487. 
Emit A. Gopi. Materialien zu einer klimatologischen Monographie von Rio 
de Janeiro. Aus dem Jahresberichte der St. Gallischen naturwissenschaftlichen 
Gesellschaft, 1885-86, 8,68S., mit5 Tabellen. Mev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 28. 
Menschliche Hand mit ausgedehnter Schwimmhautbildung. Verhandl. d. 
Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 109. - 
Schiidel aus einem priihistorischen Grabe in Bulgarien. Verhandl. d. Berl. 
} Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 25-28. 
Sogenannte Jadeits von Borgonovo. Verhandl. d, Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 
Berl., 113-116. 
Ueber den Transformismus. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., xviu, 1-14. 
AURELYV. TOROK. Ueber ein Universal-Kraniometer. Zur Reform der kranio- 
metrischen Methodik. Leipzig, 1883: Georg Thieme, gr. 8vo, 135 8., mit 4 Tafeln 
undd lL Rev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethno). Berl., 30, 31. 
_Wadjagga vom Kilima Ndjaro. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 
505-510. 
Zwei jungen Bursche von Kamerun und Togo. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. 
Gesellsch., Berl., 541. 





























= 


666 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN i889. 


Virty, P. Mémoires publiés par les membres de la mission archéologique frangaise 
au Caire, sous la direction de M. Bouriant, directeur. TT. 5, 1& fase. Angers: 
Burdin et Cie. 199 pp., 44 pl. 4to. 

VisconTl, C.L. Trovamenti di oggetti d’ arte e di antichita figurata. Buli.d.Com. 
archeol. di Roma, Roma, xXv11, 93-97. 

Voauk, MELCHIOR DE. L’asie ouverte. Bull, Soc. de géogr.de Lyon, Lyon, 265-276. 

Social life in Russia. Harper’s Mag., N. Y., LXXvitl, 833-855, 13 ills.; LXx1x, 

3-24, 12 ills. 

VOLKANN, L. Die Liésung der socialen Frage durch die Frau, nebst Angabe eines 
natiirlichen Mittels zur Beschriinkung der Nachkommenschaft. Fur Aerzte und 
Geburtshelfer. Neuwied: L. Heuser. 49 pp. 8vo. 

Volkskunde: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Folklore onder redactie von Pol de 

. Mont en Aug. Gittee. Gent, 1888, 8vo. [Rev in: Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 

XVIII, 286. ] 

VOLPICELLI, Z. Chinese chess. J.China Br. Roy. Asia. Soc., Shanghai, XXII, n. 8., 
248-284, 

WAKE, C.STANILAND. The distribution of American totems. Amer. Antiquar., Men- 
don, XI, 354-358. 

WaLpEYER. Menschen- und Affen-Placenta. Mitth.d.anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, 
Me exe ASK]: 

WALDSTEIN, CHARLES. The newly discovered head of Iris from the frieze of the 
Parthenon. Am.J.Archeol., Bost., v, 1-8, 1 pl., 1 fig. 

Watiacr, A.R. Darwinism: an exposition of the theory of natural selection, with 
some of its applications. With map and illustrations. London: Macmillan. 510 
pp. 8vo. [Revin: Nature, XL, 566-570. ] 

Warp, C. OsBorne. A history of the ancient working people from the earliest known 
period to the adoption of Christianity by Constantine. Washington, D.C.: W. 
H. Lowdermilk & Co. 519 pp. 8vo. 

WarkD, H. Life among the Congo savages. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., vu, 135-156. 

Warp, L.F. Some social and economical paradoxes. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 1, 
119-132. : 

The sociological position of protection and free trade. Am, Anthrop., Wash., 
II, 289-299. 

Warp, WM. Hayes. ‘“ Human sacrifices” on Babylonian cylinders. Am. J.Archeol.,, 
Bost., v, 34-43, 15 figs. 

WARTIELD, W. Heredity. Veterinarian, Lond., Lxi1, 562-566. 

Wepser, F. Die Besiedlung des Alpengebietes zwischen Inn und Lech und des Inn- 

_ thales in vorgeschichtlicher Zeit. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns, 

Miinchen, vutr, 22-26, 1 pl. 

Wesster, C. L. Ancient mounds and earthworks in Floyd and Cerro Gordo Coun- 
ties, Iowa. Ann. Rep. Smith. Inst., 1887, pt. 2, Wash., 575-539. Am. Natural- 
ist, N. Y., xx, 185 [285], 1 pl. 

——— Prof. D. W. C. Duncan’s analysis of the Cherokee language. Am. Naturalist, 
Phila., XXIII, 775-781. 

WEIPPIERT, G. W. Legends of Iowa. J. Amer. Folk-L., N. Y., , 1287-290. 

WEISBACH, A. Die Herzegovinen verglichen mit Cechen und Deutschen aus Mahren 
nach Major Himmel’s Messungen. Wien, 1889: A. Hilder. 17 pp. 4to. [Mitth. 
d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Suppl. 11. ] 

——— Die Zigeuner. Festschr. z. Begriissung . . . d. deutsch. u. Wien. anthrop. 
Gesellsch. in Wien, Wien, 1889, 1-11, ltab. Also: Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in 
Wien, n. F., 1x, 107-117, 1 tab. 

——— Liinge und Breite des Kopfes und Schiidels. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in 
Wien, n. F’., rx, [198-200]. 

WEISMANN, A. Essay upon heredity and kindred biological problems. Authorized 
translation, edited by Edward B. Poulton, Selmar Schénland, and Arthur E, 
Shipley. Oxford: Clarendon Press. x, il, 455 pp. 8vo. 








eS 


= — i. ~~” 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN i889. 667 


WEISMANN, A. Inheritance of injuries. Science, N. Y., xiv, 93. 

WENDEL, F.C. H. Thevalue of Egyptologicalstudy. O. Test. Stud., N.Y., 1x, 278- 
284, 

WERNER, E.T.C. The great wall of China. Arch. Journ., Lond., 1888, xLv, 379- 
399, 3 pl. 

WERNER, J.R. A visit to Stanley’s rear guard at Major Barttelot’s camp on the 
Arubwimi, with an account of river life on the Congo. London: Blackwood 
& Sons, 1889. [Rev. in: Nature, Lond., x1, 241, 242.] 

Wuite, A.D. Newchapters in the warfare of science. vit. Comparative mythology. 
Pop. Sc. Month , N. Y., XXxvI, 577-600. 

Waits, J. The ancient history of the Maori; his mythology and traditions. (4 vols.) 
London: Low. 8vo. : 

Waits, TAYLOR. On the relics of Captain Cook’s last voyage. Trans. New Zealand 
Inst., Lond., Xx1, 4. s., 397,398. 

WHuiteE & ALLEN (publishers), New York and London, 1889. .Folk-Lore and Legends 
of Ireland; Folk-Lore and Legends of Scotland; Oriental Folk-Lore ; Folk-Lore 
and Legends of Germany. 

WIESELGREN, H. Om steneni Grénen-Dai. Ymer, Stockholm, 1x, 60-63. 

WIsHE, J. W. VAN. Het lichaam van den mensch als getuigenis van zijne afkomst. 
Groningen: J. B. Wolters. 40 pp. 8vo. 

WILDE, WILLIAM CUMMING. Some words on thief talk. J. Amer, Folk-L., N. Y., 1, 
301-306. 

WILKEN, G.A. Iets over de schedelvereering bij de volken van den indischen ar- 
chipel, Bijd. taal-land-en Volk. Neder, Indié, ’s Graven., Iv, 5. s., pt. 1, 89-121. 

WILLIAMS, Monter. Buddhism. New York, Macmillan. 15 ills. 8vo. 

WILLIAMSON, A.W. The Dakotah an Indo-European language. Am. Antiquarian 
Mendon, X1, 246-248. 

WILKINS, JOHN. Essay towards a realcharacter and a philosophical language, Lon- 
don, 1668, pt.3, concerning natural grammar. Internat. Ztschr. f. allg. Sprach- 
wissensch., 1V, 339-373, 1859. 

Witson, THomas. The paleolithie period in the District of Columbia. The Am. 
Anthrop., Wash., 0, 235-241, 2 plates. 

WITHERSPOON, W.W. Collection of honey dew by the Nevada Indians. Am. An- 
throp., Wash., 1, 380. 

WITT, DE J., et RoBerT BE LASTEYRIE. Gazette archéologique, recueil de monu- 
ments pour servir & la connaissance et 4 Vhistoire de Part antique, Paris. 

Wutstock!, H.v. Ueber den Zauber mit menschlichen Korperteilen bei den trans- 
silvanischen Zigeunern. Ethnol. Mittheil.a. Ungarn, Budapest, 273-279, 

Wovpricn, J.N. Beitriige zur Urgeschichte Bbhmens. Vierter Theil. Mitth. d. an- 
throp. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., 1x, 71-106, 2 pl. 

Ueber die palaeolithische Zeit Mitteleuropas und ihre Bezichungen zur neoli- 
thischen Zeit. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., 1x, [78-82]. 

Wotrters, PavuL. Inscriptions from Kormasa; Ramsey. No.1. Am. J. Archvol., 
Bost., Vv, 47. 

Wooprorp, C. M. Life in the Solomon Islands. Pop. Se, Month., N. Y., xxxv, 476- 
487. 2 

WooptnHorre, R. T. Naga ornaments. J.Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xrx, 252. 

Woop-Martin, W.G. The rude stone monuments of Ireland, Sligo and the Island 
of Achill. London: Williams & Norgate. [Academy, May 25. ] 

Wortman, J. L. On the anthropological value of the hyoid bone. Am, Anthrop., 
Wash., WU, 81, 82. 

Wratistaw, A. H. Sixty folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic sources. Translated, 
with brief introductions and notes. London: Elliot Stock. Rev.in: Nature, 
vol. 41, 367, 368. 


668 PROPRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1889. 


Wriaut, G. F. An archeological discovery in Idaho. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., 1889, 
Vu, 235-238; Am. Antiquar., Mendon, xI, 379-3?1. 

The Ice Age in North America and its bearings upon the antiquity of man. 

New York: D. Appleton & Co. 640 pp. 8vo. 

The Nampa image. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxrv, 424-450, 

Wriant, THOMAS. The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon. A history of the early 
inhabitants of Britain down to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christian- 
ity. 3de%. London: Triibner & Co. xiv,562 pp. 8vo. 

WURMBRAND, GUNAKER, Graf. Formverwandtschaft. der heimischen und fremden 
Bronzen. Mitth.d.anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, [107-114]. 

ZABOROWSKI. Les anthropophages actuels. Rev. scient., Par., xLi, 715-718. 

Zacuarias, O. Ueber Periodicitiit in der Gewichtszunahme bei Kindern. Monatl. 
Mitth. a. d. Gesammtgeb. d. Naturw., Berl., v1, 35, 57. 

Zampa, R. Tested’ assassine e teste di galantuomini. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, 
277-281. 

Zapr, L. Alte Befestigungen zwischen Fichtelgebirge und Frankenwald, zwischen 
Saale und Main. Beitr. z. Anthrop. nu. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, vii, 41-48, 
inp). 

Ethnographische Karte nordéstlichen Oberfrankens. Beitr. z, Anthrop. u, Ur- 

gesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, vit, 147-161, J map. 

Slavonische Fundstattenin Franken. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u Urgesch. Bayerns, 
Miinchen, vui1, 107-116. 

Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie. Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, 
Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Berlin: A. Asher & Co. Vol. Xxtin 1889, 

Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde, Leipzig. Founded at the end of 1888. 

Zeitschrift fiir Vélkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig. 

ZINTGRAFF. Zeichungen von Fussumrissen. Verhandl. d, Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 
Berl., 93-98. 

ZUCCARELLI, A. Un mattoide da romanzo. Anomalo, Napoli, I, 151,171, 197. 

ZUCKERKANDL, E. Das Gehirn eines Amokliiufers. Mitth. d. anthrop. Geselisch. 
in Wien, n. F., 1X, Sitzungsb., 32. 

Ueber die Mahlziihne des Menschen. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, [130]. 

Ueber die physische Beschaffenheit der innerésterreichischen Alpenbevoélke- 

rung. Mitth.d.anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, n. F., rx, [125-130]. 

Vergleichendes iiber den Stirnlappen. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, 

[131-133]. 























a 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN.* 


By Dr. PAUL TOPINARD. 
Translated by WALTER HouGu. 


Our science does not yet know the precise ways, direct or indirect, 
by which the present orders and families have advanced. The poly- 
phyletic table of the genealogy of mammals that seems best to repre- 
sent the present state of the inquiry, is far from having the ideal sim- 
plicity of the monophyletic tree of Heckel. The genealogy of the cele- 
brated professor of Jena is an admirable work, which has been the 
starting point for numerous studies that have rendered immense service. 
But he will himself acknowledge it to be a preliminary attempt, which 
he will certainly re-consider some day. 

There are certain truths worthy to be remembered. The first is that 
our existing mammalian orders, families, and genera, are the product of 
a long evolution of successive transformations, and were not in exist- 
ence before the eocene and miocene periods. At that time also accord- 
ing to the present teaching of paleontology, the first placental mammals 
began to be developed from the marsupials by means of differentiation 
and multiplication of types which have led to our present forms. 

The second truth is that the progressive passage from the marsupial 
fauna of that time to the existing fauna did not take place by a single 
series of species for each order, family, or genus, but in all cases, where 
science has sufficient evidence, by multiple series anastomosing, inter- 
crossing, and forming sometimes a perfectly inextricable network. 

Here and there however, science seems already to have advanced ;— 
for instance, in the case of the ungulata, whose genealogical table has 
been tolerably made out; the carnivora, whose numerous origins have 
been shown ; the cheiroptera, and the pinnipeds or aquatic carnivora, 
Other orders resemble a veritable cross-roads, as the insectivora and 
rodentia. 

For some orders we have recorded only the probabilities or provis- 
ional suppositions in regard to their derivation and development. 

One important branch leading to man, in the doctrine of Heckel, is 
that of the lemurs which follow the marsupials, the eighteenth stage 
from the moners in the genealogy of Heckel. 


* Lecture delivered in March, 1838, in the Ecole d’Anthropologie of Paris. (From 
the Revue d’ Anthropologie, May 15, 1888; 3 ser., vol, 111, pp. 298-382.) 
669 


670 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 
I.—LEMURS. 


The lemurs have been classed among the quadrumana by Geoffroy 
Saint Hilaire, Cuvier, de Blainville, Duvernoy, and Milne Edwards, 
and among the primates by Linneus, Lesson, Huxley, and Broca; that 1s 
to say, separated from man in the first case and re-united to him in the 
second. Vogt and Heckel give them the name of pro-simians. The 
Germans call them half-apes (Halbaffen); the French sometimes the 
false-apes. The main question is, to what extent are they apes? Do 
they merit the name of pro-simians, and should they figure among the 
primates ? 

What do we understand by the primates? The best definition seems 
to be the following: The primates are non-aquatic, placental mammals 
(which excludes the cetacea, sirenia, and pinnipeds); they have no 
hoofs (which excludes the ungulata and proboscidea); they have three 
kinds of teeth (which sets aside the rodentia and edentata), and their 
molars are not in sharp and cutting ridges, or with sharp and conical 
points (which excludes the carnivora and insectivora). 

But have they not certain characters in common? Not absolutely. 
Naturalists omit in their scheme of characters the type of cerebral con- 
volutions. The primates have a discoidal placenta, a uterus with a 
cavity not two-horned, and the penis pendant. 

Passing over the first two characters, the third is observed likewise 
in the cheiroptera or bats. The primates have two pectoral mamme, 
but so bave the cheiroptera and sirenia. 

The teeth that everywhere furnish characters of the first order, vary 
as to number, form, and degree of continuity: all we are able to say 
here is that they are much more specialized, much closer together, and 
are above all, much more fixed in their general formula, as the families 
rise toward man. 

Under the last head there are four stages: the lemurs, the monkeys 
of the old world, the monkeys of the new world, and man. 

The nails, which among the primates take the place of claws, are one 
of their most important characteristics. So long as the claws are horny 
productions, compressed transversely, more or less long, recurved and 
sharp pointed, they serve as organs of attack and defense ; and in the 
hoof the horny growth curves in on every side and envelops the digi- 
tal extremity to hinder direct contact with the ground, and adapt it 
exclusively to walking. The nails are horny growths flattened above 
and below, growing straight and serving to facilitate prehension and 
touch. Their adaptation to that use is more or less perfect and applies 
more or less to the fingers of the primates; this allows us again to 
divide them into perfect primates, such as man and the monkeys 
(minus a certain group), and the imperfect primates. 

The well developed thumb, separated from the other fingers and 
opposable, is a character of adaptation, the corollary of the nails. More 
completely, it is besides an organ for clamping, for seizing, and for 


ie Mt tae hee 5 > ah 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 671 


touching; by this the primates may be sub-divided also, but into three 
groups, viz: Man, in which the thumb is opposable only in the upper 
extremities; the monkeys, in Which it is opposable in all of the extremi- 
ties, and the imperfect primates in which the adaptation may be either 
less apparent, or more marked, in the lower extremities than in the 
upper. Other characters could be pointed out, for the most part show- 
ing grades in the ascending series of the primates; but the above are 
sufficient for our purpose. 

To so consider the primates is perhaps to prejudice in a measure the re- 
sult sought. As soun as one introduces into the series a progressive de- 
velopment of characters,and divides the primates into superior, medium, 
and inferior, one is held to be indulgent toward the characters which 
appear to be obscure or lacking among the lowest. When we admit 
that the lower primates are but the commencement of the series, the 
passage from the other orders to that of the primates is but a step. 
Now the lemurs will supply us with the greater part of the imperfect 
primates to which we have alluded. 

The lemurs embrace, or should embrace, three groups of animals: 
the galeopitheci, the cheiromys, and the lemu:s properly so called. 

The galeopitheci, or flying cats (from yady cat and z:Ayx07, monkey) 
inhabit the Sunda, Molucea, and Philippine islands. They exemplify 
the difficulty of fixing in our classification certain groups characterized 
as paradoxical, and for the reason that they are groups of transition, 
having tie right really to be found in many groups. By Oken they 
have been classed with the rodents, by Etienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire 
with the carnivora, by Cuvier with the bats, by Linnaeus, Broca, Brehm, 
Huxley (in 1862), and Vogt, with the lemurs, and by Huxley (in 1872), 
with the insectivora. 

That which permits of their being called lemurs is their general 
appearance and their arboreal and nocturnal habits. Most of their 
characters however oppose it. They have claws on all the fingers, 
and the thumb is not opposable, hence they are not primates, not even 
incipient. They possess that which Mr. Huxley calls a patagium, that 
is, a fold of skin on the sides of the body extending along the outside 
of the lower limbs and along the outside of the upper limbs, eneireling 
the tail and prolonged between the fingers of normal length. It is the 
organ exhibited among the flying marsupials called petaurites, and 
which modified recalls the jurassic pterosaurians on the one hand, the 
cheiroptera and particularly the pteropus on the other, without agree- 
ing among the last, however, with the wing of a bird. 

This patagium has caused the galeopitheci to be classed with the 
cheiroptera. That which causes them to be placed among the inseet- 
ivora by Professor Huxley is their dentition, the conformation of their 
skull, and their brain. In short, we discard them from the lemurs and 
consequently from the primates. 

The cheiromys embraces but one genus, the aye-aye of Madagasear. 


672 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


It resembles a squirrel, but it also approaches the monkeys and maki. 
It has claws only on the upper limbs; the thumb is freely developed and 
is not opposable. In the lower limbs four of the fingers have claws; 
the well-developed thumb has a flat nail and is opposable. Its denti- 
tion is curious, making it a rodent as an adult, and an insectivore or 
lemur when an infant at its first dentition. Owen, de Blainville, Hux- 
ley, Brehm, and Vogt all place them among the lemurs. It is evi- 
dently a primate at its inception ; but a species as if hesitating whether 
it should remain in the primates or in the rodents. The exposition of 
M. Vogt, on pages 13 and 77 of his “ Mammalia,” implies that its origin 
was in the insectivora. 

The lemurs proper are divided into fossil and recent. The former 
appeared in the Eocene, and at that time existed parallel with tie mar- 
supials, which were then in the course of extinction, and the first pla- 
cental mammals, which were the carnivores, the rodents, the ungulates 
and the insectivores. Europe has furnished tive genera, America more, 
the most important being the anaptomorphus, from which Professor 
Cope derives man. ‘The present species may be divided into three geo- 
graphical groups. ‘The first and the most numerous embraces the island 
of Madagascar, the second that island and Africa south of the Sahara. 
The third the island of Ceylon, the peninsula of Malacca, the Moluceas, 
and the Philippines. These regions constitute in the theory of Haeckel 
the remains of a vast austral continent, which he has called Lemuria. 
Among the genera belouging to the group of Madagascar I cite the 
maki, the indris, and the tarsius; in the second group, the galago, of 
which a species is found only however in Madagascar; and in the third 
or oriental group the loris. 

The lemurs are arboreal and nocturnal animals, as previously said. 
Oken calls them the nocturnal monkeys of the Old World. They have 
four opposable thumbs with a single exception, the tarsier, which does 
not have the upper thumbs opposable, but only the lower ones. All 
their fingers, as.a general rule, have nails, save the posterior index, 
which is armed with a claw, or the anterior little finger of the loris. 
However, the nails are sometimes rudimentary and as though develop- 
ing from the claw. Relative to the teeth it is impossible to establish a 
general formula. The number varies from thirty to thirty-six. For 
example, the formula of thirty-two has been given to man and the 
vatarrhine apes; the indri has thirty, because it lacks an upper pre- 
molar; the tarsier thirty-four, because it has a lower incisor less and 
for each jaw a premolar more; the maki thirty-six, because it has a 
lower incisor and an upper premolar extra; the Loris also thirty-six, 
because it has an incisor and a lower premolar more. All these con- 
siderations tend to establish that the lemurs have not a fixed and 
homogeneous type, but that they constitute a transitional group from 
animals with claws to animals with nails, and should consequently be 
regarded as the first, if not the second, step (considering cheiromys as 


ol alles oil 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 673 


the first) in the line of the better-characterized monkeys. However, 
serious objections are raised against that way of looking at it. The 
first is that of Broca. In 1870, when his celebrated monograph on the 
order of primates appeared, my lamented master (Broca) maintained 
in nearly the same terms as Huxley that the lemurs are the fifth family 
of the order of primates, but more separated from the other families 
than any one of those is from one another. 

In 1877, after a communication before the Société d’ Anthropologie, he 
changed his opinion, and for the following reason: Haeckel based his 
bifurcate division of placental mammals on the existence of extended 
or limited placenta and the absence or presence of a deciduous mem- 
brane which detaches with the débris of the egg at the time of birth. 
Among the mammals with diffuse and deciduous placenta are classed 
the ungulata and cetacea. The others are sub-divided in their turn 
into four branches, in which the circumscribed placenta presents itself 
under different aspects reducible to two, one an annular or zone-like 
insertion, the other a disk or discoidal insertion. The carnivora and 
proboscidea are examples of the first mode of insertion. Man, the an- 
thropoids, the ordinary monkeys, and the lemurs,—that is to say, all the 
primates are in the second class. Now Broca had shown to the society 
the placenta of a lemur, the propithecus diadema, in which the placenta 
was neither discoidal nor annular, but is diffase, and which had no de- 
cidua. The lemurs hence are separated violently from the other pri- 
mates by a character of the first order. 

Vogt answered that we have as yet examined but four specimens of 
lemurian placentas, and that this organ among them is neither diffuse 
nor zonary, nor discoidal, but bell-shaped, a transition from the zonary 
to the discoidal. Afterwards, without denying the importance of the 
placenta as a basis of classification for the mammals, he showed that its 
importance had been exaggerated, that all the intermediate ones fall in 
between the different forms, and that very different shapes may fre- 
quently be observed in the same order. Vogt accepts however the 
opinion of Broca, but it was on account of other considerations. Ac- 
cording to him the lemurs are to be separated from the monkeys, and 
consequently are not their ancestors. Heremarked that the opposable 
thumb has nothing absolute about it since it has been already observed 
among certain marsupials, and likewise the nails, since the lemurs have 
claws on more or fewer fingers. That is true, but Vogt retains the 
galeopitheci among the lemurs, and they are the most important feat- 
ure in his argument. As to the contradictory physical characters 
invoked by Vogt they are numerous and weighty. To enumerate: 
—the lemurs have the two parts of the jaw independent, but they are 
always joined among the primates; their low and slim jaw contrasts 
with the high and heavy jaw of the monkeys. The intermaxillary bone 
persists throughout life among the lemurs but itis co ossified early among 
the recognized primates. The orbits are opened behind or have but a 

H. Mis. 22 i——43 


674 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


slender ring, whilst they ave always closed among the primates. The 
lachrymal bone is largely exterior or facial, whilst among the primates 
it is intra-orbital. Their dental types are various, whilst it is fixed 
among the monkeys. The cerebellum is uncovered among the lemurs, 
and covered over among the primates. The uterus is bifid, contrary to 
the assertion of Hieckel. Beside the pectoral mamme, they have often 
inguinal mamme. They have never been observed to have breech 
callosities or cheek pouches as among the monkeys of the Old World. 
The pelvis and the ear are entirely different. 

Vogt concludes in these words: “ In summing up, it follows from all 
these facts that absolutely no relation exists between the prosimians 
and the monkeys, and from the same, none with man. With the excep- 
tion of the opposable thumb, which is found among the marsupials, the 
lowest and most ancient of the mammals, the prosimians have not a 
single anatomical character in common with the monkeys. It is derog- 
atory to all principles of positive science to class the prosimians among 
the probable ancestors of the human species.” 

Are these objections really so weighty? From a morphological point 
of view, they are certainly important; but they do not oblige us to 
throw out the lemurs from the order of the primates. None of these 
divergent characters are iv contradiction to the idea that they are but 
the rough draft of a beginning of the primates. 

The characters drawn from the nails and the opposable thumbs out- 
ranked the others at the time in determining the general idea involved 
in the choice of the word primate. But man has the orbit open, or 
closed, the angles of the uterus are prolonged more or less, the inter- 
maxillary and symphisial sutures may or may not be united, he is not 
thelessman. The same is true for the monkeys. The adaptation of the 
extremities,two, or four to the function of prehension, is the character- 
istic trait of the primates. But is the inconvenience of admitting the 
lemurs into the order of primates of moment when it is made in the terms 
of Huxley? The lemurs are the last family of the order of primates and 
are more remote from the other families than they are from each other. 
The distance from the anthropoids to man is also very great, as shown 
in the volume of the brain and the cranial characters flowing from it, 
and nevertheless I range man among the primates. Strictly, they can 
separate the lemurs and make a special order, so that the genealogical 
attachment to the monkeys will not be so prejudicial, but that will com- 
pel us to do the same with man. Vogt is inconsistent ; he retains the 
word pro-simians as synonymous with lemurs. 

Having finished with the links which do or do not attach the lemurs 
to the primates, it remains to speak of their relations with the other 
neighboring groups. Ihave sufficiently insisted on the relationship with 
the marsupials and more particularly with the phalangers. The in- 
sectivores are next to be considered. 

All authors from Cuvier to M. Vogt have noted the resemblance of 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 615 


the teeth of the lemurs to those of the insectivores. “Their teeth,” 
writes Cuvier, “begin to show us (from higher to lower) the sharp 
tubercles interlocking one into the other as in the insectivora.” “The 
galegos,” one finds a little further on, “ have the teeth and the insect- 
ivorous diet of the other lemurs.” ‘ The dentition of the tarsians is that 
of an insectivore,” says Mr. Vogt. “The lobes of the molars are usually 
well forward as among the insectivora,” says M. Huxley. We have 
already pointed out the insectivorous first dentition of the cheiromys. 
Gratiolet, going farther, classed the lemurs in the insectivora. The 
origin of the insectivora besides, is by no means irreconcilable with that 
of the marsupials. The primitive type of these was the insectivore of 
the trassicand jurassic periods. The phalangers are an existing species. 
We must seek in the fossil species the true origin of the lemurs, since 
these appeared in the eocene or beyond. The lastrelation to point out 
is that with the ungulates, according to the eminent professor of the 
Museum, M. Albert Gaudry, whose work on the placoid and ganoid 
fishes and the amphibious labyrinthodonts deserves attention. ‘I 
have asked myself,” said he, in his Tertiary Fossils, ‘if the lemurs 
had not a common origin with many of the extinct pachyderms.” The 
resemblances between the present lemurs and the ungulates, proven by 
Alphonse Milne Edwards and Grandidier in their great work on Mad- 
agascar, leads to that belief. 

Two genera bear out this idea. The first is the genus adapis, of which 
a Parisian species, coming from the gypsum beds of the upper eocene 
of Montmartre, has been classed by Cuvier among the pachyderms; but 
it is found, judging from the teeth, the skull, and some parts of the limbs 
to be but a lemur. The second is the aphelotherium, classed by Gervais, 
likewise withthe pachydermsand at present recognized asalemur. The 
resemblance holds good with the eocene species of the stock of the pres- 
ent perissodactyls, such as the ee the lophiotherium and 
the pachynolopus. 

In the United States, oe Cope has discovered many species of 
adapis and confirmed these resemblances. It is always well to remark 
that the genealogy leading up to man is outside of the question. Mr. 
Cope divides the fossil lemurs of America into three families ; the anap- 
tomorphus, which leads up by two branches, one to the monkeysand the 
other to man, the mixodectins, the limits of which I am not able to state, 

‘and the adapides, which lead to the ungulates. The branch of adapis 
is therefore, according to Cope, foreign to the branch leading to man. 


II.—MONKEYS. 


The more I study this question, the more | am convinced that the an- 
thropoids should be re-united to the accepted monkeys, of which they 
are only a higher family ; 1 am more persuaded that they are more sep- 
arated from man, as I do not yield to the belief of a certain school in 
taking a purely morphologic point of view. As to the physiological, or 


676 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


rather the intellectual point of view, it is not to be discussed for a 
moment. 

The principal classifications of the primates are as follows: Cuvier: 
Two groups—manand the monkeys—the latter, under the name of quad- 
rumana, divided into monkeys, makis, and oustitis, the first group em- 
bracing those which are called the great monkeys or anthropoids.* 

Broca’s latest way, which is but a variation of Linnzus’s two groups: 
Man and the united anthropoids; the monkeys, those of the Old World, 
or pitheci, and those of the New World, or cebians. 

Huxley’s last way: Three groups, man, the monkeys, and the lemurs. 
The monkeys are divided into catarrhine, platyrrhine, and arctopithe- 
cine. The catarrhines are subdivided into anthropomorphs and eyno- 
morphs. 

Vogt, in his work entitled ‘‘Mammals:” First group, man, which we 
place here for sake of completeness, but who is not treated of; second 
group, the monkeys of the Old World, divided into the anthropomorphs 
without tails and monkeys with tails; third group, the monkeys of the 
New World, divided into platyrrhines and aretopitheci; fourth group, 
the lemurs or pro simians. 

It follows therefore (with but the exception of Broca) that all agree 
in uniting the great monkeys or anthropoids to the common monkeys 
under the term moukeys or catarrhine monkeys, or monkeys of the Old 
World, and that Huxley and Vogt (whom no one would suspect of 
revolutionary theories, I was on the point of saying,) think as Cuvier. 
Is Broea as isolated as I have affirmed? I mention here that Broca 
never formulated his division as have the foregoing, but that it is the in- 
contestable result of his teaching here, and especially of that of his last 
years. This fact seemed so apparent that I was compelled to express 
it in a table in my Elements of General Anthropology, appearing in 1885, 
to make evident the resemblance of his classification to that of Linneeus. 
Hervé and Hovelacque, who were in possession of notes taken at the 
course of Broca, so understood it and have re-produced it with some ad- 
ditions to complete it in their “Summary of. Anthropology” (Précis 
W@ Anthropologie), appearing in 1887. Would Broca have put it intoa 
table rashly,as Hervé and Hovelacque and I have done, specifying that 
he treated only of physical man? I can not say. One phrase of his 
memoir of 1870, on the order of primates (page 83), where he qualifies 
the uniting of man and the anthropoids in the same group as extrava- 
gant, bears out this idea. I imagine he would have said, ‘ Certainly 
this table is correct, but it is only one asec of the question.” 


* Can ier ae ided the foes tis three groups: The Ses or quadrumana 
which have four straight incisors in each jaw and flat nails (nails properly so called) 
‘on all the fingers; the makis or quadrumana, which have in either jaw incisors in 
number other than four or of other shape and the nails flat on all the fingers except 
the little finger, armed with a pointed and turned-up nail (a claw), and the ouistitis 
or doubtful quadrumana, thouch he ranges them in the first group, The makis are 
our lemurs, 





THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 677 


However that may be, the classification that I attribute, right or 
wrong, to Broca is held to be his by many people, and against it I would 
protest. 

From my special studies and my knowledge of the differences (great 
and little) from monkeys presented by man, drawn from the volume of 
the brain, the cranial characters that are the consequence of it, the facial 
characters that accompany them, and the characters of the skeleton that 
are developed parallel with them,—that is to say, of all the characters 
that I have specially studied, I am compelled to abandon the classifi- 
cation of Linneus, and to adopt the abused one of Cuvier, in which, be- 
sides, critics never have seriously reproached anything but the employ- 
ment of the word quadrumana and the exact definition of the hand on 
which he based it. Cuvier may not have been very much of a philoso- 
pher, but he was the first of observers. 

Let us consider for a moment the word quadrumana. When Broca 
opposed the term quadrumana as applied to the monkeys to distinguish 
them from two handed man he set forth the fact that the presence or ab- 
sence of the thumb was not enough to authorize the name hand or foot, 
bat in man the upper limbs accorded with the function of prehension, 
to which the extremity of the limb is the immediate organ, but the 
lower limbs are likewise constituted in view of the function of locomo- 
tion and support, which its extremity seems intended to supply. Ina 
word, there is harmony between every part everywhere, of which the 
different details constitute the characteristics of the function, hand and 
foot. This is extremely true, but with man only, who occupies the sum- 
mit of the evolutionary series. It is far from the same when we de- 
scend the course of the series. 

Among the monkeys, the anterior limbs are still adapted to the func- 
tion of prehension, but they are at the same time organs of locomotion; 
the posterior limbs are still adapted for walking, but they are at the 
same time organs of prehension. Among the lemurs, are still the same 
general types of all the members for prehension and progression, but 
in fact the anterior extremity is more a paw and the posterior more a 
hand by comparison; as for example in the cheiromys. The monkeys 
are both quadrupeds and quadrumana. Notice the three chief seg- 
ments of each linb: forward it is an arm, but backward it 1s a true leg; 
however, look only at the last segment both before and behind; it is a 
hand by the principal characters of the free and opposable thumb and 
the nails. 

In man the harmony is perfect because the functions are specialized 
and because the organs are all adapted in the same way, those for- 
ward for prehension and those rearward for walking. 

Beyond our branch of primates then, where its origin is seen, the 
fore limbs appear with the same types but less definite, less precise, 
all four for prehension, the forward ones more; all four for locomotion, 


678 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


the hinder ones more. Following the marsupials, evolution commences, 
specializations take place in different directions. 

Among the galeopitheci and the cheiroptera, the particular adap- 
tation works in the way of flight, one part or the whole limb is not only 
transformed, but bends itself to the needs and obeys the calls upon it. 

Among the ungulates, the adaptation works in the way of locomotion 
by the four limbs, exclusively; gradually these mold themselves on 
the same type, the useless bones disappear, or are fused together, cer- 
tain superfluous movements cease in the ratio that others increase, 
including the necessary corresponding anatomical arrangements. Here 
Broca ought to have taken his model type of the locomotive limb, as 
among man he possessed the model type of the prehensile limb. 

Among the carnivora, that have to bound over the earth to catch 
their prey while at the same time they must be able to seize, hold, and 
rend it, the fore paws have remained perfect locomotive organs, but at 
the same time, organs of attack by their claws, and organs of prehen- 
sion to a certain extent,—particularly in the anterior extremities. 

Among the monkeys an adaptation of another kind has taken place. 
Those from whom they descend lived in the trees, ran on the branches; 
they had need of increasing their power of prehension; they had to 
clasp the rounded trunks of trees and catch the branches in passing 
from one to the other. The adaptation appears to show in the posterior 
members first; later in the anterior ones. The make-up of the limb 
has not had to lose its own type on that account; it is enough that the 
extremities are adapted in a certain way. The nails, the free oppos- 
able thumb, the very movable fingers, are enough ; nature is contented 
with that without mounting to the higher segment. 

One fine day a revolution takes place. In the same way as an adap- 
tation to an arboreal life has taken place at the expense of other prior 
species, so an adaptation to terrestrial life occurred with an upright 
attitude, favorable to a more extended vision, a diminution of the 
olfactory sense and the facial prominence over which it presides, a 
perfecting of touch, and above all intelligence. From that time all the 
living forces of adaptation have tended towards the same end, the lower 
thumb has ceased to be opposable, the other toes have decreased in 
length, what the foot loses the hand gains; man was created exclusively 
two handed above, exclusively two footed below, all the accessory 
parts in the segments of the limbs agreeing with the types, which had 
existed since the marsupials but less accentuated until then. 

The little character of the opposable thumb brought out by Cuvier, 
marks then perfectly that which is common and special among the 
monkeys, the ability of clasping limbs of trees by the four extremities. 
Without doubt he expressed but one of the particulars of that make- 
up so perfect in man, who has given birth to the words hand and foot, 
but itis an essential one. One does not know enough to deny however 
that the second character necessary to the function of prehension, that 


a) 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 679 


is the great mobility in every way of the segments of the limb may not 
be well developed among the monkeys in the lower limbs. Cuvier then 
had a perfect right to call all monkeys quadrumana, although they 
were at the same time quadrupeds, and to oppose them to man. 

I unite then the anthropoids and the ordinary monkeys under the 
name of monkeys, and I should not recoil before the synonym of quad- 
rumana, if that of monkeys does not satisfy me. 

The monkeys are divided into two groups, those of the Old World 
called catarrhines, because they have the nasal septum narrow and 
the nostrils opening below the nose (from zaza, below and pv, nose), and 
those of the New World called also platyrrhines, because they have the 
septum of the nose wide, and the nostrils opening on the side (from 
zhatos, flat). We will commence with the latter. 

The monkeys of the New World are entirely arboreal; they are di- 
vided into two families; the monkeys properly so called, and the arcto- 
pitheci. 

The first are divided into diurnal monkeys, embracing the howlers, 
the ateles, the sajous, etc., and the nocturnal monkeys, embracing the 
sagouins, the sakis, the nyctipitheeci, and the saimiris. 

The second family requires particular notice. The aretopitheci or hap- 
alians are a Separate group among the monkeys of which [have spoken, 
from two considerations. They embrace the ouistiti (a charming little 
monkey made illustrious by one of our novelists), and the tamarin. 
They are arboreal as the preceding ones, and nocturnal like the latter. 

The arctopitheci are an example of the imperfection of our means of 
classification. They are monkeys and aze like the monkeys of America 
in most of their affinities, but they lack the single character which dis- 
tinguishes all monkeys including the lemurs, and they have neither 
the dentition of the monkeys of America nor of the Old World. We 
cut out the galeopitheci from the lemurs by the absence of the first 
character; is it necessary to treat the arctopitheeci the same way with 
regard to the monkeys ? 

Here are their characters. When one seizes the skull in a way to 
hide the lower part of the face, it is entirely an American monkey. 
Like the monkeys of America 1t has a round head, a flat face, lateral 
nostrils, and no rump callosities or cheek pouches. But it does not 
have opposable thumbs on any of the limbs, which leaves out the only 
character common to all the monkeys and false monkeys. Furthermore, 
they have claws on all the fingers except the hinder thumb (the hallux) 
which has a nail. The teeth number thirty-two, that is to say, the 
count of the monkeys of the Old World and man, but with a different 
formula; a small molar more and a large molar less. Furthermore, 
their teeth have certain insectivorous characters; the lower canine is 
small; their molars interlock a little as those of the insectivora, and 
the front ones have sharp, conical points. The lower incisors of certain 
species are pointed. 


680 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


Cuvier hesitated to make them quadrumana. For our part we should 
readily see here an introduction to the Primates, a kind of American 
lemur, a transition from the insectivora to the monkeys of the New 
World. 

Fossil monkeys have been found in America. A most remarkable 
thing is that all have thirty-six teeth, and agree with the types of that 
continent, as if the platyrrhine monkeys had always lived there. The 
highest among them is the laopithecus, which one should compare 
with the anthropoids of our continent. 

In short, one is led in America to a special series so constituted by 
its origin and its termination, viz: many insectivora, arctopitheci, 
nocturnal monkeys beginning with the saimiris, diurnal monkeys, and 
the laopitheca, Vogt, Schmidt, and Cope, have agreed on this insec- 
tivorous descent. 

The monkeys of the Old World are less arboreal than those of the 
New World, and are entirely diurnal. Most of them have rump callos- 
ities and cheek pouches. Their teeth are in general less omnivorous 
than those of man and tend by the canines to the carnivorous type; 
they are also farther apart. They are divided into the great monkeys, 
monkeys without tails, or the anthropoids, and monkeys with tails, 
which are divided into semnopitheci, cercopitheci, and cynocephali. 
The semnopitheci (from ceyvos, venerable) embrace the entelle, which 
has received that name because it is sacred in India, and plays a part in 
Aryan legends. It inhabits India, Indio-China, Borneo, and Java. 
The colobe of Abyssinia and Guinea, completes the list. The cerco- 
pitheci include the guenon, which is found only in Africa, the magot, 
which inhabits Africa and appears even on the Rock of Gibraltar, and 
the macaque, which has been observed at two points in Asia,—India, 
and Japan. As for the eynocephali, they are the large dog-muzzled 
monkeys of numerous species which inhabit almost all of Africa. 

The monkeys of the Old World are related on the one hand to the 
lemurs, and on the other to the ungulates. 

The first relationship is openly maintained by Heckel, and by Cope. 
Heckel rests entirely on the shape of their placenta, not a very con- 
vincing proof. Mr. Cope depends chiefly on the conformation of the 
teeth, which is a more solid argument. Huxley does not say that the 
monkeys descended from the Jemurs, but his description leads us in 
that direction. Vogt rejects that genealogy, as we have seen; Schmidt 
does the same. 

The second relationship (that with the ungulates) is entertained by 
Gaudry, and is the consequence of the one which he has established 
between the lemurs and the ungulates. There we had two genera, the 
adapis and the aphelotherium, that establish the communication, the 
point of junction being at the eocene origin of the perissodactyl branch 
of the ungulates. Here we have as yet but one known genus, the 
oreopithecus of Gervais, which by its dentition resembles the choero- 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 681 


potamus, belonging to the artiodactyl branch of the ungulates. In 
review we have genera of ungulates, belonging to the same stock as the 
suides or very close to it, which have marked resemblances to the mon- 
keys; they are the cebochoerus (or pig monkey) of Gervais, the acoth- 
erulum and the hyracotherium of Owen. It is worthy of remark here 
that the ungulates, going on the one hand to the lemurs and on the 
other to the monkeys, are all eocene, whilst the only real monkey lead- 
ing to the ungulates is miocene. it is also worthy of remark that in 
his general proof of the relation of the preceding species with the 
ungulates, Gaudry did not separate the lemurs from the monkeys, as if 
from a paleontological stand-point; in the ancient species the two 
were tangled together. 

Assuredly this is a slender basis upon which to establish the deriva- 
tion of monkeys and ulteriorly of man from the ungulates. For all that, 
the hypothesis has made some stir. Vogt seems disposed to accept it, 
and Schmidt concludes that chapter in his book with these words: “The 
monkeys have distinctly a double origin; the American branch has 
had ancestors in the form of insectivores, the Kuro-Asiatie branch, 
including the anthropomorphs, ancestors in the form of pachyderms. 
We are thus brought very close to the question of the pachydermal 
origin of our primitive ancestors.” 

Observe that the catarrhine monkeys are dispossessed of their affilia- 
tion with the lemurs. I declare that I can not bring myself to accept the 
idea. The lemurs are, according to my belief, the lowest of the prim- 
ates, of the quadrumana, and as such, those which bear every prob- 
ability of having produced the others. 

I will indulge in asingle reflection. Iam an anatomist, a craniologist, 
and it is far from me to throw any doubt on the great value of the 
smallest morphologic character; but Lask myself if really, underneath 
the particulars which may show the conformation of the teeth, the fin- 
gers, and the toes of the tarsus and carpus, back of the characters 
that reflect the precise kinds of alimentation and the precise way of 
locomotion, there is not something more general answering to the spe- 
cial habits, to the course of life or habitat more or less terrestrial, aquatic, 
diurnal or nocturnal, that imprints on the make-up of the organism that 
general appearance of relationship that the naturalist perceives over 
and above all those special modes of adaptation that he studies with 
so great care to find a testimony, an expression, a formula for the sup- 
port of his thought,—of his vision, if | may so express myself. Clearly 
a particular trait, a progressive variation of form, reflects the higher 
kind of influence to which I allude. The teeth, the condyle of the jaw 
and its articular cavity, the temporal fosse give very exactly the diet 
of the animal and consequently certain of its habits. The patagium of 
which we have seen the first traces among the marsupial petaurites 
allows us to establish a series leading to the bats by way of the galeo- 
pitheci. I have shown you that the genealogy of the perissodactyls, 


682 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


one of the most satisfactory that science has yet established, rests essen- 
tially on a single character, the number and degree of atropy of the fin- 
gers or toes. 

Is the form of this chosen characteristic, all? Has not nature different 
ways of attaining the same end, and cannot she divide her influence over 
the make-up of the organism without making any characters particularly 
distinctive, and even at the same time leaving present characters in 
appearance contradictory? Mice are known entirely by their way of 
progression, head, and general form; nevertheless, they are found under 
different names among the aplacentals and the placentals, among the 
rodents and among the insectivores, terrestrial, semi-aquatic, semi-flying, 
or flying altogether. It is the same with the genus squirrel; they are 
scattered in many orders under names simply modified in certain par- 
ticulars. There is among the marsupials a type of remarkable leaping 
animals, which, while entirely preserving that type, are dispersed in 
different placentary orders, because they have acquired new characters. 

Lask then, if the peculiar ways of the monkeys, if their habitat, which 
is exclusively arboreal among their better defined representatives, and 
which impresses a stamp on their entire individuality, the proportions 
of the body, the extent and situation of the articulating surfaces, the 
freeness of movement by means of segments one over the other, is not 
a sufficient incitement to establish their relationship to the lemurs and 
not at all with the ungulates. In the same way as the lemurs, which 
live a similar life, lead to certain marsupials, so these also dwell con- 
stantly in the trees. Between the ungulates and the monkeys I see 
nothing in common. I can not understand an animal with hoofs walk- 
ing on the end of the digital extremity alone, having the metatarsals 
co-ossified, drawn out and raised, the fore limbs drawn close to the 
body and moving almost in the same parallel plane; that is to say, 
adapted to a measured and rythmic terrestrial locomotion, giving birth 
to a plantigrade animal with nails, with movable fingers made so by 
being molded upon the trees in grasping the branches, with limbs 
endowed with the most dissimilar movements of abduction and adduc- 
tion; whereas it does not require any effort of imagination to conceive 
an adaptation already commenced in that way among the lemurs and 
having but to be continued and more specialized among the monkeys. 

Before starting on the relationship of the monkeys of the Old World 
with man we must look into another question. We have verified an 
intrinsic ascending series; do we find a similar one among the monkeys 
of the New World? 

Two stages of evolution appear at the start, one that relates to the 
tailed or ordinary monkeys, and the other which takes in the four 
catarrhine monkeys without tails or anthropoids. The latter show two 
degrees, the one for the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang; the 
other for the gibbon, which is the transition shown between them and 
the tailless monkeys, more particularly the semnopitheci. With the 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 683 


four it is necessary to class two fossil anthropoids, the Pliopithecus 
antiquus, noted in 1837, by E. Lartet in the miocene of Sansan (Gers), 
an animal probably near to the gibbon, and the Dryopithecus fontani, 
found by Fontan in the miocene of St. Gandens (Haute Garonne), which 
is incontestably an anthropoid, but different from the present anthro- 
poids. I have not included the laopithecus, an American monkey, which 
would be the third fossil anthropoid known. One ean also give as a 
proof of evolution in the monkey group the Mesopithecus pentilici of 
which Gaudry has unearthed the fragments of twenty-five individuals 
in the miocene of Pikermi, Greece. It does not belong in any of the 
present genera, but approaches in its skull the semnopitheci, and the 
macaque in its limbs. One can believe then that, it is an ancestor of 
both by a kind of doubling of type like that which was produced in a 
large number of marsupial types. 

Vogt, in spite of himself, gives an argument in favor of this internal 
evolution. In the arboreal life of monkeys there is gradation; the 
moukeys of America and the semnopitheci never leave the trees; the 
magots often set foot en earth and would be semi-arboreal; the ma- 
eaques andl eynocephali are terrestrial. Now is it not permissible to 
believe, seeing their perfect adaptation to life in the trees that the 
magots and with much stronger reason—the macaques and cynocephali 
correspond with an original effort in a new line, a way which continued, 
we can conceive would cause them to grow straight or to have an inter- 
mittently oblique attitude, and thus be helped to new adaptations. 

Finally, Gratiolet, at a period when he could scarcely have thought 
of the doctrine of evolution which was about to spread over the world, 
and which at all events would have been repugnant to his religious 
sentiments, put forth the idea of parallel series among the monkeys of 
our continent; for example, the semnopitheci, proper to southern Asia 
and the neighboring islands, leading to the gibbon and orang in the 
same region, particularly in the southeast; of the macaque and magot 
leading to the chimpanzee; and above all of the cynocephalus leading 
to the gorilla. Uneconsciously Gratiolet prepared the doctrine of the 
derivation of man from the monkey, siding with the polygenistic ideas 
then in favor in the school of anti-orthodoxy. 

This now leads us to our last genealogical stage, to the passage from 
the monkey to man. 

IIT.—MAN. 


I will set forth on this point the principal opinions that are current, 
or which can be maintained. 

The first is that of the learned: professor of Jena, Haeckel. He is 
monogenistic as to man, as he is monophyletic concerning each of the 
branches and branchlets of his genealogical tree. The tailless monkeys 
of the Old World constitute his nineteenth stage above the monera. 
He divides them into four branches. The fourth is the anthropoids, 
divided into two branches, an African and an Asiatic; the latter he 


684 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


divides into three. The third division gives us the pithecanthropus or 
man-monkey, which already holds itself upright, but which lacks 
speech; this is the twenty-first stage, the anthropopithecus of M. de 
Mortillet, out of which present man is derived by two branches, the 
twenty-second and last step of Heckel, one the negroes with wooly 
hair, and the other the races with straight hair, of which the Austra- 
lian would be the prototype. On the chart of the world that Heckel 
gives, the place where man would have taken rise by the acquisition of 
articulate language is put at the the southwest of India, where the 
center of the continent of Lemuria of which we have spoken would 
have been. The place is marked Paradise; it is the starting point 
from which man should have spread in all directions, some to the west 
towards Africa, others to the east towards Australasia and Melanesia, 
and others to the north towards Europe, Asia, and by Bering’s Strait 
into America. 

Huxley does not express his opinion on the immediate descent of 
man in any of his writings that I have read; he lets the reader draw 
the conclusions from the developments into which he enters, and these 
lead to an origin from the anthropoids. 

Our emivert paleontologist of the Museum, Professor Gaudry, is 
also very reserved; nevertheless he will allow us to surmise his opinion 
where he has not plainly formulated it. On our authority, the follow- 
ing series expresses-his entire thought concerning the mammals: Mar- 
supials, ungulates, lemurs, and catarrbines forming a single group, 
anthropoids, and man. The anthropoid that he points out is the dry- 
opithecus. Were is what he says: “The dryopithecus was a monkey 
of a high order; it resembled man in many particulars; its height 
must have been nearly the same; in its dentition it recalls the char- 
acters of the teeth of the Australian.” (Fossil Primates, page 236.) 
Further on he adds: “If then it comes to be proven that the chalk 
flints of Beauce, discovered at Thenay by the Abbe Bourgeois, have 
been dressed, the most natural idea that presents itself to my mind 
would be that they have been worked by the dryopithecus (page 241). 
Unfortunately we possess but a lower jaw and a humerus of this 
animal.” 

Another paleontologist, the American Professor, Cope, has an opin- 
ion of his own. Man did not descend from monkeys, anthropoids, or 
the rest; he descended directly from the lemurs. We have already 
said that the condylarthri, the original stock of almost all the orders 
of mammals, gave birth notably to a branch that was divided into 
three; one was principally represented by the genus anaptomorphus, 
and was divided in its turn into two twigs, one of which produced the 
monkeys and anthropoids, and the other which lead directly to man. 
Here are his principal reasons. They show us on what slender basis 
our genealogies sometimes rest. 

Man has, as a general rule, four tubercles or cusps on the upper 
molars. The monkeys and the anthropoids have in general five tuber- 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 685 


cles. The present lemurs, the fossil necrolemur, and the anaphtomor- 
phus have in general three tubercles. Bat in man three tubercles 
have been noticed ; Cope has published a long list of their degrees of 
frequency among the races. It is a reversion towards the lemurs, and 
not towards the monkeys and anthropoids. 

The present opinion of Vogt is radically different; but as the learned 
professor of Geneva has held at different times opinions almost diamet- 
rically opposed and: has played an important part in the question, we 
will stop longer with him. His first way of looking at it was formulated 
in his course of 1862-64, before Darwin had formally applied to man his 
doctrine of the derivation of species one from the other by the mechan- 
ism of selection, and before Heckel had completed his course of 1867- 
68, in which he showed for the first time his complete genealogical tree. 
His second opinion is known to me by his magnificent book on the Mam- 
mals, appearing in 1883 in France. 

First opinion: ‘ Shall we admit scientifically the origin of the type 
of man from that of the monkey ?” says Vogt cn page 617 of his ‘ Lee- 
tureson Man.” ‘I have put before your eyes ail the material known up 
to the present able to contribute to the knowledge of the bridge which 
shall span the abyss separating man from the monkeys.” (I will give 
the substance of his remarks): I have shown to you the three great 
anthropomorphic monkeys on the one hand and the lower human races 
on the other forming uninterrupted series; the most ancient cranial 
forms approach to the simian type; furthermore the brain of a micro- 
cephal re-produces, as if for our instruction, that which should be the 
primitive brain, intermediate between that of man and that of the 
monkeys - - - the descent of man from the monkeys by derivation. 
But it does not follow that the descent operated in a single way. It 
has secondary types among the human races as it has them among 
the monkeys; but prolong the parallel series of Gratiolet and we have 
the multiple stocks of man. 

Here is Vogt’s textual conclusion: ‘The summary of these facts far 
from indicating a common stock, a unique intermediate form between 
monkey and man, shows us on the contrary numerous parallel series 
which must have developed (more or less circumscribed) from as many 
parallel series of monkeys” (page 626). 

Second opinion: Less clear to my mind than the first. On the one 
hand Vogt maintains his former ideas of the polygenistic simian descent, 
on the other hand he reverses them by formally denying that man de- 
scended fromthe monkey. The following will better show the inciting 
causes which preceded his conclusion. 

The monkeys to-day as in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs have 
always been settled in tropical climates, and are essentially arboreal ; 
they leap from branch to branch and do not go far afield,—even those 
that are terricoles and clamber over the rocks. Between the monkeys 
of the Old and New Worlds the separation has been complete through 


686 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


all time ; the two hemispheres have not been united since the Miocene 
at least, perhaps since the Hocene; the monkeys which cannot live in 
cold countries would be very wary of approaching Bering’s Straits. 
The monkeys are little modified then throughout the Old World where 
they are more arboreal. Since the Miocene, one recognizes among them 
types high as the laopithecus of America and the dryopithecus of Europe; 
they have not evolved since. Theexample of the mesopithecus of Gaudry 
is the only one which we can cite in favor of any evolution whatever. 

Nevertheless Vogt speaks here of a tendency toward a superior or- 
ganization like that of man, of a similarity that is produced in different 
ways; the gorilla resembles man more in its limbs, the orang in its 
brain and the chimpanzee in its skull and teeth. ‘ No fact,” says he, 
“ will permit us to admit of an unique line of evoiution toward the hu- 
man organization.” Unique, perhaps! but what if multiple? Tor it 
would always be a descent from monkeys. 

Passing then to the fossil species more particularly, Vogt insists on his 
proposition that there has not operated ‘any evolution of the simian type 
through the geologic periods;” that we can not “signalize any progress 
of that type since the time ef the Upper Miocene.” With the exception 
of one argument of his which I reserve for another place, that is all. 

Very well, [must say that I see nothing to lead me to that conclu- 
sion. As I have shown just now that there is as much probability of an 
evolution among monkeys as in any other zoological group. No series 
of species leads, it is true, positively from any kind of monkey to any 
kindof man, But in paleontology what they show asa series of species, 
is usually but a series of characters. Now comparative anthropology 
shows us a multitude of characters forming series, going from the 
monkeys to man, by the way of or not of the anthropoids. 

Vogt finishes with an argument which has a good deal of weight. 
‘The infant monkey resembles man more than does the adult monkey, 
age alone emphasizes their characteristic differences by the evolution of 
the jaws, the cranial ridges ete.” And he thus concludes: “From all 
these facts follows the conclusion that man can not be put into direct 
generic relation either with the existing monkeys or with any known 
fossil monkeys, but that both (man and monkey) have risen from a 
common stock of which the characters show themselves in youth more 
related to the stock than in the adult being.” 

A priori, the latter argument of Vogt is very correct. Every-one has 
remarked the contrast between the cranium of the young orang and the 
adult orang, of the young gorilla and the adult gorilla. Its value rests 
on the known principle of the parallelism of ontogeny and phylogeny 
which may be expressed thus: The forms of the young subject re-produce 
the forms that have existed among its ancestors and thus indicate their 
relationship. In other words, the character in progress, or new,—that 
which should relate a species to a following species, exists in the adult 
at his highest degree, whilst the character which belongs to the ances- 
tors descends to the infant, though it disappears in the adult; for ex- 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 687 


ample, the exclusively pulmonary respiration in the adult salamander 
and the branchial respiration in the young salamander. 

But one should separate that which is produced after birth and which 
is a matter of growth of the body, or of physiological development by 
the course of age in the individual life, from that which is an ancestral 
resemblance depending on embrylogy and intra-uterine ontogeny. In 
the young man as in the young monkey the skull is rounded in every 
sense, and smocth, being almost without asperities. The temporal 
ridges and sagittal ridge (which Jatter is but the result of elevation 
and pressure up against—causing ossification on the median line of the 
former), are ridges developed with age, especially in the male sex, and 
are proportionate with the strength of the muscles which are inserted 
onthem. They reach considerable development among the monkeys in 
the species which have powerfu] masticatory apparatus and enormous 
temporal fossie. 

The supercilliary arches bulge out in man with age as in the monkeys, 
not taking so remarkable an aspect among the latter, because they have 
a more ample frontal sinus; asecoudary character. The projecting jaw 
in both only becomes marked with age. The human child has a small 
orthognathous face, hidden under the skull, forming an enormous bowl 
as in the orang; the face grows, elongates and becomes more progna- 
thous partly by simple increase of volume, whilst the skull diminishes 
relatively, partly because the molars of the second dentition have need 
of room and push forward. Among the monkeys this feature is very 
marked, but it has some distinctive characters in man. 

Later, I will sum up to show how the agreements between the base 
of the skull and the base of the face follow the naso- basilar plane, chang- 
ing proportionately in the adult compared with the child, the angles 
that craniomentry brings out in that part. The facial angle cited, since 
it enjoys a certain popularity, is greaterin the young monkey as in the 
young of man. The infantile forms of the young monkey of which Vogt 
speaks, recur in part in the adult woman. They characterize the same 
way the male sex of certain races which writers have classed for that 
reason as infantile, such as the Andamatese. 

There is a character implied in the argument of Vogt that seems to 
come very much to the support of his theory. It is that the young 
monkey, the orang, or the chimpanzee, for example, is more intelligent 
than the adult. Then ought not one to say that it has descended from 
an ancestor more intelligent than the present monkeys? But, greater 
intelligence is a rule among all young animals, as well as in man, if 
circumstances are taken into account. At that time the brain is rela- 
tively much larger than the body, it is virgin and every way more im- 
pressionable, it increases excessively andonly asks that it absorb, that 
it work up, that it put to profit the blood it receives. What is more 
marvellous than the way our children learn to speak, write and read? 
Are we adults capable of the burden of quick memory required for the 
mass of words and ideas that they pick up at that time? Young Aus- 


688 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


tralians are equal to Europeans in the schools, they acquire language 
with an extraordinary facility ; but the period comes, their savage na- 
ture returns, they drop their clothes, rejoin their kind and manifest no 
more intelligence than if they had never been among the whites. If at 
our age we appear so capacious, intellectually speaking, it is that we 
have accumulated for numerous years, that we reason from habit, in 
great measure automatically ; we are constantly excited by the strug- 
gle for existence, by the society of our equals, by the use of language 
which the monkeys do not possess. 

The last argument of Vogt, that the young monkey is more human 
than the adult, does not therefore convince me. 

I have indicated the different current opinions, positive and negative, 
on the derivation of man. Are there not others, possible ? 

Although I have addressed many objections to Vogt, the very remark- 
able uncertainty on the part of a man who does not fear habitually to 
deliver himself, makes me reflect. I ask first what should be that com- 
mon stock of the monkeys and man of which he speaks, and which is not 
the lemurs (Cope’s theory)? Although Vogt leaves his reader in sus- 
pense, it is easy to discover his tendency. That stock started from 
some point inthe ungulates. But if itis legitimate when one considers 
the present species the evolved extremities of the branch, it is less 
when one ascends towards the trunk before the specialization of the 
ungulates, particularly in that which concerns the four limbs, pushed 
to the extreme in two different ways, among the equide and among 
the ruminants. After that if must be said that nothing is impossible 
in nature, but the less probable things, when one sees their work, are 
attained by the most unforeseen processes and the veriest by-ways, 
That which selection by the hand of man gave to pigeons, a question 
so well studied by Darwin, is done again in nature by the hand of 
chance, the laws and mechanism of which escape us, and which we 
eall by that name for just that reason. 

There is an objection to the descent of man from the monkey that I 
have made, and which goes to the support of Vogt’s thesis. As I have 
said previously, the primordial type of mammifers—( which it is needless 
here to separate into placental and aplacental, all the placentals have 
certainly been aplacentals at their origin and the transition was pro- 
duced insensibly without geology being able to establish at what time 
this form is aplacental and that analogous one placental)—the primitive 
type, I say, is with four limbs having already much that one ean recog- 
nize, their destination already written, the four set apart for locomo- 
tion, but the anterior ones so as to serve moreover as organs of prehen- 
sion and the posterior ones so as to serve essentially as organs of support 
and locomotion. This double specialization goes back to the reptiles, not 
to speak of the dinosaurs, among which itis so marked. Some amphib 
ians show traces of if. Among the most ancient mammals known inall 
their parts,as the Phenacodus primevus of the Lower Kocene of the Ter- 
tiary of Wyoming Territory, in the United States, the fore limb is well 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 689 


marked as an organ of prehension and the hind limb as an organ of 
travel. In the first the humerus articulates within a narrow glenoid 
fossa at the upper external angle of the scapula in such a manner as to 
permit the most extensive movements in divers ways, the radius is 
movable over the ulna, around which it accomplishes the turning move- 
ment made necessary by the function of the hand ; the five fingers are 
free, the thumb is more turned on its axis to admit of opposition ; the 
hand is continued on a straight line with the fore-arm. In the leg the 
femur, as with us, is united to a massive pelvis; the articular surfaces 
of the knee, the knee-cap, the two immovable bones of the leg are 
entirely such as arise from the function of locomotion exclusively; the 
foot is plantigrade, with salient heel, with digits close together, and it is 
articulated perpendicularly by its arch to the leg,asin man. In another 
contemporaneous animal and of the same deposit, the coryphodon, (of 
which I can only judge by the foot and hand figured, but entire,) these 
two organs show more resemblance, the foot looks a little like a hand, 
but there is nevertheless a differentiation. But in man that specializa- 
tion or differentiation has attained its maximum; no other animal is 
found in the same rank. Among the birds the upper limb has become 
a wing, a function of locomotion. In man alone the upper limb is 
exclusively a hand, the lower limb combines in itself all the locomotive 
function that it divided formerly within certain limits with the anterior, 
but which nevertheless always retained its essential attribute. It 
seems then that man should be the direct continuation of the first 
Eocene mammals, if not of the marsupials which preceded them, the 
completion of a type begun, and it seems scarcely logical that his trans- 
formation should be accomplished at the expense of a branch that 
seems collateral. The monkeys are produced by the fact of the adapt- 
ation of the lower limb to an arboreal life; the upper limb remained 
as it was; it is a deviation of the axis of evolution, in some way, a devi- 
ation from the primitive type. On the one hand the ungulates are 
detached from the primitive type by a metamorphosis of the anterior 
limb designed for prehension, into a limb designed for running, and by 
a harmonious perfection of the four limbs in the same way; on the 
other the carnivores, whose four extremities, also the teeth, the jaw, 
and the entire skull put themselves into harmony with the needs to 
which they are subject and the mode of life and diet adopted ; also the 
monkeys, who avoid the earth usurped partly by the swift herbivores, 
partly by the sanguinary carnivores, are refugees in the trees, where 
nevertheless they have prospered ; they are supported there and ¢on- 
sequently they have appropriated their extremities to that special life. 
Man being born from the monkeys by the disappearance of the acci- 
dental adaptation of the hinder limb to the function normally belonging 
to the fore limb, that is to say, returning to their primitive archi- 
ancestral type, such a thing would appear strange! Assuredly such a 
thing may be; for nature, as I have said, does not take the shortest 
road. From the carnivora, which are terrestrial animals, have descended 
Hf. Mis. 224--—44 


690 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


in remote times a multitude of animals with fins called the pinnipeds. 
By a retrogression the latter have seen their limbs atrophy, come close 
to the body in the form of a paddle, and play the part of fins. But the 
most probable is generally the simplest. This bend in the road that 
would have determined the evolution of man, or rather of one of his 
precursors, is useless. It seems more rational to conceive of the per- 
fect biped ane biman type descending from a type that we have seen 
already sketched in the Eocene times and constituting the fundamental 
original type of the mammals. It would have been necessary then to 
consider the branch of the monkeys as a collateral branch in which evo- 
lution would not have surpassed that which the present and fossil an- 
thropoids show us. 

This hypothesis would resolve certain difficulties which seem unsur- 
mountable in anthropology. The most inferior human races known to 
us are So near to the superior races in contrast to the distance which 
separates them from the monkeys, that we can consider the different 
men as forming an entirely relatively homogeneous, uniform species as 
M. de Quatrefages maintains. The most ancient human race, that of 
Neanderthal, is in the same position, whatever they say of it. His cra- 
nial capacity, that is to say, that feature which really characterizes man, 
is indeed considerable and higher than the most inferior of the present 
human races, such as the Australians. Between the lowest mean of the 
vapacity of the skull of the human races, which I fix at 1100 cubie centi- 
meters in round numbers, and the mean of the highest anthropoid spe- 
cies, which I put at 530 cubic centimeters,* the distance is prodigious 


y F rom a the pueniete deriguies fer ee fo bei ae com all he Seana capaci- 
ties utilizable in the series of the vertebrates, in dwelling on the two limits of the 
series, I have made out for the latter two schematic tables showing the differences that 
are presented; first, the general means of man and the anthropoids (Gibbons left 
out); second, their particular means, the lowest in the human races, the highest 
among the anthropoids; third, the extreme individual cases, the weakest normal in 
man, the strongest in the anthropoids. Combining these two tables, that is to say, 
associating the products furnished by the weight with that furnished by the capacity. 
1 then drew up a third schematic table which gives me an intermediate value, that I 
have designated under the name of cerebral volume. 

Here are the results : 

(1) The distance between the general mean of humanity and the general mean of 
the anthropoids (Gibbon always excepted) is 70 to 100 of the first of these means ; or 
the mean normal brain of man is two and one-half times larger than the mean brain 
of the anthropoids. 

(2) The distance from man to the anthropoid in the general means being taken as 
100, the distance between the particular means, the lowest observed in the human 
races and highest found in the three genera of anthropoids is 48, and the distance be- 
tween the extreme individual cases the closest on the one side and the other is 26. 

It is evident that gradually as new material is gathered these figures may vary and 
that being an intermediate value between two different data, the one expressed in 
grammes and the other in Gubic centimeters hence they have not an absolute value. 
But such as they are they permit us to associate the data which, separate are frequently 
insufficient, and throw clearly into relief that gulf that at the present time separates 
man and the anthropoids (Orang, Chimpanzee, and Gorilla), 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 69L 


when one compares it to the trifling mean differences, one notices be- 
tween the species, genera, families, and orders of animals coming after, 
and aiso when one takes into account the comparison of this volume of 
the brain with that of the body. In order that this cerebral transfor- 
mation should be accomplished it has required an unheard of time, 
defying all our conjectures, 

Pliocene man has probably been found in America. Miocene man is 
incontestable, though we have not been able to prove it clearly. But. 
in the miocene the monkeys are seen for the first time with their pres- 
ent characters. Man would then have established himself since their 
appearance. Would evolution have chosen an animal whose posterior 
member was organized for an arboreal life, was at the same time 
foot and hand, when by the side of and existing prior to it were ani- 
mals whose organization presented part of the wished-for characters ? 
It is scarcely probable, and considering (I repeat), the number of inter- 
mediate species which have been necessary before arriving to the pres- 
ent constitution of our brain, it seems probable that the introduction 
of man‘had taken place sooner in the eocene epoch by means of one of 
the condylarthres having already the principal morphlogical characters 
of man, those relating to the brain excepted, that Cope shows us served 
as intermediary to the marsupials and the most of the present mammals. 
There the differentiations were made according with the different modes 
of life, which have given on one side, the branch of the ungulates, the 
branch of the carnivores and many others that have disappeared with- 
out founding a stock, on the other side, the branch of the quadrumana, 
and the human branch. 

The human type, that is the cerebral type before culminating in the 
astonishing development which we perceive and beside which all the 
rest is but accessory had then a proper stock, a stock that had been 
the most central continuation of the general primitive trunk of the 
mammals! In the present state of science they usually compare the 
make up of the mammals to a tree ramified into numerous main branches, 
each of these terminating in efflorescences higher in growth. These 
are our better specialized groups, viz: the equidie and the ruminantia 
among the ungulates, the lion or the dog among the carnivores, ete. 
In the new system, the comparison with a growing tree of which the 
central axis sends out the lateral branches would be more correct, the 
central stock continues to elevate itself as the Lombardy poplar, and 
bears at its summit, man. 

IV.—CONCLUSION. 


We have examined the genealogy proposed by Heckel, and the sys- 
tems proposed to replace it. Whether the vertebrates have had for 
their starting point a worm with a soft body destitute of a skeleton, or 
on the contrary, a crustacean possessing an entirely exterior skeleton, 
we have previously concluded that our genealogy has passed by the ga- 
noid fishes to join with those galled by paleontologists labyrinthodonts, 


692 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


which I have often designated by the name of middle vertebrates. There 
the current has carried us along not in the direction of the mammals, 
which however already appeared in the triassic epoch, but plainly to 
the kingdom of the reptiles where we have to deal with the dinosaurian 
origin of the monotremes or of some analogous group. We have found 
the placental marsupials (designated by us under the name of con- 
firmed proto-mammals), and we have shown whence with certain prox- 
imate reservations (the whales for instance), all the present placental 
mammals have issued, and consequently our race. But here the prob- 
lem is complicated. Until that point, our origin appeared clear—save at 
the very origin of mammals. The lemurs are already a cause of embar- 
rassment. On the immediate descent of man, the uncertainties in- 
crease, Many opinions each expressed by illustrious authorities are 
before us; sometimes making objection, sometimes making confirmatory 
arguments. 

There are only two doctrines to consider; one that makes man come 
from the primary trunk of the mammals in a direct line and without 
intermediate orders, not from a mathematical point, but from that 
confused mass succeeding the marsupials in which the differentiations 
are undecided and tend toward the ungulates, or toward man; the 
other which accepts the branch or order of the primates with all its 
consequences, the lemurs or pro-simians at the base, the monkeys or 
simians following, and man all alone at the summit. 

After a careful balancing of the two, I confess that I incline toward 
the latter solution, and conclude for our descent from the monkey. In 
my mind one consideration out-ranks all others. The type of cerebral 
convolutions among all primates where it is well characterized in its 
ascending evolution, is that of man; it varies from the cebian, to 
the pithecus, from the latter to the anthropoid, and from it to man, 
only in degree.* The extreme development of the simian type of con- 
volutions and the abrupt increase of the volume of the brain in going 
from the anthropoid to man on which I have laid so much stress are 
the two fundamental anatomical characters of man, histological exam- 
ination being left out of consideration.t 

If on the one hand we find as details that the foot of munkeys has 
a thumb more or less opposable; that the latter should be more or less 
ee to their arboreal life; that it might seem strange to us that 


* See P. Broca, ‘‘Anatomie comparée des aie eérébrales. 2 ane D Me 
thropologie, 1878, page 385. 

t According to M. Chudzinski, so competent on this subject, not only the type of 
the convolutions but to an equal degree the muscular and visceral anomalies show- 
ing themselves in man plead in favor of simian descent. Certain muscular anomalies 
give likewise a reversion towards the state of climbers or tree dwellers (see Chud- 
zinski’s memoir in the Revue d’ Anthropologie, ‘On the muscular and visceral varia- 
tions among the races” and in the bulletins of the Societe’ d’Anthropologie, “An 
anomaly observed in the Orang).” See also his great work crowned by the Institute, 
‘On the comparative anatomy of the convolutions,” that appeared in 1878 and of 
which the Rerue q’ Anthropalogie has given a review in the volume of 1879, page 707, 


THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 693 


the human line after having seen its foot partly transformed should take 
again the original foot of its remoter ancestors ; on the other hand, we 
have the details of the cranial and facial characters that result in man 
from the great volume of his brain, the atrophy of the nasal fosse and 
of their numerous posterior cayities (posterior nares) which has led to 
the disappearance of the muzzle, the perfection (in compensation) of 
touch and sight, which with the modifications that necessitated the 
equilibrium of the skull, have raised him up to the bipedal attitude, and 
have thus evolved an entirely new series of differential characters. 
That which rules all is the already human cerebral type, but in a rudi- 
mentary state among the monkeys, as it is the same type, amplified and 
perfected in man. . 

All the organs, foot, hand, teeth, thorax, pelvis, and digestive tract, 
evolved among the mammals, have been transformed capriciously, have 
taken different ways, and are specialized in different senses, sometimes 
in the same line. One only remained stationary, or little varied; that 
is the brain, except in man. In him or one of his ancestors among the 
primates it has taken its rise, it has grown and developed, bending 
everything to its needs, subordinating everything to its own life, the 
skull, the face, the whole body, putting on everthing its imprint. The 
fish swims, the ruminant browses, the carnivore seeks his prey, the 
monkey is arboreal, man thinks. Everything in him gravitates around 
that characteristic. The philosopher has said truly: ‘ Man is an intel- 
ligence served by organs.” 

We have descended then from the monkeys, or at least everything 
appears as if we had descended from them. From what monkey known 
or unknown? I do not know; no one of the present Anthropoids has 
assuredly been our ancestor. From several monkeys or a single one? 
I do not know; and also do not know yet if I am monogenistie or poly- 
genistic. In the study of the human races I see arguments for and 
against both systems. Until further knowledge is arrived at, we must 
reserve our opinion. 

. We must see what arguments comparative craniology will bring in 
favor of or against this or that genealogy. At that time alone will we 
be permitted to determine on the place that anthropology gives to man 
in nature. Whatever may be the result arrived at, that place—believe 
me—will be as enviable as you could desire. At the origin, towards 
the beginning of the Miocene perhaps, monkey and man were but one; 
a division takes place, the fissure has grown, has become a crevasse; 
later an abyss, with talus more and more scarped, like the canons of the 
Colorado ;—an abyss which our friend, Abel Hovelacque, does not wish 
to see, but that Messrs. Vogt and Huxley (little suspected of orthodoxy) 
admit ;—an abyss that widens every day under our eyes, though permit- 
ting still the recovery of those lost paths going from one side to the other, 
(of which Huxley speaks in his preface to his book on ‘The Place of Man 
in Nature,”) but which sooner or later will become impassable by the 


694 THE LAST STEPS IN THE GENEALOGY OF MAN. 


disappearance on the one hand of the last of the present anthropoids, 
and on the other of the lowest human races, and will leave man isolated 
and majestic, proclaiming himself with pride the king of creation. 

Let us not blush then for our ancestors; we have been monkeys, as 
those formerly have been reptiles, fish, nay worms or crustaceans. 
Butit was along time ago, and we have grown ;—evolution I say has been 
very prodigal of its favors in the struggle for existence, she has given 
all the advantages to us. Our rivals of yesterday are at our mercy, we 
let those perish that displease us, we create new species of which we 
have need. We reign over the whole planet, fashioning things to our 
will, piercing the isthmus, exploiting the seas, searching the air, an- 
nulling distance, wringing from the earth her secular secrets. Our 
aspirations, our thoughts, our actions have no bounds. Everything 
pivots around us. What is there to desire more? That the future will 
perhaps reveal. Evolution has not said its last word. 





THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


By HERBER?’ B,. ADAms, Pu. D. 


This is an era of educational endowment upon a generous seale. A 
recently published report of Col. N. H.R. Dawson, Commissioner of 
Education, shows that the sum total of noteworthy educational gifts 
during the year 1886-87, was nearly $5,000,000. More than two thirds 
of the entire amount were distributed among nine institutions, four of 
them collegiate, one academic, three professional, and one technical. 
The institution most highly favored was Harvard University, which 
received from individual sources nearly $1,000,000. From one man 
caine a legacy ot $630,000. Haverford College, supported by the Society 
of Friends, received $700,000 in one bequest. Of thie two hundred and 
nine gifts recorded by the Commissioner of Education, twenty-five 
represent $50,000 or more; seventy-two were sums between $5,000 and 
$49,000; and one hundred and twelve were suins less than $5,000. The 
most striking fact in all this record of philanthropy is that such a large 
proportion of the entire amount, fully two-thirds, was given to higher 
education. The year 1888 is richer than 1887 in individual bounty to 
institutions of learning. Nearly ten millions were given by three per- 
sons for the encouragement of manual training, but there are rumors 
of even larger benefactions for university endowment. The collective 
returns for 1888 are not yet published, but it is certain that the past 
year will surpass any hitherto recorded in the annals of American edu 
cation. 

Whatever forms modern philanthropy may take, one thing is certain, 
universities are not likely to be forgotten. At the founding of the new 
Catholic University in Washington, Bishop Spalding said that a univer- 
sity “is an institution which, better than anything else, symbolizes the 
aim and tendencies of modern life.’ Will not broad-minded people 
recognize the truth of this statement and strengthen existing founda- 
tions? Senator Hoar, at the laying of the corner-stone of the new Clark 
University, said, ‘The university is the bright consummate flower of 
democracy.” Will not American patriots cultivate endowments made 





* An address delivered before the Department of Superintendence of the National 
Educational Association, in the National Museum, Washington, D. C., March 8, 1889, 
695 


696 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION, 


by the generosity of sons of the people? Are the noble gifts of Johns 
Hopkins for the advancement of learning, and the relief of suffering, 
likely to be forgotten by present or future generations? All history 
testifies to the gradual up-building of universities by individual bene- 
factions. The development of European and American colleges is one 
long record of private philanthropy. Private philanthropy will do all it 
can, but public interest demands that the State should do its part. 
The encouragement of higher education by government aid, in one 
form or another, has been a recognized principle of public policy in 
every enlightened state, whether ancient or modern. Older than the 
recognition of popular education as a public duty was the endowment 
of colleges and universities at public expense for the education of men 
who were to serve church or state. It is a mistake to think that the 
foundation of institutions by princes or prelates was a purely private 
matter. The money or the land always came from the people in one 
form or another, and the benefit of endowment returned to the people 
sooner or later. Popular education is the historic outgrowth of the 
higher education in every civilized country, and those countries which 
have done most for universities have the best schools for the people. 
It is an error to suppose that endowment of the higher learning is con- 
fined to Roman and German emperors, French and English kings. 
Crowned and uncrowned republics have pursued the same public pol- 
icy. Indeed, the liberality of government towards art and science 
always increases with the progress of liberal ideas, even in monarchical 
countries like Germany, where, since the introduction of parliamentary 
government, appropriations for university education have greatly in- 
creased. The total cost of maintaining the Prussian universities, as 
shown by the reports of our Commissioner of Education is about 
$2,000,000 a year. Only about 9 per cent. of this enormous outlay is 
met by tuition fees. The state contributes all the rest in endowments 
and appropriations. Prussia now gives to her universities more than 
twice as much as she did before the Franco-Prussian war, as shown by 
the report of our commissioner at the Paris Exposition in 1867. In 
that year France gave her faculties of higher instruction only $765,764. 
After the overthrow of the second empire, popular appropriations for 
higher education greatly increased. The budget for 1888, shows that 
France now appropriates for college and university faculties $2,330,000 
a year, more than three times the amount granted under Louis Napo- 
leon. Despotism is never so favorable to the highest interests of edu- 
cation as is popular government. Louis XIv, and Frederick the Great, 
according to the authority of Roscher, the political economist, regarded 
universities, like custom-houses, as sources of revenue, for the main- 
tenance of absolute forms of government. The world is growing 
weary of royal munificence when exercised at the people’s expense, 
with royal grants based upon popular benevolence and redounding to 
the glory and profit of the prince rather than to the folk upholding his 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 697 


throne. Since the introduetion of constitutional government into 
European states, representatives of the people are taking the power of 
educational endowment and subsidy into their own hands, and right: 
royally do they discharge their duty. ‘Fhe little Republic of Switzer- 
land, with a population of only three millions, supports four state uni. 
versities, having altogether more than three hundred instructors. Its 
cantons, corresponding upon @ small scale to our States, expend over 
$300,000 a year upon the higher education. The federal government 
of Switzerland appropriated, in 1887, $115,000 to the polytechnicum 
and $56,000:in subsidies to eantonal schools, industrial and agricultural; 
besides bestowing regularly $10,000 a year for the encouragement of 
Swiss art. Theaggregate revenues of the colleges of Oxford, based 
upon innumerable historic endowments, public and private, now amount: 
to fully $2,000,000 a year. The income of the Cambridge college en- 
dowments. amounts to quite as much. But all this, it may be said, 
represents the policy of foreign lands. Let us look at home, and see 
what is done in our own American commonwealths. 

Maryland began, her educational history by paying a tobacco tax for’ 
the support of William and Mary College, in Virginia. This colonial! 
generosity to another State has an historic parallel in the appropriation: 
of a township of land by Vermont for the encouragement of Dartmouth 
College in the State of New Hampshire, and in the corn that was sent. 
from New Haven to the support of young Harvard. In colonial days 
Maryland had her county schools, some of them classical, like King: 
William’s School. at Annapolis. All were founded by authority of the: 
colonial government and supported by aid from the public treasury... 
The principle of state aid to higher education runs throughout the: 
entire history of both State and colony. 

The development of Maryland colleges began on the Eastern Shore: 
In the year 1782, representatives.of Kent County presented’ a petition 
to, the legislature, saying that they had a flourishing school at Ches- 
tertown, their county seat, and wished to enlarge it into a college. The: 
general assembly not only authorized the establishment of Washing: 
ton College, which still exists, but in consideration of the fact that: 
large sums of money had been subscribed for the institution by public- 
spirited citizens of the Eastern Shore, resolved that ‘ such exertions for 
the public. good merited the approbation of the legislature: and’ ought. 
to,receive public encouragement and assistance.” These are the very 
words of representatives of Maryland more than a century ago. Their 
deeds were.even better than their words. They voted that £1,250) a 
year shoud be paid from the peblic treasury for the support of Wash- 
ington College. That vote was passed just after the conclusion of a 
long war with England, when the State and indeed the whole country 
lay impoverished. Toward raising this government subsidy for higher 
education, the legislature granted all public receipts from marriage 
licenses, from liquor licenses, fines for breaking the Sabbath, and alt 


698 THE STATE AND. HIGHER EDUCATION. 


similar fines and licenses that were likely to be constant sources of 
revenue. 

The founding of St. John’s College occurred two years later, in 1784. 
This act by the State of Maryland was also in response to a local de- 
mand. It was urged by the citizens of Annapolis that King Williams 
School, although a classical institution, was inadequate to meet the 
educational demands of the age. It was very properly added that the 
Western Shore, as well as the Eastern, deserved to have a college; and so 
St. John’s was established as the counterpoise of Washington College. 
The legislative act is almost identical with that establishing the earlier 
institution, although the appropriation was larger. The legislature 
gave St. John’s 4 acres of good land for college grounds, and building 
sites and an annual appropriation of £1,750 current money. This sum, 
in the words of the original act, was to ‘““be annually and forever here- 
after given and granted as a donation by the public to the use of said 
college on the Western Shore to be applied by the visitors and gov- 
ernors of the said college for the payment of salaries to the principal, 
professors, and tutors of said college.” The establishment was to be- 
absolutely unsectarian. Students of any denomination were to be ad- 
mitted without religious or civil tests. Not even compulsory attend- 
ance upon college prayers was required so modern were the legisla- 
tive fathers of Maryland. 

The next step in the higher educational history of Maryland was the 
federation of the two colleges into the University of Maryland. The 
two boards of visitors and two representatives of each faculty consti- 
tuted the University Convocation, presided over at Annapolis on com- 
mencement day by the governor of the State, who was ex officio chan- 
cellor of the University. One of the college presidents acted as vice- 
chancellor. Thus more than a century ago Maryland inaugurated a 
State system of higher education which, if it had been sustained, would 
have given unity and vigor to her academic life. But unfortunately, 
in 1794, the legislature yielded to county prejudices and withdrew £500 
from the £1,250 annually granted to Washington College and began to 
establish a fund, the income of which was distributed among various 
county academies on both shores of the Chesapeake. This was the 
origin of the subsidies still given in one form or another to secondary 
institutions in the State of Maryland. In 1805, the remaining appro- 
priation of £750 belonging to Washington College and the entire £1,750 
thitherto granted to St. John’s College were withheld for the avowed 
purpose of “disseminating learning in the different counties of the 
State.” 

For six years there was a famine in the land as regards the support of 
higher education. At last in 1811, the legislature resumed appropriations 
to St. John’s College. Realizing that it had misappropriated to local 
uses subsidies “‘ granted annually forever” to St. John’s, the legislature 
endeavored for many years to compromise by giving a smaller allowance. 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 699 


The cotirt of appeals ultimately decided in 1859 that such a re-adjustment 
was a breach of contract, and that the college could collect what was due 
it from the State. There is perhaps some excuse for the economy of 
Maryland in its treatment of St. John’s College, namely, ‘‘hard times.” 
A State that went through the financial crises of 1857 and 1857 without 
repudiation deserves some historical credit. St. John’s College was sus- 
pended during the civil war, but appropriations were renewed in 1866, 
and have been continued, with slight variations, down to the present 
day. The amount granted in 1885 was $3,000 for the institution itself 
and $5,200 for boarding twenty-five students, one from each senatorial 
district. 

The first University of Maryland ceased to exist by the act of 1805, 
which withheld appropriations from St. John’s College; but in the year 
1812, a new University of Maryland was instituted by authority of the 
State, in the city of Baltimore. The proceeds of a State lottery were 
granted to the institution for a library, scientific apparatus, botanical 
garden, ete. The corporation was to have a full equipment of four 
faculties, representing the arts, law, medicine, and theology. Two 
faculties of law and medicine still perpetuate the spirit of the founders 
of the University of Maryland, and are honorable and distinguished 
promoters of professional education. It cannot be said that they were 
ever treated with adequate generosity, though they actually received 
from State lotteries between $30,000 and $40,000, and were never taxed. 

The present generation has not been so generous to the cause of higher 
education as were the fathers of the State, but nevertheless Maryland, 
in her entire history, has appropriated something over $650,000 for what 
may be strictly called college education, not counting $60,000 given to 
the State Agricultural College, nor $40,000 proceeding fiom State lot- 
teries. While this collective bounty is small, it is money given by vol- 
untary taxation and not taken from institutions of learning. Most of 
the amount was raised in times when the State was poor or heavily in 
debt, and when public money came with difficulty. Moreover this finan- 
cial generosity of Maryland establishes the principle for which we are 
contending, namely, that this State, like all other enlightened States in 
the world, has recognized the duty of support to higher and unsectarian 
institutions of learning. She has at different times appropriated $650,- 
000 to colleges and to the University of Maryland from her public treas- 
ury. 

Let us now inquire what other States in the American Union have 
done for higher education, always recognizing of course great inequality 
in State population and in the taxable basis. 

Virginia, whose earliest educational foundations Maryland helped to 
lay by her tobacco tax, has expended upon colleges and university over 
$2,000,000, during her history as a State, not counting the colonial 
bounty to William and Mary. Since the war, Virginia has given her 
university $40,000 a year. Before the war, she gave $15,000 a year, 


700 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


The original university-establishment cost the State about $400,000. 
The people of Virginia are proud of their university, and it would be 
suicide for any political party to cut off the yearly appropriation from 
the institution founded by Thomas Jefferson. The State of South Caro. 
lina was Jefferson’s model for generous appropriations to the cause of 
sound learning. She has given $2,800,000 to that object. Georgia has 
given $938,000 for the same purpose. Louisiana has given $794,000 
from her State treasury for the higher education in recent years, and 
according to the testimony of her own authorities, has distributed over 
$2,000,000 among schools, academies, and colleges. Texas has spent 
upon college education $382,000, and has given for higher education 
2,250,000 acres of land. The educational foundations, both academic 
and popular, in the Lone Star State, are among the richest in America. 

Turning now to the Great West, we find that Michigan has given 
over $2,000,000 to higher education, She supports a university which 
is as conspicuous in the Northwest as the University of Virginia is in 
the South, upon one-twentieth of a mill tax on every dollar of taxable 
property in the State. That means half a cent on every hundred dol- 
lars. This university tax-rate yielded last year $47,272. Wisconsin 
pays one-eighth of a mill tax for her university, and that yields $74,000 
per annum. Wisconsin has given for higher education $1,200,000. 
Nebraska is even more generous to her State university. She grants 
three-eighths of a mill tax, yielding about $60,000 a year. .The State of 
California grants one-tenth of a mill tax, which yielded last year over 
$76,000. Besides this, the University of California has a permanent 
State endowment of $811,000, yielding an annual income of $52,000, 
making a total of $128,000 which the State gives annually to its highest 
institution of learning. Altogether California has expended upon 
higher education $2,500,000. The State of Kansas, the central empire 
of the Great West, gives already its rising university at Lawrence 
$75,000 a year, “levied and collected in the same manner as are other 
taxes.” 

It is needless to give further illustrations of State aid to American 
universities. These statistics have been carefully collected from origi- 
nal documents by historical students, who are making important con- 
tributions to American educational history, to be published by the 
United States Bureau of Education. The principle of State aid to at 
least one leading institution in each commonwealth is established in 
every one of the Southern and Western States. In New England 
Harvard, and Yale, and other foundations of higher learning appear 
now to flourish upon individual endowments and private philanthropy; 
but almost every one of these collegiate institutions, at one time or 
another, has received S‘ate aid. Harvard was really a State institution. 
She inherited only £800 and three hundred and twenty books from 
John Harvard. She was brought up in the arms of her Massachusetts 
nurse, with the bottle always in her mouth. The towns were taxed in 


ka 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 701 


her interest, and every family paid its peck of corn to make, as it were, 
hoe-cake for President Dunster and his faculty. Harvard College has 
had more than $500,000 from the public treasury of Massachusetts. 
Yale has had about $200,000 from the State of Connecticut. While 
undoubtedly the most generous gifts have come to New England colleges 
from private sources, yet every one of them, in time of emergency, has 
come boldly before representatives of the people and stated the want. 
They have always obtained State aid when it was needed. Last year 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology became somewhat embar- 
rassed financially, and asked the legislature for $100,000. The institu- 
tion got $200,000, twice what it asked for, upon conditions that were 
easy to meet. 

Turning now from historic examples of State aid to the higher edu- 
cation by individual American commonwealths, let us inquire briefly 
concerning the attitude of the United States Government towards in- 
stitutions of science and sound learning. 

Washington’s grand thought of a National University, based upon 
individual endowment, may be found in many of his writings, but the 
clearest and strongest statement occurs in bis last will and testament. 
There he employed the following significant language : 

‘Tt has been my ardent wish to see a plan devised on a liberal scale 
which would have atendency to spread systematic ideas through all 
parts of this rising empire, thereby to do away local attachments and 
State prejudices, as far as the nature of things would, or indeed ought 
to, admit from our national councils. Looking anxiously forward to 
the accomplishment of so desirable an object as this is, in my estima- 
tion, my mind has not been able to contemplate any plan more likely to 
effect the measure than the establishment of a wniversity in a central 
part of the United States, to which the youths of fortune and talents 
from all parts thereof may be sent for the completion of their edueation, 
in all branches of polite literature, in arts and sciences, in acquiring 
knowledge in the principles of politics and good government, and as a 
matter of infinite importance in my judgment, by associating with each 
other, and forming friendships in juvenile years, be enabled to free 
themselves in a proper degree from those local prejudices and habitual 
jealousies which have just been mentioned, and which, when carried to 
excess, are never-failing sources of disquietude to the public mind, and 
pregnant of mischievous consequences to this country. Under these 
impressions, so fully dilated, I give and bequeath, in perpetuity, the 
fifty shares which I hold in the Potomac Company - - - towards 
the endowment of a university, to be established within the limits of 
the District of Columbia, under the auspices of the General Govern- 
ment, if that Government should incline to extend a favoring hand 
towards it.” 

Here was the individual foundation of a National University. Here 
was the first suggestion of that noble line of public policy subsequently 
adopted in 1846, by our General Government in relation to the Smith- 
sonian Institution. The will of James Smithson, of England, made in 
1826, was “ to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian 


Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge 


102 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION, 


among men.” A simpler educational bequest, with such far-reaching 
results, was never before made. Whether James Smithson was influ- 
enced to this foundation by the example of Washington is a curious 
problem. Smithson’s original bequest, amounting to something over 
$500,000, was accepted by Congress for the purpose designated, and 
was placed in the Treasury of the United States, where by good admin- 
istration and small additional legacies (in two cases from other individ- 
uals) the sum has increased to over $700,000. Besides this, the Smith- 
sonian Institution now has a library equal in value to the original en- 
dowment, and acquired by the simple process of government exchanges 5 
and it owns buildings equal in value to more than half the original en- 
dowment. During the past year, as shown by the Secretary’s report, the 
Institution was ‘charged by Congress with the care and disbursement 
of sundry appropriations,” * amounting to $220,000. The National Mu- 
seum is under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, and the Government appropriations to that museum, since its 
foundation, aggregate nearly $2,000,000. The existence and ever-in- 

reasing prosperity of the Smithsonian Institution are standing proofs 
that private foundations may receive the fostering care of government 
without injurious results. Independent administration of scientific insti- 
tutions can co-exist with State aid. Itisaremarkable testimony to the 
wisdom of George Washington’s original idea that Andrew D. White, 
who, when president of Cornell University, happily combined private 
endowments and Government land grants, lately suggested in The 
Forumt the thought of a national university upon individual founda- 
tions. This thought is a century old, but it remains to this day the 
grandest thought in American educational history. 

George Washington, like James Smithson, placed a private bequest, 
so that the General Government might extend to it ‘¢a favoring hand ;” 
but iu those early days Congress had no couception of the duties of 
government towards education and science, although attention was re- 
peatedly called to these subjects by enlightened Executives like Thomas 
Jefferson, ‘father of the University of Virginia,” James Madison, 
James Monroe, and John Quincy Adams. It took Congress ten years 
to establish the Smithsonian Institution after the bequest had been 
accepted and the money received. Unfortunately, George Washington’s 
Potomac stock never paid but one dividend, and there was no pressure 
in those days towards educational appropriations from an ever-increas- 
ing surplus. The affairs of the Potomac Company were finally merged 
into the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which became a profitable enter- 
prise and endures to this day. What became of George Washington’s 
‘consolidated stock” of that period, history does not record. Jared 
Sparks, Washington’s biographer, thought the stock was ‘held in 


¥ Rano of Saner » Pee Ree reign of the igi paRbaiall Institution, 188788, 


p- 7. 
t The Ferum, February, 1889, 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 703 


trust” by the new company for the destined university. There is prob- 
ably little danger that it will ever be thrown upon the market in a 
solid block by the Treasury of the United States, to which the stock 
legally belongs, unless the present surplus should suddenly vanish, 
and the General Government be forced to realize upon its assets for the 
expenses of the administration. 

George Washington’s educational schemes were by no means vision- 
ary. His stock in the James River Company, which, like the Potomac 
Company, he had helped to organize, actually became productive and 
was by him presented to Liberty Hall Academy, now Washington and 
Lee University, at Lexington, Va., where General Lee died and was 
buried, having served his native State, as did George Washington, in 
the capacity of a college president. Washington raised Liberty Hall 
Academy to what he called “a seminary of learning upon an enlarged 
plan, but not coming up to the fall idea of university.” He meant to 
make it one of the three Virginia supporters of the university at Wash- 
ington. Liberty Hall, or Washington College, his own William and 
Mary, and Hampden-Sidney, were all to be State pillars of a national 
temple of learning. 

Washington’s dream of a great university, rising grandly upon the 
Maryland bank of the Potomac, remained a dream for three-quarters 
of acentury. But there is nothing more real or persistent than the 
dreams of great men, whether statesmen like Baron von Stein, or poets 
hke Dante or Petrarch, or prophets like Savonarola, or thinkers like 
St. Thomas Aquinas, the fathers of the church and of Greek philosophy. 
States are overthrown; literatures are lost; temples are destroyed ; 
systems of thought are shattered to pieces like the statues of Pheidias; 
but somehow truth and beauty, art and architecture, forms of poetry, 
ideals of liberty and government, of sound learning and of the eduea- 
tion of youth—these immortal dreams are revived from ave to age and 
take concrete shape before the very eyes of successive generations. 

The idea of university education in the arts and sciences is as old as 
the schoals of Greek philosophy. The idea was perpetuated at Alex- 
andria, Rome, and Athens under the emperors. It endured at Gon. 
stantinople and Ravenna, It was revived at Bologna, Paris, Prague, 
Heidelberg, Oxford, and Cambridge under varying auspices, whether 
of city, church, or state, and was sustained by the munificence of mer- 
chants, princes, prelates, kings, and queens. Ideas of higher education 
were transmitted to a new world by Englishmen whoa believed in an 
educated ministry and who would not suffer learning to perish in the 
wilderness. The collegiate foundations laid by John Harvard in Mas- 
sachusetts and Commissary Blair in Virginia were the historic models 
for many similar institutions, north and south. George Washington, 
the chancellor of William and Mary, when he became President of a 
Federal republic, caught up, in the capital of a westward-moving 
empire, the old university ideaand gave it national scope. There upon 


704 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


the Potomac he proposed to found a National University, drawing its 
economie hfe from the great artery of commerce which connects the 
Atlantic seaboard and the Great West. As early as 1770 Washington 
described this Potomac route as *‘the channel of the extensive and 
valuable trade of a rising empire.” 

Was it not in some measure an historic, although an unconscious, 
fulfillment of that old dream of Washington when, a hundred years 
later, Johns Hopkins determined to establish upon the Maryland side of 
the Potomae a university with an economic tributary in tbe Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad, which follows the very windings of that ancient 
channel of commerce? Forms of endowment may change, but uni- 
versity ideas endure. They are the common historic inheritance of 
every enlightened age and of every liberal mind; but their large fulfill- 
ment requires a breadth of foundation and a range of vision reaching be- 
yond mere locality. Universities that deserve the name have always 
been something more than local or provincial institutions. Since the 
days when Roman youth frequented the schools of Grecian philosophy, 
since the time when ultramontranes and cismontanes congregated at 
Bologna, since students organized by nations at Paris, Prague, and 
Heidelberg, since northern Scots fought southern Englishmen at Oxford, 
university life has been something even more than national. It has been 
international and cosmopolitan. Though always locally established and 
locally maintained, universities are beacon lights among the nations, 
commanding wide horizons of sea and shore, catching all the winds that 
blow and all the sun that shines, attracting, like the great light-house of 
Ptolemy Philadeljhus on the island of Pharos, sailors from distant 
lands to Alexandrine havens, or speeding the outward voyager. 

The nations of the Old World are proud of their universities and col- 
leges. Three years ago all Germany and the learned institutions of all 
Europe united in celebrating the five hundredth anniversary of “ Alt 
Heidelberg.” Last summer at Bologna, under the auspices of the Ital- 
ian Government and of the minister of public instruction, the whole civ- 
ilized world was represented by academic delegates, who had come joy- 
fully together to celebrate tue thousandth birthday of ‘ the mother of 
studies.” Every country in Europe takes pride in the history of its 
universities and of its system of public education. It is time that some- 
thing should be done for the history of learning in these United States. 
Dr. G. Stanley Hall, the president of Clark University, in his Bibliog- 
raphy of Education (page 41), says: “A history of educational institu- 
tions in this country is greatly needed. The field is very rich and almost 
unknown. No comprehensive history exists.” 

Before educational specialists can have a History of American Edu. 
cation that is worthy of the name, there must be a vast amount of spe- 
cial investigation. There must be many local and State contributions 
to the subject before national generalizations of any permanent or prac- 
tical value can be drawn by educators, One might as well generalize 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 105 


upon the character of the American people without an historical study 
of immigration and without taking a census of the population, as to 
write a History of American Education before obtaining the local 
facts. 

~ A great deal of pioneer work in this direction has been done in Bar- 
nard’s American Journal of Education; in the Annual Reports and Cir- 
culars of Information published by the United States Bureau of Eduea- 
tion; in the periodical and educational journals of the country, and in 
the local histories of particular institutions of learning and of particular 
systems of schools. A strong and novel impulse in the direction of or- 
ganized inquiry concerning the history of e uecational institutions in 
this country was communicated to the country in the centennial year, 
1876, by General John Eaton, then Commissioner of Education. The 
spirit of local co-operation was enlisted in many of our American colleges, 
and considerable historical work was then done. Some of it was locally 
published, but most of it never saw the light. Popular support and 
Government appropriations were lacking for the adequate prosecution 
of the work. One magnificent result however of this new spirit of 
organized inquiry was the great volume on the public libraries of the 
United States, their history, condition, and management, published in 
1876, by the Department of the Interior for the Bureau of Edueation. 
A single contribution to the history of education, edited by Dr. Frank- 
lin B. Hough, was published by the Bureau in 1883. It was a pamphlet 
of 72 pages, called Historical Sketches of the Universities and Colleges 
of the United States, and related to the University of Missouri. 

The idea of systematically investigating the history of higher eduea- 
tion in this country was revived anew in connection with an inquiry un- 
dertaken by the speaker, at the instance of General John Eaton, con- 
cerning The Study of History in American Colleges and Universities. 
Although concerned primarily with the history of a single department 
of instruction in a few representative colleges, like Harvard, Yale, Co- 
lumbia, Cornell, the University of Michigan, and the Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity, the writer could not fail to discover something of the general 
historic interest belonging to the development of certain institutions of 
learning north, south, and west. To representa school of history and 
polities in the South, he had proposed to introduce an account of Wil- 
liam and Mary College into the above report, but this institution proved 
so generally interesting, as representivg the history of education in Vir- 
ginia, that the present Commissioner of Hducation, Col. N. H. R. Daw- 
son, under whom the report on The Study of History was completed 
for publication in 1887, encouraged further elaboration of the above ae- 
count for a special Circular of Information. The monograph on The 
College of William and Mary; a Contribution to the History of Higher 
Education, with Suggestions for its National promotion, was issued as 
Circular No. 1, 1887, and was cordially welcomed by the friends of 
higher education in all parts of the country,—north, south, east, and 

west. Aside from the generous public interest indica in the honora- 
H. Mis. 224——45 


706 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


ble history and sad misfortunes of this oldest of Southern colleges, next 
to Harvard the oldest in the country, the publication of this circular 
accomplished the more practical result of arousing the State of Vir- 
ginia to a consciousness of its educational inheritance and to an appro- 
priation to restore the old coilege to a career of active usefulness. If 
no other end than this had been effected by the above circular, the Bu- 
reau of Education would have been justified in entering the field of 
Southern educational history, where historical and quickening work is 
most needed. To illustrate the effect upon the educators of the North 
as well as at the South, it may be added that this monograph furnished 
materials for a presidential address at a well-known Northern University 
and for an historical oration at one of the most influential Southern 
universities. 

The immediate success of this pioneer monograph on William and 
Mary College led the way to the larger thought of treating the history 
of higher education by States. Accordingly the remaining colleges of 
Virginia were grouped together by the editor in authorized sketches, 
supplementary to a study of Thomas Jefferson and the University of 
Virginia. The idea was favorably received. The need of making gen- 
erally known throughout the whole country the higher educational sys- 
tems of individual States and sections is illustrated by the remark of a 
college trustee in Massachusetts concerning the University of Virginia: 
“7 had not the faintest idea that any such university ever existed or 
that education ever was on so high a plane in the South.” Jefferson’s 
ideas concerning university education, and indeed concerning education 
in general for this country, were far in advance of his time. Through 
the instrumentality of professors like George Long, Thomas Hewett 
Key, Charles Bonnyeastle, Dr. Robley Dunglison, and other professors 
introduced from Europe, Jefferson’s plan for an elective system and for 
real university work in schools of language and science, was practi- 
cally realized more than fifty years ago. The publication of the facts 
regarding Jefferson’s unique creation, in the vicinity of his own home 
at Monticello, has proved not only of historical interest but of positive 
educational value. 

The work of organized inquiry into the history of American higher 
education by States and groups of States was demonstrated by experi- 
ence to be practicable, and, by general encouragement, to be welcome 
to all parts of the country. Certain general principles were adopted in 
the further prosecution of the investigation. Under the direction of an 
editor, aided by the resources and documentary collections of the Bu- 
reau of Edueation, the preparation of the State monographs was as- 
signed to representative and scholarly men from the State or section of 
country especially concerned. In all cases the active co-operation and 
assistance of the various higher institutions of learning in each State 
were enlisted through a sub editor. An attempt was made to make the 
reports at once compact and readable, with a goo analysis of contents 
and a few attractive illustrations of college or university buildings, the 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 107 


plates being by no means confined to the showing of externals, such as 
dormitories and facades, but picturing also in many cases library and 
laboratory interiors. In compensation for the lack of absolute his- 
torical completeness, full bibliographies of the sources of information 
were to be appended to each chapter or great subject, so that future 
students of our educational history might profit by the way-marks left 
by pioneers. 

Although unaided by any special appropriations, and absolutely de- 
pendent upon the slender resources of the bureau for the preparation 
of circulars of information, the work has been extended from Virginia, 
the oldest of American commonwealths, throughout all the Southern 
States, where monographs are either completed, or well advanced. The 
report on North Carolina has lately been published. The returns from 
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida are already in the lands of the 
Government printer. The work has not been restricted to the South. 
In anticipation of the historical interest connected with the observance 
of the centenary of the settlement of the old northwest territory organ- 
ized inquiry was early extended beyond the Ohio River. A monograph 
upon the History of Higher Education in Wisconsin, prepared by Mr. 
David Spencer, under the general direction of Prof. William IF, Allen, 
of the University of Wisconsin, has been accepted and sent to the Pub- 
lic Printer. Ata meeting of the American Historical Association, held 
in the National Museum during the Christmas holidays, an introductory 
paper upon the whole subject of higher education in the Northwest 
was read by Prof. George W. Knight, of the Ohio State University at 
Columbus, a graduate of the University of Michigan and author of a 
scholarly monograph upon Federal Land Grants for Education in the 
Northwest Territory, published among the papers of the American 
Historical Association, vol.1. More elaborate monographs, based upon 
pioneer work in a vast and unknown field, and representing the history 
of colleges and universities in the States of Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan, 
will soon be completed. 

Here upon this desk lies a manuscript History of Higher Education 
in the State of Indiana, mother of the President recently inaugurated. 
This history was prepared by Prof. J. A. Woodburn, of the State Uni- 
versity at Bloomington, who has studied for two years in Baltimore. 
While no brief description can do justice to an exhaustive and laborious 
work, it may be summarized as representing— 

(1) The services of the old Continental Congress and of the Federal 
Government towards education in the old Northwest Territory. 

(2) The early beginnings of higher education in the Territory of In- 
diana and the rise of State seminaries and academies, with their growth 
into the State University. 

(3) The work of the State normal school and of the various polytech- 
nic and industrial institutions in the State of Indiana. 

(4) The organization and early history of the denominational colleges. 
and of other institutions of learning in Indiana, 


708 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


(5) The development of the school system and the final union or ar- 
ticulation of the same with the colleges and the university. 

Work of this kind has been pushed not only throughout the North- 
west but through the Southwest. It has been carried beyond the Mis- 
sissippi River, to the Pacific slope. The leading idea has been to do 
pioneer work in the West and South, where almost nothing has been 
hitherto accomplished towards a systematic history of colleges and uni- 
versities. But the older sections of country have not been left out of 
consideration. State monographs are in preparation or contemplation. 
in all of the New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. Everywhere 
the attempt has been made to secure the co-operation of good men and 
scholarly investigators, with proper historical training for the work en- 
trusted to their hands, and with a scientific spirit rising above all con- 
siderations of sectional, or sectarian, or economic interest. In all cases 
the work has virtually been a labor of love. The funds available for 
this wide-reaching and important undertaking have barely sufficed to 
pay expenses actually incurred, to say nothing of properly compensa- 
ting local contributors for their time and painstaking research. 

An illustration of the practical value to the whole country of inves- 
tigations like these, lies upon the desk before you. Here is an elaborate 
monograph, which has occupied many months of patient toil, on the 
History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education. The work was 
done by Dr. F. W. Blackmar, for several years a professor in a California 
college and now professor of history in the University of Kansas. Some 
of the State superintendents of education here present have doubtless 
received numerous inquiries from Dr. Blackmar, who for the past three 
years has been studying in Baltimore. When this monograph begins 
to come forth in proof from that tomb of manuscripts, the Government 
Printing Office, some of you will probably be asked to look over the 
portions concerning your own State, as Dr. Dickinson has already done 
for Massachusetts, Mr. Hine for Connecticut, Dr. Murray for New York, 
etc. 

Without anticipating the interesting facts and figures contained in 
this important monograph, (facts which have been kept back from indi- 
vidual applicants for information until results could be published to the 
public at large,) it may be said that the work describes: 

(1) The attitude of every American colony and State in this Union 
towards the higher education, considered from an historical point of 
view. 

(2) The chief legislative enactments by colonial courts and State leg- 
islatures concerning the establishment and encouragement of higher 


education. 
(3) The history of all financial aid and support given to higher edu- 


cation by every colony and State in this country. The author has 
found out, from a laborious examination of original statutes, the actual 
amounts of money appropriated and of lands granted for education by 


a hs aie 


re _ 


THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 709 


each of the several States and by the Federal Government, throughout 
our entire history. There is not a practical educator, college president, 
or trustee in the land who will not appreciate the importance and util- 
ity of such a financial history of higher education in America. 

(4) The monograph further shows the progress, development, and 
present tendencies of higher education in these United States. The 
history is given of West Point Military Academy, of the Naval Acad- 
emy at Annapolis, of the Congressional Library, cf the Smithsonian 
Institution, the National Museum, and of the United States Bureau of 
Education, together with all the financial relations of the General Goy- 
ernment towards science and education since the beginning of our life 
as a-nation. 

These matters are here communicated to the assembled superintend- 
ents of education from all parts of the Union because it is important 
that you should appreciate their scope and significance, and because 
you are in a position to strengthen and upliold the highest work of the 
Bureau of Education. The bureau was originally founded, in the year 
1867, ‘for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts as shall 
show the condition and progress of education in the several States and 
Territories” (Barnard’s First annual Report, 186768, p. 63. Garfield’s 
speech). What better method could there possibly be of showing the 
condition or progress of education in these United States than by an 
historical review of the origin, growth, development, and present ten- 
dencies of American institutions of learning, beginning with the high- 
est, as did our forefathers, with colleges and universities, and gradually 
enlarging the horizon of inquiry until the whole field of secondary and 
common school education is embraced in the retrospect? The broaden- 
ing plains are best seen from the hill-tops. Unless American educators 
see to it that the higher education is properly recognized in our State 
and National reports, our whole system of educational inquiry will 
degenerate into common school statistics and essays on pedagogical 
methods. The Bureau of Education ought to take a commanding place 
in the educational work of the country. By the highest kind of original 
investigations, at home and abroad, it ought to win the respect and 
confidence of the best men engaged in educational work, whether college 
presidents or superintendents of schools. Why is it that the interests 
of labor and agriculture can be raised to the dignity of Departments 
in the United States Government, with a Secretary of Agriculture hold- 
ing a Cabinet office, while the educational interests of the Republic are 
allowed to remain upon a lower level? Simply because the educa- 
tors of the country are content with that level, because they do not 
exert one-half the compelling energy of either the farmers or the labor- 
unions. The Bureau of Education ought to become a ministry of pub- 
lic instruction, with a recognized place in the Cabinet, and with a con- 
stantly energizing influence proceeding from the capital of this country 
throughout the length and breadth of the land, stimulating the colleges 
and the universities, as well as the school systems of the whole country, 


710 THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 


by publishing the results of organized inquiry. The present Commis- 
sioner of Labor touches the vital interests of American labor and of all 
American society by his reports on the condition of working classes 
and on the statistics of divorce. The bureau can attain an honorable 
and influential position in the educational life of the country only by 
keeping the vantage-ground already gained, by pursuing higher lines of 
activity, by pressing boldly forward for larger appropriations and higher 
objects, and by enlisting the cordial support of the best friends of ed- 
ucation throughout all these States. Thus gradually the pressure of 
public opinion will be brought to bear upon Congressmen, and Congress 
and the nation will recognize at last that the interests of public educa- 
tion are quite as important to the entire American people as are the 
interests of any one class, like our American farmers or our American 
workingmen, however honorable the aims of both classes may be. 

Strengthen all existing foundations of the higher education in 
America, whether in the individual States or at Washington. Bring 
the representatives of public school systems and of our American col- 
leges and universities into more hearty and efficient alliance. Co-oper- 
ate with every respectable agency for the higher education of the 
American people, whether by summer schools, teachers’ institutes, the 
distribution of good literature in popular form, or by the institution of 
home reading circles and university extension lectures, now so popular 
in the manufacturing towns and mining districts of England. Break 
down the antagonism between mental and manual labor. Make in- 
dustrial and technical education as honorable as classical culture and 
the learned professions. Teach the science of government and social 
science, European as well as American history, in the pubhe school. 
Then shaJl we all have greater respect and toleration for our fellow- 
men; then will all begin to appreciate the necessity of supporting all 
forms of education, even the highest, by the combined eftorts of socicty 
and the State. A noble popularity must be given to science and art in 
America. The people of every State should be led to see that the higher 
learning is not for the benefit of a favored few, but that it is beneficial 
and accessible to the sons of citizens, of whatever station. In the 
proper co-ordination of the common school system with the high school 
and university, the Western States are leading this Republic to a more 
thoroughly democratic state of soviety, with fewer artificial distinctions 
of culture, with more of the spirit of human brotherhood than the world 
has hitherto seen. The Eastern colleges and universities will continue 
to train professors and to develop science, but the West and South will 
apply both men and ideas to democratic uses. The whole country 
needs this popularization of culture. With universal suffrage and the 
sovereignity of the people at the basis of our political life, popular in- 
telligence must be cultivated so that it may be both able and willing to 
hold fast all that is good in human history, not only civil and religious 
liberty, but all that makes for happiness and righteousness in a great 
nation. . 


THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER.* 


By WILLIAM ANDERSON. 


Five years ago, at Montreal, in his address to the Mathematical Sec- 
tion, Sir William Thomson took for his subject the ultimate constitu- 
tion of matter, and discussed in a most suggestive manner the very 
structure of the ultimate atoms or molecules. He passed in review the 
theories extant on the subject, and pointed out the progress which had 
been made in recent years by the labors of Clausius, of Clerk Maxwell, 
of Tait, and others,—among whom his own name (I may add) stands in 
unrivalled prominence. I will not presume to enter the field of scien- 
tific thought and speculation traversed by Sir William Thomson. I 
propose to draw attention only to some general considerations, and to 
point out to what extent they practically interest the members of tlus 
Section. 

In a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution last May, Professor 
Mendeléeff attempted to show that there existed an analogy between 
the constitution of the stellar universe and that of matter as we know 
it on the surface of the earth, and that from the motions of the heav- 
enly bodies down to minutest inter-atomic movements in chemical re- 
actions, the third law of Newton held good, and that the application of 
that law afforded a means of explaining those chemical substitutions 
and isomerisms which are so characteristic, especially of organic chem- 
istry. Examined from asufficient distance, the planetary system would 
appear as a concrete whole, endowed with invisible internal motions, 
travelling to a distant goal. Taken in detail, each member of the 
system may be involved in movements connected with its satellites, 
and again each planet and satellite is instinct with motions which, 
there is good reason to believe, extend to the ultimate atoms, and may 
even exist, as Sir William Thomson has suggested, in the atoms them- 
selves. The total result is complete equilibrium, and, in many cases, a 
seeming absence of all motion, which is, in reality, the consequence of 
dynamic equilibriam, and not the repose of immobility or inertness. 

The movements of the members of the stellar universe are many of 
them visible to the naked eye, and their existence needs no demonstra- 
tion; but the extension of the generalization just mentioned to sub- 





Wy Piesidontial sihaneee Harare eat AMfachanical: ence Section of the British aeaet i- 
ation A. S., at Newcastle, September, 1889. (Ieport of British Association, vol. LIX, 
pp. 718-732.) 


aah 


712 ‘THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 


stances lying (to all appearances) inert on the earth’s surface is not so 
obvious. In the case of gases, indeed, it is almost self-evident that 
they are composed of particles so minute as to be invisible,—in a condi- 
tion of great individual freedom. The rapid penetration of odors to 
great distances, the ready absorption of vapors and other gases, and 
the phenomena connected with diffusion, compression, and expansion 
seem to demonstrate this. One gas will rapidly penetrate another and 
blend evenly with it, even if the specific gravities be very different. 
The particles of gases are (as compared with their own diameters) sep- 
arated widely from each other; there is plenty of room for additional 
particles; hence any gas which would, by virtue of its molecular motion, 
soon diffuse itself uniformly through a vacuum will also diffuse itself 
through one or more other gases, and once so diffused, it will never 
separate again. A notable example of this is the permanence of the 
constitution of the atmosphere, which is a mere mixture of gases. The 
oxygen and the nitrogen, as determined by the examination of samples 
collected all over the world, maintain sensibly the same relative pro- 
portions, and even the carbonie acid, though liable to slight local ac- 
cumulations, preserves, on the whole, a constant ratio, and yet the 
densities of these gases differ very greatly. 

Liquids (though to a much less degree than gases) are also composed 
of particles separated to a considerable relative distance from each other, 
and capable of unlimited motion where no opposing foree—such as grav- 
ity—interferes; for under such circumstances their euergy of motion is 
not sufficient to overcome the downward attractions of the earth; hence 
they are constrained to maintain a level surface. The occlusion of gases 
without sensible comparative increase of volume shows that the com- 
ponent particles are widely separated. Water (for example) at the freez- 
ing point occludes above one and three quarter times its own volume of 
carbonic oxide, and about 480 times its volume of hydrochloric acid, 
with an increase of volume in the latter case of only one-third. The 
quantity of gas occluded increases directly as the pressure, which seems 
to indicate that the particles of the occluded gas are as free in their 
movements among the particles of the liquid as they would be in 
an otherwise empty containing vessel. Liquids therefore are porous 
bodies whose constituent particles have great freedom of motion. It 
is no wonder consequently that two dissimilar liquids, placed in con- 
tact with each other, should interpenetrate one another completely, if 
time enough be allowed; and this time, as might be expected, is con. 
siderably greater than that required for the blending of gases, because 
of the vastly greater mobility of the particles of the latter. The diffu- 
sion of liquids takes place not only when they are in actual contact, 
but even when they are separated by partitions of a porous nature, 
such as plaster of Paris, unglazed earthenware, vegetable or animal 
membranes, and colloidal substances, all of which may be perfectly 
water-tight, in the ordinary sense of the term, but powerless to prevent 

. 


THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 713 


the particles of liquids making their way through simultaneously in 
both directions. 

When we come to solid substances the same phenomena appear. 
The volumes of solids do not differ greatly from the volumes of the 
liquids from which they are congealed, and the solid volumes are gen- 
erally greater. The volume of ice (for example) is one tenth greater 
than the water from which it separates. Solid cast-iron just floats on 
liquid iron, and most metals behave in the same way; consequently, 
if the liquids be porous the solids formed from them must be so also 3 
hence, as might be expected, solids also ovclude gases in a remarkable 
manner. Platinum will take up five and a half times its own volume 
of hydrogen, palladium nearly 700 times; copper, 60 per cent.; gold, 29 
per cent.; silver, 21 per cent. of hydrogen, and 75 per cent. of oxygen 3 
iron from 8 to 124 times its voluine of a gaseous mixture chiefly com- 
posed of carbonic oxide. Not only are gases occluded, but they are 
also transpired under favorable conditions of temperature and pressure, 
and even Hae “an make their way through. Red-hotiron tubes will 
permit the passage of gases through their substance with great readi- 
ness. Ordinary se gas—when under high pressure—is retained with 
difficulty in steel vessels, and it is well known that mercury will pene- 
trate tin and other metals with great rapidity, completely altering their 
structure, their properties, and even their chemical compositions. 

The evidence of the mobility of the atoms or molecules of solid bodies 
is overwhelming. Substances when reduced to powder, may even at 
ordinary temperatures be restored to the homogeneous solid condition 
by pressure only. Thus Professor W. Spring some ten years ago pro- 
duced from the powdered nitrates of potassium and sodium—under a 
pressure of thirteen tons to the square inch—homogeneous transparent 
masses of slightly greater specific gravity than the original crystals, 
but not otherwise to be distinguished from them. More than that, from 
a mixture of copper filings and sulphur, he produced—under a press- 
ure of thirty-four tons per square inch—perfectly homogeneous cuprous 
sulphide (Cu, 8), the atoms of the two elements having been brought 
by pressure into so intimate a relation to each other, that they were 
able to arrange themselves into molecules of definite proportion; and 
still more remarkable, the carefully dried powders of potash, saltpeter, 
and acetate of soda, were by pressure caused to exchange their metallic 
bases, and form nitrate of soda and acetate of potash. 

At high temperatures the effects are more easily produced on account 
of the greater energy of motion of the atoms or molecules. In the 
process of the manufacture of steel by cementation, or in cz se-hardening, 
the mere contact of iron with solid substances rich in carbon is suffi- 
cient to permit the latter to work its way into the heart of the former, 
while in the formation of malleable cast-iron the carbon makes its way 
out of the castings with equal facility ; it is a complete case of diffusion 
of solid substances through each other, but on account of the inferior 


714 THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 


and restricted mobility of the particles at ordinary temperatures, a 
higher degree and longer time are needed than with liquids or gases. 
Again, when by the agency of heat, molecular motion is raised to a 
pitch at which incipient fluidity is obtained, the particles of two pieces 
will unite into a homogeneous whole, and we can thus grasp the full 
meaning of the operation known as “ welding.” By the ordinary coarse 
methods but few substances unite in this way, because the nature of 
the operation prevents, or at any rate hinders, the actual contact of 
the two substances; but when molecular motion is excited to the proper 
degree by a current of electricity, the faces to be joined can be brought 
into actual contact, the presence of foreign substances can be excluded, 
and many metals not hitherto considered weldable, such as tool steel, 
copper, and aluminium, are readily welded. 

The movement which we term radiant heat, acting through the instru- 
mentality of the luminiferous ether (which is believed on the strongest 
grounds to pervade all space and all matter) is competent to augment 
the quantity of movement in the particles of substances, and generally 
to cause an eplargementof volume. Again, energy in the form of light 
operates changes in the surface of bodies, causing colors to fade, and 
giving to photography the marvelous power which it possesses ; decom- 
posing the carbonic acid of the atmosphere in the chlorophyl of green 
leaves, and determining chemical combinations, such as chlorine with 
hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, or carbonic oxide with chlorine to 
form chloro-carbonie acid. It is inconceivable that these effects could 
be produced unless the undulations of light were competent to modify 
the molecular motions already existing in the solid, liquid, and gaseous 
bodies affected. 

Electricity exerts a similar influence. Generated by the molecular 
movements caused by chemical activity, whether directly, as in the pri- 
mary battery, or indirectly, as in the dynamo, it is competent to increase 
the molecular movements in bodies so as to produce the effects of heat 
directly applied; it is capable of setting up motions of such intensity as 
to produce chemical changes and decompositions, to say nothing of the 
whole series of phenomena connected with magnetism, with induction, 
or the action through space and through non-conducting bodies, which, 
as in the case of radiant heat and light, seems to imply the existence 
of an interatomic ether. Conversely, changes of molecular equilibrium, 
brought about by the action of external forces, produce corresponding 
changes in electrical currents; witness the effects of heat, for example, 
on conductivity, and the wondrous revelations of molecular change 
obtained by the aid of Professor Hughes’s induction balance. 

The behavior of explosives illustrates also, and in a striking manner, 
the effects of disturbing molecular equilibrium. An explosive is a sub- 
stance which contains in itself, in a solid or liquid form, all the ele- 
ments necessary to produce a chemical change by which it is converted 
into the gaseous state. The application of heat, of pressure, or of im- 


THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 715 


pact, causes chemical union to take place, first at the spot where the 
equilibrium is disturbed by the application of external force, and after- 
wards, with great rapidity, through the mass, the disturbance being 
propagated either by the air surrounding the particles or by the lumi- 
niferous wether, with all the rapidity of light; the chemical re-action is 
accelerated by the pressure which may arise, for example, if the explo- 
sive be confined in the chamber of a gun or in the bore-hole of a blast. 
High explosives (as they are termed) are comparatively inert to ordi- 
nary ignition; but when the molecular equilibrium is suddenly disar- 
ranged throughout the mass by the detonation of a percussion fuse, com- 
bination takes place instantly throughout, and violent explosion follows. 
In asimilar manner some gases, such a acetylene, cyanogen, and others, 
can be decomposed by detonation and reduced to their solid constituents. 
Professor Thorpe has devised a very beautiful lecture experiment, in 
which carbon disulphide is caused to fall asunder into carbon and sul- 
phur by the detonation of fulminate of mercury fired by an electric 
spark. In these cases a reverse action takes place, but it illustrates 
equally well the conversion of one form of energy into others, and the 
consequent disturbance of molecular equilibrium in the substances 
affected. It seems to me clear therefore the time has come when the 
conception of dynamic equilibrium in the ultimate particles of matter 
in all its forms must take the place of the structural system of inert 
particles. 

I cannot conceive how the phenomena which I have enumerated can 
be explained on the supposition that matter is built up of motionless 
particles ;—how for example a stack of red and yellow bricks could 
ever change the order of arrangement without being completely pulled 
asunder and built up again, in which case an intermediate state of chaos 
would exist: but I can easily comprehend how a dense crowd of people 
may appear as a compact mass, Streaming it may be in a definite 
direction, and yet how each member of that mass is endowed with lim- 
ited motion, by virtue of which he may push his way through without 
disturbing the general appearance; how the junetion of two crowds 
would form one whole, though perchance altered in character; and 
how even Professor Spring’s experiments may be explained by the sup- 
position that bystanders on the edge of a crowd would be foreed, by 
external pressure, to form part of it and partake of its general move. 
ments. 

When it is conceded that molecular motion pervades matter in all its 
forms, and that the solid passes (often insensibly) into the fluid, or even 
direct into the gaseous, it follows, almost of necessity, that there must 
be a, borderland, the limits of which are determined by temperature 
and pressure, in which substances are constantly changing from one 
state to another. ‘This is observable in fusion, but to a marked degree 
in evaporation, where the particles are being incessantly launched into 
space as gas and return as constantly to the liquid state. 


716 THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 


If steel be looked upon as a solution of carbon and iron, then the 
hardening of steel is explained by the theory that dissociation has taken 
place at the temperature at which it is suddenly cooled, the sudden 
cooling fixing the molecular motion at such an amplitude or phase that 
it gives a characteristic structure, one of the properties of which is ex- 
treme hardness. In tempering, the gradual communication of heat 
causes dissociation again to take place, the molecular equilibrium is 
modified by the increased energy imparted to the particles, and when 
suddenly cooled at any point there remains again a distinct substanee, 
composed of iron and carbon, partly in various degrees of solution and 
partly free, and again possessing special mechanical qualities. - - - 

There is one more circumstance connected with my subject to which 
I must draw your attention, because, though its application to the me- 
chanical properties of substances is very recent, if promises to be of 
great importance. I allude to the Periodic Law of Dr. Mendeléef 
According to that law, the elements arranged in order of their atomic 
weights, exhibit an evident periodicity of properties, and as Professor 
Carnelley has observed, the properties of the compounds of the ele- 
ments are a periodic function of the atomic weights of their constitu- 
ent elements. Acting on these views, Professor Roberts-Austin has 
recently devoted much time and labor to testing their exactness with 
reference to the mechanical properties of metals. The investigation is 
surrounded by extraordinary difficulties, because one of the essential 
features of the inquiry is that the metals operated en should be abso- 
lutely pure. For chemical researches, a few grains of a substance-are 
all that is needed, and the requisite purity can be obtained at a mod- 
erate cost of time and labor; but when mechanical properties have to 
be determined, considerable masses are needed, and the funds necessary 
for obtaining these are beyond the reach of most private individuals. 

In view of the difficulty of obtaining metals of sufficient purity, he 
selected gold as his base, because that metal can be more readily 
brought to a state of purity than any other, and is not liable to oxida- 
tion. In a communication to the Royal Society made last year, he 
shows that the metals alloyed with gold which diminish its tenacity 
and extensibility have high atomic volumes, while those which increase 
these properties have either the same atomic volumes as gold or have 
lower ones. The inquiry has only just been commenced, but it appears 
to me to promise results which, to the engineer, will prove as important 
and as fruitful of progress as the great generalization of Mendeléef 
has been to chemists. A law which can not only indicate the existence 
of unknown elements, but which ean also define their properties before 
they are discovered, if capable of application to metallurgy, must surely 
yield most valuable results, and will make the compounding of alloys 
a scientific process instead of the lawless and hap-hazard operation 
which it is now. 


yl eae bara ~ aes 


lt le ee Mt it ee A a a he 


a 
: 


THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. (17 


The practical importance of the views I have enunciated are I think 
sufficiently obvious. Every one will admit that an external force can 
not be applied to a system in motion without affecting that motion; 
consequentiy matter, in whatever state, can not be touched without 
changes taking place which will be more or less permanent. The ap- 
plication of heat will cause a change of volume, and at last, a change 
of condition; the application of external stresses will also produce a 
change of volume; and it is natural to infer that there must be some re- 
lation between the two, and accordingly Professor Carnelley has drawn 
attention to the fact that the most tenacious metals have high melting- 
points, though here again there is a great want of exactness, partly on 
account of the difficulty of measuring high temperatures, and partly 
by reason of the scarcity of pure materials. Again, long-continued 
stresses, or stresses frequently applied, may be expected to’ produce 
permanent changes of form, and so we arrive at what is termed the 
fatigue of substances. Stretched beyond their elastic limits, (which 
limits I do not suppose to exist except when stresses are applied 
quickly,) substances are permanently deformed, and the same effects 
follow the long application of heat. 

The constant recurrence of stresses, even those within the elastic limit, 
causes changes in the arrangement of the particles of substances which 
slowly alter the properties of the latter, and in this way pieces of ma- 
chinery, which theoretically were abundantly strong for the work they 
had to perform, have failed after a more or less extended period of use. 
The effect is intensified if the stresses are applied suddenly, if they 
reach nearly to the elastic limit, and if they are imposed in two or more 
directions at once, for then the molecular disturbance becomes very 
intense, the internal equilibrium is upset, and a tendency to rupture 
follows. Such cases occur in artillery, in armour-plates, in the parts of 
machinery subject to impact; and, as might be expected, the destructive 
effects do not always appear at once, but often after long periods of 
time. When considerable masses of metal have to be manipulated by 
forging, or by pressure in a heated condition, the subsequent cooling of 
the mass imposes restrictions on the free movement of some, if not all 
of the particles; internal stresses are developed which slowly assert 
themselves, and often cause unexpected failures. In the manufacture of 
dies for coining purposes, of chilled rollers, of shot and shell hardened 
in an unequal manner, spontaneous fractures take place without any 
apparent cause, and often after long delay, the reason being that the 
constrained molecular motion of the inner particles gradually extends 
the motion of the outer ones until a solution of continuity is caused. 
Similar stresses occur in such masses as crank shafts, screw shafts, gun 
hoops, ete. - - - 

The influence of time on steel seems to be well established; the high- 
eSt qualities of tool steel are kept in stock for a considerable period ; 


718 THE MOLECULAR STRUGIURE OF MATTER. 


and it seems certain that bayonets, swords, and guns are liable to 
changes which may account for some of the unsatisfactory results which 
have manifested themselves at tests repeated after a considerable inter- 
val of time. As all these things have been hardened and tempered, 
there must necessarily have been considerable constraint put upon the 
freedom of motion of the particles. This constraint has gradually been 
overcome, but at the expense of the particular quality of the steel which 
it was originally intended to secure. 

I have now laid before you the views respecting the constitution of 
matter which J think are gaining ground, which explain many phe- 
nomena with which we are familiar, and which will serve as guides in 
our treatment of metals, and especially of alloys; but I must admit that 
the subject is still by no means clear, that a great deal more definition 
is wanted, and that we are still awaiting the advent of the man who 
shall do for molecular physics what Newton did for astronomy in ex- 
plaining the structure of the universe. 

PETROLEUM. 

One of the most remarkable features of the last thirty years is the 
introduction of petroleum, and the wonderful development to which the 
trade in it has attained. Under the generic name of petroleum is 
embraced a variety of combinations of carbon and hydrogen, each of 
which is distinguished by some special property. Atordinary tempera- 
tures and pressures some are gaseous, some are liquid, and some solid, 
and most are capable of being modified by suitable treatment under 
various temperatures and pressures. The employment of petroleum in 
the arts is still extending rapidly. Used originally for illuminating 
purposes, it is now einployed as fuel for heating furnaces and steam- 
boilers, and as a working agent in heat engines: valuable medicinal prop- 
erties have been discovered ; and as a lubricant it stands unrivalled. 

As a working agent in heat engines itis employed in two ways: First, 
as a vapor generated from the liquid petroleum contained in a boiler, 
very much in the same way as the vapor of water is used in an engine 
with surface condenser, the fuel for producing the vapor being also 
petroleum. Very signal success has been obtained by Mr. Yarrow and 
others in this mode of using mineral oil, especially for marine purposes 
and for engines of small power; there seems to be no doubt that by 
using a highly volatile spirit in the boiler a given amount of fuel will 
produce double the power obtainable by other means, and at the same 
time the machinery will be lighter and will occupy less space than if 
steam were the agent used. The other method is to inject a very fine 
spray of hot oil associated with the proper quantity of air into the cylin- 
der of an ordinary gas-engine, and ignite it there by means of an elec- 
tric spark or other suitable means. Attempts to use oil in this way 
date back many years, but it was not till 1888, that Messrs. Priestman 
Brothers exhibited at the Nottingham show of the Royal Agricultu- 
ral Society an engine which worked successfully with oil, the flashing 
point of which was higher than 75° F., and was therefore within the 


THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. (19 


category of safe oils. The engine exhibited was very like an ordinary 
Otto gas-engine, and worked in exactly the same cycle. A pump at 
the side of the engine forced air into a small receiver at a few pounds 
pressure to the square inch. The compressed air, acting by means of 
a small injector, carried with it the oil in the form of fine spray, which 
issued into a jacketed chamber heated by the exhaust, in which the oil 
was vaporized. The mingled air and oil was thus raised to a temper- 
ature of about 300°, and was then drawn, with more air, into the cylin- 
der, where, after being compressed by the return stroke of the piston, 
it was exploded by an electric spark, and at the end of the cycle the 
products of combustion were discharged into the air after encircling 
the spray chamber and parting with most of their heat to the injected 
oil, The resuits of careful experiments made by Sir William Thomson 
and myself on different occasions were, that 1.73 pounds of petroleum 
were cousumed per brake horse-power per hour; but the combustion 
was by no means perfect, for a sheet of paper held over the exhaust pipe 
was soon thickly spattered with spots of oil. 

The enormous consumption of petroleum and of natural gases ftre- 
quently raises the question as to the probability of the proximate 
exhaustion of the supply; and without doubt many fear to adopt the 
use of oil, from a feeling that if such use once becomes general the de- 
mand will exceed the production, the price will rise indefinitely, and 
old methods of illumination, and old forms of fuel, will have to be re- 
verted to. From this point of view it is most interesting to inquire 
what are the probabilities of a continuous supply ; and such an investi- 
gation leads at once to the question, ‘* What is the origin of petroleum 2?” 

In the year 1877, Professor Mendeléef undertook to answer this ques- 
tion; and as his theory appears to be very little known, I trust you will 
forgive me for laying a matter so interesting before you. Dr. Mendeléef 
commences his essay by the statement that some persons assume (with- 
out any special reason excepting perhaps its chemical composition), that 
naphtha, like coal, has a vegetable origin. He combats this hypothesis, 
and points out, in the first place, that naphtha must have been formed 
in the depths of the earth. It could not have been produced on the sur- 
face, because if would have evaporated ; nor overa sea bottom, because 
it would have floated up and been dissipated by the same means. In 
the next place he shows that naphtha must have been formed beneath 
the very site on which it is found,—that it can not have come from a 
distance, like so many other geological deposits, and for the reasons 
given above, namely, that it could not be water-borne, and could not 
have flowed along the surface, while in the superficial sands in which 
it is generally found no one has ever discovered the presence of organ- 
ized matter in sufficiently large masses to have served as a source for 
the enormous quantity of oil and gas yielded in some districts; and 
hence it is most probable that it has risen from much greater depths 
under the influence of its own gaseous pressure, or floated up upon the 
surface of water, with which it is so frequently associated. -— - 


720 THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER. 


The process of the formation of petroleum seems to be the following: 
It is generally admitted that the crust of the earth is very thin in com- 
parison with the diameter of the latter, and that this crust incloses soft 
or fluid substance, among which the carbides of iron and of other metals 
find a place. When, in consequence of cooling or some other cause, a 
fissure takes place through which a mountain range is protruded, the 
crust of the earth is bent, and at the foot of the hills fissures are formed ; 
or at any rate the continuity of the rocky layers is disturbed, and they 
are rendered more or less porous, so that surface waters are able to make 
their way deep into the bowels of the earth, and to reach occasionally 
the heated deposits of metallic carbides, which may exist either in a 
separated condition or blended with other matter. Under such cireum- 
stances it is easy to see what must take place. Iron, or whatever other 
metal may be present, forms an oxide with the oxygen of the water; 
hydrogen is either set free or combined with the carbon which was as- 
sociated with the metal, and becomes a volatile substance—that is, 
naphtha. The water which had penetrated down to the incandescent 
mass was changed into steam, a portion of which foundits way through 
the porous substances with which the fissures were filled, and carried 
with it the vapors of the newly-formed hydro-carbons, and this mixture 
of vapors was condensed wholly or in part as soon as it reached the 
cooler strata. The chemical composition of the hydro-carbons produced 
will depend upon the conditions of temperature and pressure under 
which they are formed. It is obvious that these may vary between very 
wide limits, and hence it is that mineral oils, mineral pitch, ozokerit, 
and similar products differ so greatly from each other in the relative 
proportions of hydrogen and carbon. I may mention that artificial pe- 
troleum has been frequently prepared by a process analogous to that 
described above. 

It is needless to remark that Dr..Mendeléef’s views are not shared by. 
every competent authority; nevertheless, the remarkable permanence 
of oil- wells, the apparently inexhaustible evolution of hydro-carbon gases 
in certain regions, almost forces one to believe that the hydro-carbon 
products must be forming as fast as they are consumed, that there is 
little danger of the demand ever exceeding the supply, and that there 
is every prospect of oil being found in almost every portion of the sur- 
face of the earth, especially in the vicinity of great geological disturb- 
ances. Improved methods of boring wells will enable greater depths 
to be reached ; and it should be remembered that, apart from the cost 
of sinking a deep well, there is no extra expense in working at great 
depths, because the oil generally rises to the surface or near it. The ex- 
traordinary pressures, amounting to 300 pounds per square inch, which 
have been measured in some wells, seem {o me to yield conclusive evi- 
dence of the impermeability of the strata from under which the oil has 
been forced up, and tend to confirm the view that it must have been 
formed in regions far below any which could have contained organic 
remains. 


eee 


tn ae ie 


ALUMINUM.* 
By H. C. Hovey. 


The formal opening of the great works of the Aluminum Brass and 
Bronze Company, at Bridgeport, Connecticut, makes it desirable, as a 
preliminary, that we state a few facts about the unalloyed metal itself. 
Quite learned men have indulged in wild talk about the metal, which 
is more widely distributed over the globe than any other, being known 
to exist in two hundred different minerals, including all granites and 
common clays. 

The problem has been to extract the metal cheaply, and chemists of 
every land have labored for a solution. Qérsted suggested a process 
of obtaining aluminum by treating the chloride with an alkali metal. 
Adopted by Woehler, and modified by Deville, the process was “a 
reduction of the double chloride of aluminum and sodium by means of 

,; metallic sodium in the presence of eryolite.” It was thus that Deville 
‘was able to show at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, as the greatest of mod- 
ern chemical wonders, a bar of what he styled “silver-white metal 
made from clay.” He sold aluminum first at $15 an ounce, but in 1857 
he reduced the price to $2 an ounce. Improvements cheapened the 
product still further, so that Colonel Frishmuth, who cast the tip of 
the Washington Monument in 1884, was able to furnish the metal in 
bars at $15 a pound. In that year however he made only 1,800 ounces, 
and the entire import was but 590 pounds. 

Prior to 1887, the entire amount manufactured annually was but 
10,000 pounds, and it sold that year at $10 a pound. To get even this 
small amount required the annual manufacture of 106,000 pounds of 
the double chloride and 40,000 pounds of sodium. To cheapen these 
two preliminary processes was essential to the cheap production of 
aluminum. 

Hence the importance of the process patented by Mr. Hamilton Y. 
Castner, June 1, 1886, which was the first patent ever granted for an 
aluminum process in the United States. Its special feature was a cheap 
way of getting sodium. He reduced and distilled it in large iron ecruci- 
bles, raised automatically through apertures in the bottom of the fur- 
nace, where they remain until the reduction is completed and the sodium 


“From the Scientific American. 


H. Mis. 224 46 721 





722 ALUMINUM. 


distilled. Through tubes in stationary coyers the distilled metal passes 
to condensers, where it is solidified. When the process is completed, 
the crucible is lowered and a new one with a fresh charge is substituted 
and raised into the furnace. The residues are carbonate of soda and 
metallic iron, both of which can again be utilized. The process is as 
simple as it is ingenious, and the temperature required is very moderate, 
the sodium distilling as eazily as zinc. One charge requires about an 
hour, and a battery of four furnaces can yield a ton of sodium a day. 
The metal is kept from oxidation by a covering of mineral oil till used. 

The Deville-Castner process takes the double chloride finely divided 
and mixed with thin slices of sodium, and empties the mixing cylinder 
on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, where the mass quickly melts, 
and a re-action takes place that finally liberates a silvery stream of 
molten aluminum, that is drawn out from below, while the melted slag 
runs off from above. The first run is purest and contains about three- 
fourths of the charge. The remainder is scraped off from the hearth, 
or found entangled with the slag, from which it has to be separated. 
The aluminum is finally re-melted in plumbago crucibles, and cast into 
ingots, bars, or plates. 

The Journal of the Society of Arts, from whose very extended account 
the foregoing is abridged, adds that day by day, as the manufacture 
progresses, improvements are made which either enhance the economy 
of production or the purity of the product, and speaks in the highest 
praise of the skill, energy, and perseverance of Mr. Castner and his 
assistants, by whom, more than any others, aluminum has been brought 
into the market on commercially practicable terms and in a condition 
of almost perfect purity. 

Grabau’s process may be briefly described. Powdered cryolite put 
into a solution of the sulphate of aluminum gives by re-action the fluoride 
of aluminum, which is then heated till ready to evaporate. The heated 
fluoride is pulverized and thrown upon melted sodium contained in a 
vessel lined with eryolite. The heat generated by the violent re-action 
melts the aluminum as well as the cryolite; and the molten mass being 
poured out, the pure aluminum settles at the bottom, while the cryolite 
is at the top. The main advantage of this method over the Castner 
process is that it goes on at a lower temperature and is extremely simple. 

Numerous other processes are described by Richards in his exhaustive 
work on the subject ; e. g., reduction by cyanogen, by hydrogen, by car- 
buretted hydrogen, by carbonand carbon-dioxide, concerning all of which 
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt remarks that “there has been no pure aluminum 
made commercially save from the chloride by the use of sodium.” Web- 
ster is the chief manufacturer in England on his own patents, and large 
works have been erected in France on Bunsen and Deville’s process by 
electrolysis. 

But after all, the only true rival of the Castner-Deville process seems 
to be the Hall process, on patents of Charles M. Hall, and carried on by 


ore a 


ALUMINUM. eo 


the Pittsourgh Reduction Company, who are now selling pure aluminum 
at a rate cheaper than nickel; and tons of metal are rolled by the Sco- 
ville Manufacturing Company, of Waterbury, into sheets, bars, rods, and 
tubing at a price less than German silver. Briefly, the Hall process is 
this: A flux being discovered that at a moderate temperature takes the 
aluminum ore into solution, and that is of lighter specific gravity, and 
that also is unaffected by the passage of an electric current, he fills a 
series of carbon-lined steel pots with the flux, which is kept in a melted 
condition. Carbon electrodes are plunged into these baths, through 
which passes the electric current, which acts to send the aluminum to 
the sides and bottom of each pot. The baths are constantly replenished 
with ore, and the process thus goes on for an indefinite period, night 
and day, at small cost, and demanding but little attention. 

Aluminum, whether pure or in combination, deserves to rank with 
the noble metals ;—although in certain forms it makes the basis of our 
common clay, every cubic yard of which is said to contain 800 pounds 
of the metal; in other forms it is massed in mountains; and in others 
still, it shines among the most precious stones, entering into the compo- 
sition of the ruby, sapphire, topaz, garnet, lapis-lazuli, and tourmaline. 

Cryolite, found in Greenland, and beauxite, first found at Beaux, in 
France, but since in Austria, Ireland, and elsewhere, are the ores relied 
on for the manufacture of aluminum. Cryolite is a snow-white mineral, 
though often tinged red or yellow by impurities. Beauxite is a hard 
white clay, occurring in beds many feet thick. Corundum, found in 
Georgia, is the material relied on in America especially for making the 
alloys. It varies from dull blue to black, and exists in massive form, as 
well as in crystals. The cost at the factory of these different minerals 
varies from $60 to $140 a ton. 

The properties of aluminum are now generally known. Its color is 
white delicately tinged with blue, and it resembles silver more than any 
other metal. It takes a brilliant polish,and may be rolled or forged as 
easily as gold or silver, and may be beaten into very thin leaves. It can 
be pressed or stamped into all sorts of shapes, or drawn into very fine 
wire. Its elasticity and tenacity are about the same as virgin silver, but 
change greatly under the hammer. It is said to resist the graving-tool 
till properly varnished, ~vhen it may be cut like copper. Its sonorous- 
ness is very curious. Cast in bell form its sound is sharp, and not pro- 
longed ; but struck as a bar, it is remarkably sweet, pure, and resonant. 
Its sound is resolved into two tones, related to each other as are D and 
A. Fora musieal instrument, fine effects might be had from a series 
of chromatic bars. 

In estimating the relative cost of aluminum as compared with other 
metals, we must take its specific gravity into the account. <A bar of 
aluminum weighing 1 pound would be about four times as large as a simi- 
lar bar of silver, brass, bronze, tin, or iron. Hence, at an equal price, 
aluminum would be four times as cheap as silver, but as it now costs by 


124 ALUMINUM. 


weight only one-eighth as much, it must be relativery about thirty-two 
times as cheap. In other words, the purchaser would find it economi- 
cal to use aluminum in preference to silver for everything to which it is 
adapted. As aconductor of electricity it equals silver, and is eight 
times better than iron, and as a conductor of heat it excels any other 
metal known. Neither air nor water, hot or cold, affects it, and it re- 
sists all acids except hydrochloric. It slowly yields to a mixture of salt 


and vinegar with a result as harmless as clay itself. It does not seem 


to be affected by saliva, perspiration, or other animal agents. Hydro- 
gen, nitrogen, sulphur, and carbon do not affect it, but it is rapidly 
attacked by chlorine, fluorine, iodine, and bromine. From the above 
observation aluminum does not seem to have an intimate analogy with 
any other known metal, though Richards and Woehler place it near to 
silicon and boron in the carbon series. 

Aluminum melts slowly at about 700° C, (1292° F.), without a flux, and 
in an ordinary uncovered earthen crucible lined with carbon. The 
pieces of divided metal are first dipped in benzine to clean them, and 
if necessary, are treated with nitric acid and then put in the crucible 
little by little. a. 

A cinder remains at the bottom of the crucible. The molten metal 
may be cast either in metallic molds or in very dry porous sand with 
numerous vents. Deville prefers a plumbago crucible without a lid, and 
exposes the red-hot metal for a long time to the open air to allow the 
exhalation of the acid fumes, after which the surface is skimmed without 
loss of metal. It is then cast intoingots. To get perfectly clean results 
this process is repeated three or four times. The pure metal thus ob- 
tained improves in color with using, while what is less pure tarnishes in 
time, though perhaps equally brilliant on first casting. 

The Aluminum Company, with offices at 115 Cannon street, London, 
and works at Oldbury, near Birmingham, issued a price-list Novem- 
ber 1, 1889, from which we quote aluminum, 994 to 99% per cent., purity 


guarantied, 15 shillings per pound; 98 to 99, 15 shillings per pound 5 


95 to 96, 12 shillings a pound. 

The first article manufactured from pure aluminum was a rattle for 
the young Prince Imperial of France, in 1856, the sonorousness of which 
was much admired. It was next made into jéwelry, medals, and inlaid 
work. Its extreme lightness led to its being used for sextants, eye- 
glasses, opera-glasses, and the tubes of telescopes. It has been found 
useful for the beams of balances, for delicate weights, and in the form 
of fine wire for embroidery. Culinary articles made from it were to be 
seen at the London exhibition in 1862, for which it seemed admirably 
adapted on account of its lightness and immunity from corrosion. 

Experiments have been rapidly mutiplied of late, under the encour- 
agement given by reason of the increased cheapness of the metal, and 
a promising field is surely opening for its employment for many orna- 
mental and useful purposes. The processes of soldering, welding, ve- 


—— 


i pier ie ell, iil 


ALUMINUM. 725 


neering, gilding, and silvering aluminum are minutely described in 
Richards’s work on the subject. 

The aluminum industry is on a firm footing, both in Europe and 
America. There have sprung up two distinct lines of manufacture; 
the one a chemical process, and the other strictly metallurgical. The 
former produces pure aluminum, and continues to be a complicated 
process demanding skill and patience. The latter produces only the 
alloys of aluminum, and has been made extremely simple by certain 
methods not necessary to be here described. 


ALLOYS OF ALUMINUM.* 


By J. H. DAGGER. 


Deville’s method, modified in detail, is still the chief of the chemical 
processes for the production of aluminum, and is dependent upon the 
cost of metallic sodium. The greatest value of aluminum is however 
in its alloys, and the successful application of the intense heat of the 
electric are to their production on a commercial scale marks a depatt- 
ure in electro metallurgy of which we can not overestimate the impor- 
tance, rendering it possible to produce rich alloys of this metal at half 
the cost of any other method, and so widening the field of their appli- 
cation to an extent hitherto unknown. 

At the works of the Cowles Company, Lockport, New York, there are 
in operation fourteen furnaces, the electricity for which is generated by 
three dynamos, capable of supplying a current of 3,000 to 3,200 am- 
peres, and E. M. F. of 55 to 60 volts. These furnaces can produce 2,500 
pounds of aluminum bronze (10 per cent.) and 1,800 pounds of ferro- 
aluminum (10 per cent.), or a total yield of 430 pounds of contained 
aluminum per twenty-four hours. The English works of the company 
at Milton, Staffordshire, contain twelve furnaces with a500-horse power 
dynamo, built by Messrs. Crompton, and said to be the largest machine 
in England and probably in the world; it furnishes a current of 5,000 
to 6,000 ampéres, with an E. M. F. of 50 to 60 volts. The production of 
these works is 2,500 pounds aluminum bronze (10 per cent.) and 1,800 
pounds ferro-aluminum (10 per cent.) per twenty-four hours, or 410 
pounds of contained aluminum. 

The furnaces are rectangular in form and are of fire-brick ; into each 

_end is built a cast-iron tube, through which the carbon electrodes 





*Abstract of a paper read before the Chemical Section of the British Association, 
A. S., at Newcastle, September, 1889. (Report of British Association, vol. LIX, pp. 
538-540. ) 


726 ALUMINUM. ; 


enter the furnace; each electrode consists of a bundle of nine car- 
bons, each 24 inches diameter, attached to a head of cast-iron fora 
ferro-aluminum furnace and of cast copper for aluminum bronze or 
alloys containing copper. This head is secured to copper rods, or 
‘‘ Jeads,” which can be readily connected with or disconnected from the 
flexible cables supplying the current. Each cable is secured to slides 
travelling on an omnibus bar of copper overhead, and so can be brought 
into position opposite the turnaces to be used. The electrodes are ar- 

ranged so that it is possible by means of a handle and screw to advance 
or withdraw them from each other in the furnace. 

The first furnaces were lined with charcoal, but it was found that the 
intense heat converted it into graphite, which, being a conductor, not 
only meant loss of power, but the destruction of the furnace walls. This 
difficulty has been overcome by soaking the charcoal in lime-water and 
carefully drying before use; each particle of charcoal is thus coated 
with an insulating shell of lime. 

Lining the furnace is the first operation; the bottom of the trough 
is covered with a layer of prepared charcoal, the electrodes are arranged 
in the furnace, and a “former,” a sheet-iron box without top or bottom, 
each end being arched to fit over the electrodes, is inserted ; charcoal 
is then rammed into the space between it and the fire-brick walls. 
This done, the charge of ore, mixed with coarse charcoal and the metal 
to be alloyed with the aluminum, in form of turnings or granules, is 
placed inside the iron box, after which this is carefully withdrawn; the 
space between the electrodes is bridged by some broken pieces of car- 
bon, the charge is covered with coarse charcoal, and the furnace closed 
by a heavy cast-iron cover having a hole in the center for the escape of 
gases evolved during the reaction; the cover is luted so as to prevent 
the entrance of air. 

The commencing current is about 3,000 ampéres, and is gradually 
increased to 5,000 amperes; a “run” occupies about one and one-half 
hours. The furnace is allowed to cool; the next, ready charged, is con- 
nected with the cables so that the process is a continuous one, the fur- 
naces being successively charged and connected. The crude metal from 
the furnace is then re-melted in an ordinary reverberating furnace, a 
‘sample being taken from each run and assayed for aluminum. The 
nature of the re-action that takes place in the electric furnace is not very 
easy to ascertain; the conditions are unlike those of any other process 
known. The reduction of the aluminum taking place in absence of air 
and in presence of an enormous excess of carbon, it may be assumed 
that at the intense heat of the electric arc, the ore melts and gives up 
its oxygen to the carbon : 


~ Al,O,+3C0=3C00+Al. 
In the absence of copper, the liberated aluminum absorbs carbon and 


is converted into a carbide of the metal. The escaping gas which burns 
at the orifice in the cover is almost entirely composed of CO. 


: 





ALUMINUM. (27 


The most valuable of the alloys are those with copper. Aluminum 
bronze has great tensile strength. A bar containing 11 per cent. alumi- 
num made by the electric furnace and tested by the Leeds Forge Com- 
pany, limited, gave a tensile strain of 57.27 tons, or 128,400 pounds to the 
squareinch. One, containing 7.5 per cent. aluminum, tested by Professor 
Unwin, broke under 36.78 tons = 89,743 pounds to the square inch. In 
resistance to compression this alloy equals the best steel; its transverse 
strength, or rigidity, is about forty times greater than ordinary brass. 
Its elastic limit is higher than that of mild steei, and it can be worked 
at a bright-red heat as easily as wrought iron. Its mechanical and 
physical properties render it useful for every variety of metal work, its 
high price only having hitherto restricted its use. Its enormous 
strength and anti-corrodible qualities recommend it as valuable above 
any other alloy for propeller blades, stern and rudder frames, and for 
hydraulic and engineering work generally. With above 11 per cent. the 
alloy becomes brittle; and at 20 per cent. can be powdered readily in a 
mortar. The addition of small quantities of aluminum lowers the fus- 
ing point of iron, and this is utilized in the “ Mitis” castings. Itinsures 
freedom from blow-holes, increased tensile strength, and high elastic 
limit. Mr. Keep found that 0.1 per cent. aluminum raised the transverse 
breaking strength of a one-half inch bar, 12 inches long, from 379 pounds 
to 545 pounds, or 44 per cent., and the resistance to impact from 239 
pounds to 254 pounds, or 6 percent. The tensile strength of Mitis cast- 
ings may be as high as 27 tons per square inch, with an elongation of 20 
per cent. Another alloy made in the electric furnace is silicon bronze, 
which, owing to its great strength and tenacity, its resistance to corro- 
sion, combined with high electrical conductivity, is perhaps the best 
metal extant for electric light, telephone, and telegraph wires. 





> 














THE EIFFEL TOWER.* 


The notion of a tower 1,000 feet in height is not new. It has 
haunted the imagination of Englishmen and Americans. As early 
as 1833, the celebrated English engineer Trevitick proposed to construct 
a cast-iron tower 1,000 feet high, of which the diameter should be 
100 feet at the base and 4 feet at the summit. But his project was 
never put in execution, and was but imperfectly worked out even on 
paper. 

At the time of the Exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, the great 
American engineers, Messrs. Clarke and Reeves, brought forward a new 
project. Their tower was to consist of an iron eylinder 9 meters in 
diameter as a nucleus, and supported by a series of metal buttresses 
disposed round if and starting from a base with a diameter of 45 
meters. This was a distinct improvement on the English project, 
although it still left room for criticism; and yet the Americans, in 
spite of their enterprising sp:rit and the national enthusiasm excited 
by this conception, shrank from its execution. 

In 1881, M. Sébillot proposed to light Paris by an eleetrie lamp 
placed at a height of 1,000 feet. This idea, which has, in my opinion, 
no practical value, had no better fate than its predecessors. I need 
only mention the designs, some in masonry, some in metal work and 
masonry combined, others, lastly, in wood, like the proposed tower for 
the Brussels Exhibition, which were produced at the same time as my 
own. But all these remained in the domain of fancy, proposals easy 
to frame but hard to execute. I come to the project which has been 
realized. 

In 1885, after the studies which my engineers and I had oceasion to 
make with regard to the lofty metal piers which support railway via- 
ducts like that of Garabit, we were led to believe that it was possible 
to construct these without any great difficulty of a much greater 
height than any hitherto made which did not exceed 230 feet. We 
planned on these lines a great pier for a viaduct which should have a 
height of 395 feet and a base of 131 feet. 








*From the New Review. Copied in the Lelectic Magazine, Sept., 1889, Vol. L., pp. 
355-359. 
729 


730 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


The result of these studies led me, with a view to the exhibition of 
1889, to propose the erection of the tower, now completed, of which the 
first plans had been drawn out by two of my chief engineers, Messrs. 
Nouguier and Keechlin, and by M. Sauvestre, an architect. 

The fundamental idea of these pylons or great archways is based on 
a method of construction peculiar to me, of which the principal con- 
sists in giving to the edges of the pyramid a curve of such a nature 
that this pyramid shall be capable of resisting the force of the wind, 
without necessitating the junction of the edges by diagonals, as is 
usually done. 

On this principal the tower was designed in the form of a pyramid, 
with four curved supports, isolated from eacb other and joined only by 
the platforms of the different stories. Higher up only, and where the 
four supports are suffi ciently close to each other, the ordinary diagonals 
are used, 

In June, 1886, a commission nominated by M. Lockroy, then min- 
ister of commerce and industry, finally accepted the plans I had sub- 
mitted to it, and on January 8, 1887, the agreement with the State and 
the City of Paris was signed, fixing the conditions under which the 
tower was to be constructed. 

It is needless to state that considerable energy and perseverance 
were required to attain this result, for there was much resistance to 
overcome, and my project had many opponents. 

But I was sustained by the belief that what I proposed would con- 
tribute to the honor of our national industry and to the success of the 
exhibition, and it was not without a legitimate sense of satisfaction that 
I saw an army of navvies begin, on January 28, 1887, those excavations 
at the bottom of which were to rest the four feet of the tower which 
had never been out of my thoughts for the last two years. 

I felt moreover—in spite of the violent attacks to which my project 
had been exposed —that public opinion was on my side, and that a crowd 
of unknown friends were ready to honor this bold enterprise as soon as 
it took form. The imagination of men was struck by the colossal di- 
mensions of the edifice, especially in the matter of height. 

The towers of Notre Dame de Paris reach a height of 217 feet; the 
Pantheon 260 feet; the dome of the Invalides, which is the highest 
monument in Paris, 344 feet; Strasburg Cathedral is 466 feet; the 
Great Pyramid of Egypt 479 feet; the Cathedral of Rouen rises 492 
feet from the ground, and is only surpassed by Cologne Cathedral, 
which, lately completed, attains to 522 feet; but the Americans again 
outdid this by erecting at Washington an immense obelisk in masonry 
which reaches a height of 555 feet, and was constructed with immense 
difficulty. 

Experience has shown however that masonry is not suitable for a 
construction of the kind. With iron, on the contrary,—of which the 
properties are so remarkable, since it may be as readily employed in ten- 


eas 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. 731 


sion as in compression, and can be put together perfectly by rivetting— 
the execution presented no insurmountable difficulties. Moreover, 
metil constructions can now be planned with such accuracy as to sane- 
tion the boldness which results from full knowledge. 

Lastly, without any desire to flatter our national vanity, I may be 
allowed to say that French industry has held and still holds a high 
place in Europe in the art of building in iron. 

Hence the material of which the tower was to be built was deter- 
mined not only by the fact that it rendered construction possible, but 
also because it would supply a brilliant example of a modern industry 
in which France has been more especially distinguished since its intro- 
duction. 

The base of the tower consists of four great piers, which bear the 
names of the four cardinal points. The first matter which offered itself 
for consideration was the question of the solidity of the foundation of 
these four piers. <A series of borings showed that the subsoil in the 
Champ de Mars was composed of a deep stratum of clay capable of 
supporting a weight of between 45 pounds and 55 pounds to the square 
inch, surmounted by a layer of sand and gravel of varying depth, ad- 
mirably calculated to receive the foundations. The actual position of 
the tower was determined by considerations relative to the depth of 
this stratum, since it was impossible to rest the piers directly on the 
clay. The foundation of each pier is now separated from the clay by 
a sufficient thickness of gravel. 

Each of the main supports of the tower rests on blocks of masonry, 
and the masonry rests on beds of concrete which cover an area of 60 
square meters. In the center of each pile of stone-work, are two great 
iron bars 25 feet 6 inches in length and 4 inches in diameter, which, by 
means of iron cramps, unite almost all parts of the masonry. This 
anchorage, which is not necessary to the stability of the tower—suffi- 
ciently assured by its own weight—gives nevertheless additional secu- 
rity, and has moreover been useful in the construction of the iron- 
work. 

It will be seen from the foregoing description that the foundations 
are established under conditions of great security, and that in the 
choice of materials and in the dimensions ample margin has been 
allowed, so as to leave no room for doubt with regard to their solidity. 

Nevertheless, to render perfectly certain that the feet of the tower 
should remain absolutely level in any event, we have made room, at 
the angles of the piers where they rest on the masonry, for hydraulic 
presses of 800 tons. By means of these presses each pier can be dis- 
placed and raised as much as is vecessary by inserting steel wedges 
beneath it. 

The raising into place of the iron-work which forms the upper part 
of the tower was accomplished by derricks and windlasses. As soon 
as the piers reached a height of 100 feet their inclination rendered 


132 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


scaffolding necessary to carry on the construction to a height of 169 
feet, at which point are established the horizontal beams uniting the 
four piers and forming the skeleton of the first story. The solid con- 
struction of the first platform was a great step toward the success of 
the work. 

The raising of the pillars between the first and second platforms was 
rapidly accomplished by the same method as that employed between 
the ground and the first story, i.e, the pieces of iron were raised by 
four cranes attached to the beams of the lift placed in each pier. 

The work went forward so rapidly that in July, 1888, the four pillars 
were united by the beams of the second story, at a height of 387 feet, 
and by the 14th of the month the second platform was fixed, on which 
fireworks were displayed at the Féte Nationale. 

The erection of that part of the tower comprised between the second 
platform and the summit was carried out by means of the same cranes 
as had served for the lower part; but these no longer worked on an 
inclined plane, but were raised along an upright, formed by the central 
guide of the higher lifts. 

The total weight of the ironwork in the tower is rather more than 
7,000 tons, without counting that in the caissons, which form a portion 
of the foundations, or that in the machinery of the lifts. 

The different parts of the tower are reached by staircases and lifts 
There are easy stairs in the east and west piers, which give access to 
the first story, and it is calculated that by using one for ascent and one 
for descent they will allow more than two thousand persons to go up 
and come down in the hour. From the first platform to the second 
there are four winding staircases, one in each pier, and from the second 
platform to the summit there is a single winding staircase, which how- 
ever (unlike the others) is not intended for the use of visitors, but for 
officials only. 

On the first platform is a covered gallery, with arcades, whence visi- 
tors can enjoy a view of Paris and its environs, as well as of the Exhi- 
bition, with four refreshment rooms in the center,—Anglo-American, 
Flemish, Russian, and French. On the second story is a second cov- 
ered gallery; and in the center is the station where passengers change 
from the lifts which move on an inclined plane of the lower half of the 
tower, to the vertical lifts of the upper portion. 

On the third story is a great saloon more than 50 feet square, shut 
in by glass on all sides, and whence, sheltered from wind and weather, 
the spectator can contemplate the magnificent panorama, 45 leagues in 
extent, which is displayed beneath him. Above this room are labora- 
tories and observatories for scientific purposes, and in the center the 
winding stair leading to the light-house whence the electric light shines 
over the whole of Paris. 

The lifts are on three different systems, and all are provided with 
breaks, and otherwise insured against the possibility of serious accident. 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. 138 


They are all worked by hydraulic power, and together are capable of 
conveying 2,350 persons in an hour to the first and second stories, and 
750 to the summit, the whole ascent being effected in seven minutes. 
If we include the staircases it will be possible for 5,000 persons to visit 
the tower in the space of an hour. 

The tower is now known to the whole world; it has struck the imagi- 
nation of every nation, and inspired the most remote with the desire of 
visiting the Exhibition. The press of all countries confirms this state- 
ment, and I have myselfreceived continual proofs of the universal curi- 
osity and interest excited by the monument. 

The visitors who go to the top of the tower have beneath their eyes 
a magnificent panorama. At their feet they see the great city, with 
its innumerable monuments, its avenues, its towers, and its domes; the 
Seine, which winds through it like a long ribbon of steel; farther off, 
the green circle of the hills which surround Paris; and beyond these, 
again, the wide horizon stretching 112 miles from north to south. At 
night the spectacle is no less beautiful. Paris with all its lights is like 
fairy-land, but in this aspect it has hitherto been known only to aeron- 
auts, on whom its beauty has always made a strong impression. The 
construction of the tower will enable thousands to contemplate a spec- 
tacle of new and incomparable loveliness. 

Then too for scientific and defensive purposes the gigantic monu- 
ment will be of great utility. A recent writer, M. Max de Nansouty, 
Says: 

‘In case of war or seige the movements of the enemy might be ob- 
served from the tower within a radius of 50 miles, and that above the 
heights which encircle Paris, and on which are constructed our new 
fortifications. Had we possessed the tower at the time of the seige of 
Paris, in 1870, with the powerful electric lights with which it will be 
furnished, who knows if the chances of the strife would not have been 
profoundly modified? The tower would be a means of constant and 
easy communication between Paris and the provinces by the aid of 
optical telegraphy, which has in various forms attained such a remark- 
able degree of perfection.” 

The tower is itself at such a distance from the fortifications that it is 
absolutely out of reach of the enemy’s battery. 

It will be moreover a wonderful meteorological observatory, whence 
the direction and the force of atmospheric currents can be usefully 
studied, from the point of view of science and hygiene, as well as the 
condition and the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the amount 
of electricity and moisture it contains, the variations of temperature 
at different heights, atmospherical polarization, ete. It is specially 
adapted for an astronomical observatory; for the purity of the air at 
this great height above the low-lying mists, which so often cloud the 
horizon of Paris, will allow of a number of observations often impossi- 
ble in our climate. 


134 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


I will not weary my readers with the enumeration of all the experi- 
ments to be made on the tower, of which a programme has been already 
drawn up by our scientific men, and which inelude the study of the fall 
of bodies through the air the resistance of the air to varying velocities, 
certain laws of elasticity, the study of the compression of gases of 
vapors under the pressure of an immense manometer of 400 atmos- 
pheres, a new realization on a great scale of Foucault’s pendulum 
demonstrating the rotation of the earth, the deviation toward the East 
of a falling body, ete., ete. ; lastly, a series of physiological experiments 
of the deepest interest. 

I may even goso far as to say that there are few scientific men who 
do not hope at this moment to carry out, by the help of the tower, some 
experiment connected more especially with their own investigations. 

Thus it will be an observatory and laboratory such as was never until 
now at the disposal of science ; and from the first ail our scientific men 
have encouraged me with their warmest sympathy. On my side, and 
in order to express in a striking manner that the monument which I 
have raised is dedicated to science, I decided to inscribe in letters of 
gold on the great frieze of the irst platform, and in the place of honor, 
the names of the greatest men of science who have honored France, 
from 1789, down to our own day. 

Besides all these uses, which I might have explained in greater de- 
tail, but which, even in this rapid summary, will serve to show that we 
have not erected. an object of barren wonder, the tower possesses in my 
eyes a usefulness of a totally different order, which is the true source 
of the ardor which has inspired me in my work. 

The public at large understood this, and it 1s also the reason of the 
very general and warm sympathy which has been displayed toward me. 

My object was to show to the whole world that France is a great 
country, and that sheis still capable of success where others have 
failed. 

The Scientific American said, in 1874, with reference to the tower of 
Philadelphia, destined to celebrate the centenary of the national inde- 
pendence: ‘¢ The character of the project is closely connected with the 
purpose of its erection; the hundredth anniversary of our national ex- 
istence ought not to be allowed to pass without a permanent memorial, 
which an exhibition lasting a few months cannot furnish. It is evident 
that in the space of two years no monument of imposing aspect and 
original in conception can be constructed with other material than iron; 
from every point of view we could not choose a more national construc- 
tion. We will celebrate our centenary by the most colossal iron con- 
struction that the world has seen.” 

Can we not apply to ourselves these words which, remaining a dead 
letter in America in 1874, have become for us in France a living reality ? 

May I be allowed to recall here a few words which I pronounced in 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. 735 


inaugurating the first stage of the tower, and which sum up my ideas 
on the subject : 

“The beginning was difficult, and criticism as passionate as it was 
premature was addressed to me. I faced the storm as best I could, 
thanks to the constant support of M. Lokroy, then Minister of Com- 
merce and Industry, and I strove by the steady progress of the work 
to conciliate, if not the opinion of artists, at least that of engineers 
and scientific men. I desired to show, in spite of my personal insignifi- 
cance, that France continued to hold a foremost place in the art of iron 
construction, in which from tie earliest days her engineers have been 
more particularly distinguished, and by means of which they have cov- 
ered Europe with the creations of their talent. Doubtless you are not 
ignorant that almost all the great engineering works of this nature, in 
Austria, Russia, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are due to French engin- 
eers, and the traveller discovers with pride, as he passes through foreign 
countries, the traces of their activity and their science. 

‘The tower, 1,000 feet high, is before everything a striking manifesta- 
tion of our national genius in one of its most modern developments ; and 
this is one of the principal reasons for its existence. If I may judge by 
the interest which it inspires, abroad as well as at home, I have reason 
to believe that my efforts have not been unavailing, and that we may 
make known to the world that France continues to lead the world, that 
she is the first of the nations to realize an enterprise often attempted or 
dreamed of: for man has always sought to build high towers to mani- 
fest his power, but he soon recognized that the laws of gravity hampered 
him seriously, and that his means were very limited. It is owing to the 
progress of science, of the engineer’s art, and of the iron industry, that 
we are enabled to surpass in this line the generations which have gone 
before us by the construction of this tower, which will be one of the 
characteristic feats of modern industry.” 

Soit is that I have wished to raise to the glory of modern science, and 
for the more especial honor of French industry, a triumphal arch as 
striking as those which earlier generations have raised to honor con- 
querors. 


736 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


THE EIFFEL TOWER.* 


By WILLIAM A. Eppy. 


A tower about 1,000 feet in height was first thought of during the 
organization of the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, and 
its possible construction was discussed in the newspapers at the time. 
But consultation with engineers and architects probably resulted in 
the conviction that the scheme was impracticable, and the expense be 
yond the value of the investment, especially if masonry were used. 
Aside from the question of outlay, a serious difficulty in the construc- 
tion of any kind of material to such an altitude, there are questions of 
pressure and danger that daunt experienced engineers. M. G. Wiffel, 
constructor of some of the greatest works in France, notably the trestle- 
work viaduct at Garabit, 407 feet high, concluded that the building of 
such a tower had not been attempted in ancient timés, so far as known, 
because iron construction then lacked the lightness, strength, and adapt- 
ability seen in modern work. The enormous weight of masonry in so 
great a mass would not only imperil, by its tremendous pressure, the 
courses of stone near the ground, but would cause an irregular settling 
of the foundations, as in the well-known instance of the Leaning Tower 
of Pisa. In modern work, a pressure of 66 pounds for each square cen- 
timetert is considered dangerous. It is admitted that 55 pounds in 
this proportion is too extreme for safety, although, owing to peculiari- 
ties of construction, this has been exceeded in some of the following 
instances cited by M. Navier: 


Pounds 
Pillars'of the'dome of the Invalides, Paris... 2.5.2.3 it. coca sees es eee ee Oa Oo 
PillarsvoftSt: Peters; Rome tase a2 ts cee eee eee eee ee 36. 08 
PillarsiofiSt. Paulie: Londonmscace Slee eee coe ee eee Rea 42. 70 
Columns of, St. Paul-hors-les:-Murs, Rome -52-2-. =. - 522 sc soe eee ee eases 43.58 
Pillars(of the'tower of St. Merri, Paris’. -2- 2-22-25 oso 2 oetsnin= so ee eee 64. 85 
Pillarsiof the dome of the Pantheon, Paris): scss+g-o- +s 2 foie eee eee OA Oe 


M. Navier includes an estimate of 99.25 pounds for the chureh of La 
Toussant 4 Angers, which is in ruins, and so not a convincing example. 
It thus appears that the resistance in some daring structures is from 
33 to 44 pounds, and only rises to nearly 65 in two instances. M. 
Hiffel cites the Washington Monument, which in its simplicity and 
boldness he considers remarkable. In M. Navier’s estimates given for 
thé greatest feats of architectural engineering in the Old World, this 


*From the Atlantic Monthly, June, 1889; vol. LxILl, pp. 721-727. 
tA square centimeter is about two-fifths of an inch on a side. 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. tot 


huge obelisk stands high on the list of wonderful structures, the press- 
ure at its base amounting to 58.35 pounds in the proportion above 
given. With the exception of the Hiffel tower, it is easily a bolder 
undertaking than any other of its hind known in the world, because it 
stands upon a relatively small base, with no side support, with a weight 
upon its foundations of 45,000 tons. This immense square shaft, about 
55 feet on a side, served as an illustration of the danger in attempting 
to carry masonry to a greater height than before achieved. Fortu- 
nately, the foundation settled evenly, but to prevent probable demo. 
lition, part of the base was re-constructed and filled in with concrete. 
Meantime the structure began to lean to an extent that caused great 
uneasiness, and finally the suspension of the work. The construction 
was begun in 1848, and in 1854, when it reached a height of 152 feet, 
its dangerous condition became somewhat marked. Its original in- 
tended altitude of 600 feet was then reduced to 500. In 1880, after 
great difficulties, the base had been widened and the foundation en- 
larged and deepened. Work was then recommenced, and the masonry 
continued upward at the rate of about 100 feet yearly, until the top- 
most stone was laid December 6, 1884. The inauguration took place 
February 21, 1885. 

An additional source of peril in the use of masonry, not included in 
the danger of settling, as in the Washington Monument, is the insuffi- 
cient adherence of modern mortar to great masses of stone, causing 
serious crumbling, and a reputation for danger much to be dreaded. 
An attempt to extend stone work to a height of 1,000 feet would cause 
an expense too great for the end attained, and the danger of fracture 
would be incessant and unavoidable. It seems that we can excel the 
ancients very little in the treatment of masonry. There is no easily 
discovered evidence that they built any such structure higher than the 
great Pyramid of Cheops, originally 450 feet in height. They had good 
reasons for this caution. If the foundations are solid, the stone may 
disintegrate, owing to the unequal distribution of the enormous weight, 
due to the limited power of the mortar to act as a cushion to equalize 
the force. The Egyptian and other ancient builders constructed some 
masonry without mortar by polishing and closely fitting the stone, but 
jt is not probable that they tried to carry such work to a very great 
height. In some modern buildings it is found that the resistance of 
very hard stone increases that of the mortar. Stone or brick work 
might reach a higher point than the Eiffel tower by the invention of 
cements more efficient than any now known, 

In considering the important question of the foundations for this 
great tower, elaborate borings were made in the Champ-de-Mars at 
Paris. This is a level field or park, about two thirds of a mile long and 
half as broad, devoted usually to the drilling of troops and to reviews, 
upon which the Exposition buildings for 1889, are now approaching 
completion, in commemoration of the storming of the Bastile one hun- 

H, Mis, 224——47 ; 





738 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


dred years ago, July 14 and 15, 1789, that memorable event of the 
French Revolution. It is intended to show the great advances in sci- 
ence, art, and industry, since that crude attempt to establish a republic. 

In selecting this location near the river Seine, much thought was 
given to the question of a foundation, because even a slight giving way 
would be so magnified in the great height of the structure’ that the 
strain sustained by cross-pieces and braces would be far greater than 
calculated. Fortunately, it was found that the soil consisted of a com- 
pact bed of plastic clay, 53 feet in thickness, surmounted by a bank of 
sand and gravel, and all inclined toward the Seine. This seemed well 
fitted for the purpose. M. Hiffel was not however entirely satisfied 
with it. He therefore increased the solidity of the foundations by 
means of caissons (heavy iron boxes with open bottoms) of compressed 
air which made their way downward into the soil partly by their own 
weight and partly by the excavation of the earth beneath them. The 
air prevented the possible rising of soft clay to smother the workmen. 
Incandescent electric lamps furnished light beneath the caissons, which 
were filled with heavy concrete that hardened, making as it were huge 
bricks of great solidity that sank still deeper. It was owing to this 
modern device, the compressed-air caisson, that a great danger was 
averted. The remains of unquestionably ancient masonry were found, 
which might have caused a dangerously uneven settling of the founda- 
tion. At each corner of the tower, which is square at the base and 
about 300 feet on a side, there is a lattice-work pillar that slants inward 
as it rises upward to a distance of about 600 feet from the ground, 
from which point the four like pillars continue together to the summit. 
These corner pillars are each 50 feet square at their bases, and are 
connected by open curved arches. Any unimportant subsidence of the 
foundation is provided for by hydraulic presses applied to iron wedges 
that lift each corner of the entire structure, and so any defect or strain 
due to contraction or expansion can be regulated. The relative light- 
ness and strength ef the material is such that the total weight will not 
be more for each square centimeter than that of a usual five-story 
house, certainly not as great as in very high buildings in New York 
and other large cities. The pressure upon the base of the tower is not 
more than 9 pounds for each square centimeter, while in the case of the 
Washington Monument it is, as we have seen, more than 58 pounds in 
like proportion. 

The foundations became practicable, but there was a powerful and 
irregular force involved in the tremendous side pressure of the wind 
upon a tower presenting so much vertical surface in spite of its open 
lattice-work. It is evident that the height of the great Washington 
Monument has been surpassed only by the use of iron, which has the 
power to bend and still resist the force of the wind and which is well 
able to withstand marked contractions and expansions. The horizon- 
tal vibration is considerable under a high wind, at such a distance 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. 139 


above the earth. The swaying of the long curved uprights will not be 
felt much by people at the summit. The height of the tower is such 
that the nature of the motion is gradual and less observable than in 
light-houses constructed of masonry, in which the elasticity is some- 
times remarkable, owing to the quality of the mortar used. It is in 
recent years only that metallic beams have been made that enable 
engineers to erect structures to a height of 200 feet. Still further ad- 
vances in the manufacture of iron make it now easy to attain 250 or 
even 350 feet. So many unknown quantities require consideration in a 
tower 1,000 feet high that the problem becomes serious and hard to 
solve. M. Hiffel points out the significant fact that the obstacles re- 
semble those met with in extending a bridge from 500 feet to twice that 
distance horizontally, because of the great and accumulating side pres- 
sure of the wind exerted upon high vertical structures. It is thus seen 
that the construction is a greater achievement than would be at first 
imagined. It was desirable, while estimating the tremendous wind 
pressure, to avoid the multiplication of upright beams, involving diag- 
onal braces more than 300 feet in length, which would result in an im- 
mense ugly iron fraine-work resembling an elongated cage, or trestle- 
work railway bridge set up on end, with a deplorable architectural 
effect. Clumsy masses of beams and braces were necessarily omitted. 
The curved lattice-work before mentioned disposed of this question. 

The corner pillars narrow from about 50 feet on a side at the base to 
16 feet near the summit. They are anchored on solid foundation walls, 
and above, are bound together by horizontal girders, which serve as 
supports for several large halls or assembly rooms at different heights. 
These floors increase the security of the structure. The uncertainty of 
the wind force and its extent as calculated has led M. Eiffel to be pecu- 
liarly prudent in his methods of construction. He assumes for purposes 
of safety that the force goes on increasing from the base to the summit 
until the pressure is doubled. In making estimates of resistance the 
iron lattice-work was considered a solid wall taking the full force of 
the wind. In the more open parts of the tower the actual surface of 
the iron was multiplied by four to secure safety from the effects of a 
severe tempest. The wind in Paris ordinarily exerts a strain of from 
13 to 15 pounds for each square meter.* A pressure of 22 pounds is 
allowed for in Germany, and Austria, in metallic frame works not sub- 
jected to the tremors of passing trains. This rulealso holds in France. 
But it becomes necessary to provide for a much severer strain when 
only one end of the structure is supported, as in the Eiffel tower. 

The inclination of the stone-work supporting each corner is at an 
angle of 50°. In extending upward the slanting ponderous iron-work, 
it was very difficult to maintain absolute stability, especially before the 
masses had been made secure by girders at the first gallery. As the 
work progressed this danger of displacement (requiring the utmost 


*39.37 inches on a side, 


740 THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


care) was lessened by the decreasing length of the girders that bound 
the whole together. In high trestle work, the apparently slight metallic 
bars seem insecure to the casual observer, an effect peculiarly notice- 
able in the high skeleton iron-work of the Manhattan Elevated Rail- 
road near Eighth avenue and One hundred and tenth street, New 
York City. The spindling frame work, in this case suggests weakness; 
but this is an illusion due to an association of strength with the pon- 
derous solidity of masonry or earth-work. 

The tower is spread much at the base to enhance its stability. Per- 
haps its height is exaggerated by the distant view of buildings in the 
Exposition grounds. The first gallery, which consists of an immense 
hall, is to be used as a promenade or for restaurants. IJt is 230 feet 
from the ground. Still further up is the second gallery, about 100 feet 
square and at a height of 377 feet, which exceeds the altitude of the 
following well-known structures: 


Feet. 
He. ao mero be Mill arse ecetavs crema ays= to's are ote oll elon’ sieteereiiate(a le ialeln(e rele ielelafe teers inve eae teneteretotate 363 
Spire of the Invalides, Paris... 02.2. - so-- 222s ic ocnre to sain elnino = onsies wel elsinie = eee 342 
Spires of St. Patrick’s \Cathednal «New Work a sea.8 chee ae sieneess eee 332 
Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor (above. the! water) o.-----sc.- eee eee 328 
Brooklyn Bridge towers ni Nelo Sle les See eaidials Shejeals ele eigis ayes lomo iatere sie wise clos es Rete erate 279 


Continuing up the Hiffel tower until it has narrowed to about 75 feet 
on a side we come to a point where the four great pillars combine, at 
about the height of the Washington Monument, the next highest 
known structure in the world. Only three of the following publie edi- 
tices, aside from the greatest of the Egyptian pyramids, are more than 
half as high as the Hiffel tower :— 


Feet 
Washington Monument -..- 0... - 2-2-2 - h2 22 2 oe ae a oo wn os wire nnn 555 
Cathedral OAC OOO CFs ercerele = cere at -tetel tele foe. ac=) = elet ale ola Neral eee 522 
Old St. Paul’s, London (destroyed by MES) EO aerejoine ed oe sre eee eer eee 520 
Cathe: ral of Rouen aaveleiefat Sorc ie eye lela ota vereeiels ieee nee eine eae ee eres eee eee eee 492 
Pyramid of Cheops’... ~20-ce.s- = ee ciewe 22s cen fees = = fe) ee ete 480 
GathedraliofaS tras borg 2 eevee erate a ert realtor eee aoe ie ea eee 465 
Cathedraliok Vienitalhs ose 5< cose cis ceticle clea sieociel ware ae Mee etekc = =f ihe oe ee eeeeere 453 
St. Peter's, ROMeC2 22. <2 -oae ccs ae aie tania so sic! aoe © osm winnie elale sie alnlnsm 3 ataia rate ateteletote 432 
Present: St; Raul’s, Wondony. csso-)ss-ne-eo sees es See eee aoe ee eens 404 


After adding 306 feet to the height of the Washington Monument, 
making 861 feet, the third gallery of the Hiffel tower is reached, where 
there is a glass-inclosed room 32 feet square, surrounded by a balcony. 
Surmounting this and 124 feet higher is a small observation room, with 
two windows on a side, from which can be seen Paris and its environs 
for a radius of about 75 miles. 

The elevators, four in number, are to be worked in pairs, two to be 
used for. visitors ascending and two for those descending, that an in- 
cessant stream of people may move in each direction. The ascent is 
to be made no faster than 20 inches a second, because great speed in 
stopping and starting would be decidedly alarming and disagreeable. 

The escape of lightning is to be provided fer by two east-iron con- 
ducting pipes, about 20 inches in diameter, reaching from the summit to 
the base and thence 60 feet into the ground, — 


THE EIFFEL TOWER, 741 


The construction of a tower composed of curves that will best with- 
stand the wind has produced a very graceful architectural outline. The 
air of trimness in the realization of the design is due to the fact that 
there has been no waste of material. An upward moving force in tak- 
ing the direction of least resistance would doubtless assume approxi- 
mately the form of this structure. Nearly all kinds of growth acquire 
something like this cone shape while manifesting concentrated motion 
necessitated by surrounding forces. Many beautiful designs are founded 
upon the tapering forms of flowers and of leaves, as in the delicate 
tracery of frost-work. In building to secure safety from the action of 
the elements, M. Eiffel has perhaps unintentionally followed the meth- 
ods of nature, and thus the arehitecural beauty of his work has the best 
possible confirmation. 

The well-worn criticism that this scheme lacks utility is ever present 
in all daring scientific enterprises. But the value of this tower is ad- 
mitted by eminent French scientists. It will take the place of the great 
balloon let up into the air by means of a cable worked by steam, which 
was so suecessful during the Exposition of 1878. An aseent ean be 
made without the danger of collapse or gas explosion caused by light- 
ning, often present in a captive balloon. The unexpectedly rapid ap- 
proach of a local storm might cause loss of life before the winding-in of 
a balloon couid be completed. The view of Paris at night, with its 
seemingly interminable boulevards brilliantly lighted, is marvellous, 
and such as aeronauts only have witnessed. The feeling of distance 
and height will not be lessened by intervening lower slopes as in most 
mountain views. 4 

It is proposed to put upon the tower a number of electric lamps, 
powerful enough to light thecity. The advantage of sucha system had 
been long thought of, but it was a very difficult project to carry out, 
owing to the great intensity necessary. It has been decided however 
that the Exposition buildings and grounds are to be lighted in a man- 
ner never before equalled. In 1881, M. Sebillot proposed to place elec- 
tric lights at an elevation of 1,000 feet, but the idea involved difficulties 
of construction and a waste of illumination that made it impracticable. 
It has been found that to make printed matter sufficiently legible in the 
park and gardens of the Exposition, not less than three concentric zones, 
numbering forty-eight lamps, would be required at so great a height. 
With special reflecting mirrors concentrating the light within prescribed 
limits, it is believed that the effect would be better than anything be- 
fore accomplished, so far as known. 

Many eminent men promptly admit the value of the tower for scien- 
tific purposes. M. Hervé-Mangon, of the Meteorological Society of 
France, points out the importance of observations made at different dis- 
tances from the earth’s surface under these conditions, and that experi- 
ments of the greatest interest are possible. The law of the decrease of 
the temperature with the height would be demonstrated better than 


(42 THE EIFFEL 'TOWER. 


from high points of land or from vast structures of masonry, which re- 
tain much heat, causing currents of air that interfere with observations 
or make them inexact. The variability of rain-fall could be well ob- 
served, also the average height to which fogs reach above the earth’s 
surface near Paris. <A relatively complete knowledge might be gained 
of the volume of water held in different air strata. This would make 
clear the reason why clouds light in volume sometimes precipitate so 
much water. As the condition of the air varies with the height, the 
advantage of having instruments far enough apart, one above the 
other, is obvious. On calm days, the general direction of the wind 
would be free from the effect of local heat accumulation due to the in- 
fluence of neighboring buildings. All these phenomena could be care- 
fully observed at a height to which only balloons ascend for an appre- 
ciable length of time. At this distance from the ground, the atmos- 
pheric conditions, freed from the surroundings of a mountainous or 
hilly region, are not precisely known. 

A position above the fogs that very often obscure the horizon of Paris 
will facilitate astronomical observations impossible in ordinary weather. 
The vibration of the tower will doubtless exclude it from use in obtain- 
ing the precise positions of the stars, as pointed out by some astrono- 
mers, but it will leave the field free to researches regarding the chemi- 
eal constituents of the stellar universe. Observations intended to es- 
tablish the proper motions of stars by the displacement of lines in the 
spectrum would be more exact at a height of 1,000 feet than at that of 
the observatories. Photographie apparatus at the summit of the tower 
would be moré efficient in case of an eclipse near the horizon, but work 
upon stars or nebul, requiring steadiness of position, ought to be re- 
served for calm nights. In every case the moon and the planets could 
be studied and drawn under more favorable conditions. The known 
temperature of the air at different heights is also of great importance 
in astronomical observations, because the resulting variation in refrac- 
tion is so often a matter of conjecture. 

In addition to the above experiments in meteorology, electrical science, 
and astronomy, there remain to be considered further questions of vege- 
table chemistry, peculiarities of growth under various conditions, and 
more exact data respecting the material constituents floating in the air. 
Further and finer investigations can be made, showing with additional 
interest the value of Foucault’s well-known pendulum experiment de- 
monstrating the rotation of the earth. The possible relation between 
magnetism and gravitation, which Faraday investigated with a falling 
body, might be carried further with advantage. 

The instantaneous transmission of time signals for the benefit of all 
Paris, the more exact measurement of the velocity of sound under 
various atmospheric conditions, the estimated resistance of the air as a 
body falls at given rates of speed, the law of metallic elasticity. in the 
contraction and expansion of the iron-work of the structure, the study 


a 


THE EIFFEL TOWER. (43 


of compressed gases and vapors with such extensive vertical possibili 
ties,—these are some of the objecis to be attained by this tower, des- 
tined to be one of the landmarks of scientife advancement. It may be 
of use as an army Signal station in case of war as a position from which 
to observe the movement of an enemy. Ata time of siege or of inter- 
ruption to telegraphic communication the tower could be used as a cen- 
ter for optical military signaling for long distances, such as the 70 
miles from Paris to Rouen. In such instances an answering signal 
might be sent from a high hill near at hand. 

The immense outlay of work in this great structure cost only 6,500,000 
franes, $1,300,000. There are twenty-seven iron panels, each of which 
required a separate diagram, that in turn formed the basis of a series 
of geometrical designs calculated by means of tables of logarithms. 
The metallic pieces number about twelve thousand, and the position of 
each, and the places for its rivets, had to be decided without error. In 
the iron plates were drilled 7,000,000 holes, which if placed end to end 
would form a tube 43 miles long. There were five hundred engineers’ 
designs, and twenty-five hundred leaves of working drawings. It was 
necessary to employ forty designers and calculators, for a period of 
about two years. Itis thus seen that the iron forms a vast complicated 
net-work not easily realized when contemplating the gracefulness of 
the completed tower. The large halls at Levallois-Perret had almost 
the appearance of a government administration. 

M. Eiffel did not employ workmen of special skill, acsustomed to very 
high scaffolding. It was feared that few could be found not subject to 
vertigo. But in the tower they did not work high in the air, with an 
open and dangerous footing. They were on platforms 41 feet wide, and 
as calm as on the ground. 

Itis proper that two great republics should, regardless of nationality, 
recognize the constructive genius of M. Hiffel, as they have already 
done in the instance of M. Bartholdi, designer and constructor of the 
wonderful statue of Liberty enlightening the World. Mr. Roebling’s 
great work, the Brooklyn Bridge, thus seems extended into new condi- 
tions. The idea of a tower 1,000 feet high first assumed definite form, 
it will be remembered, in the United States, and it remained for a man 
of constructive genius in another and newer republic to crystallize it 
into an accomplished fact*. The power of thought over the refractory 
materials of the earth, as shown by the ingenuity of Thomas A. Edison, 
a power which Emerson illustrated in various ways, is thus emphasized 
anew. The limits of scientific achievement slowly recede. 





* The tower is designed to be 300 meters (984 feet) high. A slight addition, mak- 
ing it 1,000 feet, could be easily made. 





THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE AT THE PARIS EXHIBITION.* 


Some time before the opening of the Paris Exhibition it was announced 
that one of tbe attractions of the show would be a great terrestrial globe, 
one millionth of the actual size of the earth. The globe is now exhib- 
ited in a buildivg specially erected, near the Eiffel Tower, for the pur- 
pose, and it excites the warmest interest among all visitors who have 
devoted the slightest attention to geographical science. It was designed 
by MM. Villard and Cotard, and these gentlemen, who have received 
many congratulations on their success, have lately issued an account 
of the manner in which their project has been realized. 

Maps on a plane surface give, of course, a very inadequate impression 
of the real appearance of our planet; and ordinary globes are too small 
to indicate, even vaguely, the extent of the spaces represented on them. 
The idea of making a globe one millionth the size of the earth deserves, 
therefore, to be described as a*‘happy thought,” for although the mean- 
ing of a million may not be fully appreciated, it is not absolutely inac- 
cessible to the human mind. When we see a place or a district marked 
on a globe, and learn that the reality is a million times larger, the pro- 
portions are impressively suggested, with at least some approach to 
accuracy. 

The diameter of the globe constructed by MM. Villard and Cotard is 
12.73 meters, (42 feet). It has a circumference of 40 meters (131 feet), 
and a millimeter of its surface represents a kilometer (a little more 
than 15? miles to the inch). The globe consists of an iron frame-work 
made chiefly of meridians united to a central core. This structure 
is carried by a pivot resting on an iron support. To the meridians 
pieces of wood are attached, and on these are fixed the panels compos- 
ing the surface of the globe. These panels are made of sheets of card- 
board bent by hand to the required spherical shape, and covered with 
plaster specially hardened. Fig. 1 shows how they are applied to the 
underlying structure. The total surface is divided into forty spindle- 
shaped spaces, the breadth of which at the equator 1s exactly one meter. 
Each “spindle” or gore is itself sub-divided, so that there are 600 panels 
of various dimensions. The designs are painted on the panels before 
they are put in their place, in order that the globe may ultimately be 
easily dismantled and removed. 





*From Nature, July 18, 1889: vol. xi, pp. 278-280. 


746 THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE AT THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 


The edifice in which the globe is shown has a metallic frame-work 
forming a cupola. It is lighted from above, and by the great glass 
frames of the sides. From a terrace or a narrow foot-bridge at the 


i 


l HD a 
—— 


— 


i {i Hitinneas 
| | i | hel. 


upper part the visitor can see the polar and temperate regions of the 
northern hemisphere. As he descends, he is able to see in succession 
all the regions of the globe to the south pole. At the bottom he comes 
to the support of the globe with the apparatus for putting it in motion 
(Fig. 2). 

Even the loftiest mountains, if shown in relief, could only have been 
represented by elevations a few millimeters in height. Consequently 
the various mountain ranges have been painted on the surface. The 
various depths of the ocean are indicated in a similar manner. 

To facilitate the study of the globe, it has been mounted with its axis 
vertical, and it may be turned upon the pivot which carries it. If its 
rotation were made to equal that of the earth, at its equator, a point of 


Ml | if 
hs . i 


fj 


rege aEr 
——— 
=i 





Fig. 1. 


THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE AT THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 747 


its surface would move at the rate of half: a millimeter in the second. 
This movement would scarcely be visible, but it would, of course, rep- 
resent an actual movement of the earth over half a kilometer in the 
same time. 








i 









































FiG. 2. 


A figure of the moon, corresponding to this one of the earth, would 
haveadiameter of 3.50 meters (114 feet), and would be 384 meters (about 
a quarter of a mile) distant. A like figure of the sun would have a di- 
ameter of 1,400 meters (4,593 feet, or nearly five-sixths of a mile), and be 
distant about 150 kilometers (93 miles.) The diameter of a globe repre- 
senting Jupiter on the same scale would be one-half—that of a globe 
representing Saturn on the same scale would be a little more than one- 
third—of the height of the Eiffel Tower. 

This is not the first occasion on which an attempt has been made to 
suggest by means of a great globe the size of the earth, and the extent 


748 THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE AT THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 


of its oceans and land masses. The globe of the Chateau of Marly, 
which is still to be seen in the National Library of Paris, excited much 
admiration in the age of Louis xIv, but it has only a diameter of about 
5 meters, and is much less effective for its purpose than its successor in 
the Paris Exhibition. i 

It is significant of the present state of our knowledge of the interior 
of Africa that the makers of the globe, in preparing their maps, had 
twice to alter their representation of that continent in order to indicate 
the results of the most recent geographical discoveries. 


Oy oe 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


By WALTER B. ScAIFE, PH. D. (Vienna). 


Introduction.—TLhe designation of the situation of places on the sur- 
face of the earth by their latitude and longitude is such a common oe- 
currence that one rarely stops to ask how these quantities are deter- 
mined, much less to consider the evolution of the ideas which form the 
basis of the usage, or to study the slow progress of events through 
which (even after the theory was perfected) accuracy of observation and 
measurement was first made possible, while new and improved meth- 
ods were being invented for representing the results thereof. Though 
latitude and longitude are so intimately connected in usage and thought, 
the methods of determining them are different, and each has its own 
peculiar historical development. Hence they can be separately treated 
without injury to the whole subject; and this article accordingly is 
confined to the consideration of the historical evolution of geographical 
latitude alone. 

The word latitude, signifying breadth, was adopted by the early geog- 
raphers to designate situation to the north or south, in contradistine- 
tion to east and west, because the then known world was longer from 
east to west, which was hence called the length, than from north to 
south, which was then naturally styled the breadth.' The fact that 
the earth is spherical and so can have, accurately speaking, no length or 
breadth, has not altered the nomenclature adopted in the infancy of the 
science. The technical meaning of the word latitude now includes how- 
ever much more than the crude idea of mere distance north or south of a 
given point. It takes for granted the sphericity of the earth and its 
division by imaginary lines running east and west, whose distances from 
each other, though not exactly equal, mark the intersection with the 
earth’s surface of plumb lines forming equal angles, each one to the 
next.? 

The very fact of thinking of the earth as a whole shows that an in- 
dividual or a people has made considerable progress in civilization, for 


' Ptolemus, Geographica, lib, i, cap. vi. The origin of the idea is ascribed to 
Democritus of Abderos. (D’Avezac, Coup d’cil, 286, note 10; Lelewel, 1, vi.) 
*When we speak of the latitude of a place, then, we mean in reality not its dis- 
tance from the equator, measured on the earth’s surface, but the angle which a plumb 
line at that place forms with the plane of the equator, 
749 


750 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


among savages this conception seems to be lacking. But as soon as one 
forms an idea of the whole and begins to comprehend its vastness, 
there arises the necessity of systematic division, in order to avoid men- 
tal confusion. Even among fairly educated people of to-day, there ex- 
ists frequently no adequate conception of the size of the various conti- 
nents, not to speak of the earth asa whole. Thoughtful men at an 
early period recognized this necessity of division and hit upon a rude 
method for establishing one; but there was a long distance between 
the first crude trials and the marvellous accuracy of the methods, in- 
struments, and results of the present. From the conception to the at- 
tempt at pictorial representation was a step which was certain sooner 
or later to be taken, and progress in the art of map-making has held 
equal pace with the advance of geographical science. 


Sphericity of earth—As the theories of the orientals as to the form 
and nature of the earth generally rested upon fantasy, and not upon a 
scientific basis, they may be neglected in the consideration of the sub- 
ject in hand, and the attention beat once directed to the Greeks,! who 
created the science of geography. 

The beginnings of astronomy and geography were very closely con- 
nected; not as now, when the earth is recognized as a mere atom in 
the immensity of the universe, but considering the earth as the very 
center, toward which all was attracted”? and around which the uni- 
verse revolved.? As to who first taught the doctrine of the sphericity 
of the earth it is difficult to decide. To Thales,‘ Parmenides,® and 
Pythagoras,® respectively, this honor is ascribed. However that may 
be, there was scientific proof of the doctrine lacking till the great 
minds of Aristotle and Archimedes took the subject in hand.” Before 
scientific grounds were arrived at, various reasons were given by the 
several philosophers for their opinions. The well known one of the 
Pythagorean school, that the earth, being the center of the universe, 
must have the most perfect form, viz, spherical, is perhaps as good as 
any. Strabo, although much later, considers it sufficient to maintain 
that the spherical form of the earth follows, as a matter of course, from 
the construction of the universe.’ 


'1Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, ix. ‘‘ C’est done chez les Grees, et chez eux seuls, 
qwil nous faut chercher lorigine et les monuments d’une science quwils ont créée et 
que seuls ils ont eu les moyens de créer.” 

Lelewel, vii. ‘Ils [les Grecs] ont pu voir et examiner les cartes égyptiennes, phé- 
niciennes et des orientaux: mais il n’y trouvaient rien pour leur scheme, quwils élabo- 
raient sur leur propre terrain.” 

2 (irosskurd’s Strabo, lib. ii, Abt. iv. § 2. Vol. 1, p. 180. 

3Mannert, I. 98. : 

+Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 14. 

5Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, p. 1045. 

6 Midler, Gesch. d. Himmelskunde, I. 38, 39. 

7 Giinther, Geophysik, 1. 130. , 

8 Forbiger’s Strabo, lib. i, cap. iii. § 3, p. 77,78. 


* GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. (51 


It was early seen that the earth, with its numerous elevations and 
depressions, could not be a perfect sphere ;! which Strabo in truly phil- 
osophical manner avoids by remarking that in immensity things so 
small disappear.? Pliny however offers another solution of the sub- 
ject by maintaining that an ideal circumference resting on the tops of 
the mountains would form a perfect sphere. Although, as has been 
shown, a few learned specialists among the Greeks and Romans believed 
and taught that the earth is spherical, this belief not only never 
descended to the masses, but was rejected by such scholarsas Herodotus? 
and Tacitus. ° 


First circles.—The comprehension of a subject often involves two 
processes of thought, viz, a conception of the whole, which is then 
divided into parts, in order by the investigation of the several parts 
to arrive at length at a just understanding of the whole. In this man- 
ner the science of geography has been brought to its present high 
level. There could be no other divisions of the surface of the earth 
than those arising out of natural physical features or of political 
borders, before man had formed an idea of the whole. Having arrived 
at this point, it was a natural step that the five circles by which Thales 
had divided the heavens® should be applied to the earth’s surface.’ 
Strabo quotes Poseidonius as authority for regarding Parmenides as 
the inventor of the division into five zones, who however made the 
torrid zone extend beyond the tropics, to which limits it was re- 
duced by Aristotle. The latter however is also criticised by Strabo 
for making the “burned” zone too broad, inasmuch as at least half 
the distance between the Tropic of Cancer and the equator is known to 
be inhabited. As it was accepted as fact that the ‘ burned” zone was 
uninhabitable, its northern limit could not extend farther than the 
southern boundary of Ethiopia.s Later Strabo seems to have forgotten 
his objection to Aristotle’s division and himself gees the zones as 


Umerbisers Seraio, lib. i, cap. iii. 

? This is finely ‘inettated by Prof. Albrecht Pene A in his pamphlet on ‘‘ Theorien 
iiber das Gleichgewicht der Erdkruste,” Wien, 1889, pp. 11,12. He says: ‘Aber 
jener Beschauer, der sich in den Weltraum ae k6nnte, wird baid die Héhen Un- 
terschiede zwischen Berg und Thal verschwinden sehen, die gewaltigen Festlands- 
plateaux werden ihm allmiihlich mit dem Meeresboden verwachsen, dem sie aufge- 
setzt sind, und schliesslich wird sich der ganze Erdball seinem Blicke darbieten. 
Derselbe wiirde ihm als Kugel erscheinen,” 

3 Strack’s Plinius, 1. p. 107. L. ii. 64. 

4Mannert, 1. 4. 

6 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 35. 

6 Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 15. Bailly, Hist. de l’astron., 196, says, as usual, the 
idea was not original with him, but suggested by Ulysses (p. 187). 

7Delambre, ibid. 1, 257, ascribing the application to Hipparchus, Strabo calls Par- 
menides the ‘‘inventor” of the division of the earth in five zones. Grosskurd’s Strabo, 
hb. ij. Abt. ii. § 1. Vol. 1. pp. 154 et seq. Lelewel, Géog. d. moy.-Age, vii, ascribes the 
application to Eudoxus of Cnidos. 

§Grosskurd’s Strabo, lil. ii, Abt. i1, § 1, Vol. 1. pp. 154 et seq. 


752 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


exactly corresponding to the five circles of the heaven.! Pliny, on the 
other hand, takes the names of the zones literally, and considers the 
whole torrid zone uninhabitable, and so preventing all intercourse 
between the two temperate zones.” 

The Greeks however did not arrive at one bound at the exact divis- 
ion of the earth’s surface. The starred heavens passed over their heads, 
making it impossible to see and study much while remaining at the 
same place. Exact knowledge of the world was not thus attainable; 
practical information gained by observation and travel was necessary 
as a foundation for the complete application to geography of the lines of 
astronomy. Though adopting theoretically the five main parallels of 
the astronomers, the early geographers felt the necessity of having a 
working basis; and, leaving the equator at one side as a practically un- 
known quantity, they adopted as a central line, a parallel passing 
through a place, (Rhodes,*) not only important in itself, but also for 
them, the practical middle between the north and south, inhabited world. 
This line was proposed by Eratosthenes, and passed from the Pillars of 
Hercules through the Strait of Messina, Southern Greece, Rhodes, then 
on through Asia to the mountains forming the (imaginary) northeast 
boundary of India. This parallel is known as the Diaphragm, and 
is generally supposed to have been so named by the Greeks,® but a 
modern French investigator says he was unable to find this designation 
among the ancient Greek geographers.® Following the policy of em- 
ploying an arbitrary line as a center, largely if not mainly because of 
its local importance, other parallels to the north and south were adopted 
because they passed through well known places. The spaces thus 
divided off, had no fixed arithmetical relation, but were supposed to mark 
climatical differences, and received hence the name climates. Eratos- 
thenes made a division of the entire known earth into four great rect- 
angles which he called Sphragides,’ and these in turn into twelve eli- 
mates. The latter were reduced to eight by Hipparchus,® and later 
increased until they became, in the work of Ptolemy, twenty-three." 
However, the division of the earth into five zones, as is now cus- 
tomary, was adopted by Parmenides, sanctioned by the authority of 





'Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. ii. Abt. iv. § 3. Vol. 1, pp. 181-2. 

* Strack’s Plinius, 1. iii. lib. ii. 68. 

5 Berger, Frag. d. Hipparch, 72. Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. ii. Abt. 1. § 1, note 1. p. 
110. Used first by Dicwarchos. Mannert 1. 90. 

4Forbiger’s Strabo, lib. ii. cap. i. § 1. Mannert, 1. 90, gives the honor of first having 
proposed this line to Dicearchus. 

5Term already employed by Dicearchus, Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, p. 1045. Gross- 
kurd’s Strabo, lib. ii. Abt. i. § 1, note 1, p. 110. 

6 D’Avezac, Coup d’ceil, etc., p. 269, note 9. 

7 Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. i. Abt. i. § 13. Vol. 1. p. 128. 

8Lelewel, Bres. Ed. 1-"x. 

° Grosskurd’s Strabo, 1, 215-17, lib. ii. Abt. iv, § 26, 

10 Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, p. 1043, 

4 Mannert, 1. 130, 


so mnbelua 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 153 


Aristotle,! and accepted by Strabo, although the latter expressly says, 
the whole of the “ burned” (torrid) zone is not rendered uninhabitabie 
by excessive heat, ‘as we conclude from the Aithiopians above 
Egypt.”? At the same time the theoretical division of circles into 
equal parts was not lost sight of. From Babylon the Greeks received 
the duodecimal division of the Ecliptic, from which was developed the 
present custom of dividing a circle into 360 degrees. The latter was 
also borrowed from Babylon,’ or first proposed by Hipparchus;* but 
for a long time gave way to the Eratosthenian division into 60 degrees,° 
until revived and made popular by the authority of Ptolemy. - Cleom- 
edes proposed a division into 48 degrees, allowing 4 toeach sign of the 
zouiac,® but seems to have had no following. 


Methods and instruments.—In these days of exact scientific research 
one can scarcely realize the crudity of method and the indifference to 
exactness which characterize the work of many of the scholars of 
antiquity, and this is.particularly striking in their geographical in- 
vestigations.7, Not only did they accept the tales of sailors as facts, 
and found theories thereon,’ but they were so easy-going as not to 
hesitate to change the result of their most careful calculations in order 
to have round numbers to work with.2 That the sun changes its posi- 
tion in the heavens at the different seasons of the year and that the 
length of shadows varies accordingly, were matters of early obser- 
vation; also that the duration of the longest day is different according 
to position north or south. These facts combined furnisied the earliest 
basis for determining latitude. The known account of the well at 
Syene, directly over which the sun stood at noon at the summer 
solstice, whether true or not,'® gives an idea of the rude method of 
determining astronomical, or in this case also geographical points, 

'Mannert, 1. 100. 

* Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. ii. Abt. ii. § 1. Vol. 1. pp. 154-5. Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, 
p. 1043. 

* Peschel, Gesch, d. Erdkunde, 43. 

1 Berger, Fragmenta d. Hipparch., 44. 

5’D’Avezac, Coup d’eil etc. pp. 271-2. Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 43. Au, 2. 
Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. ii. Abt. iv. § 7. Vol. 1. p. 186. Giinther, Die Erdmessung d. 
Eratosthenes, Rundschau fiir Geog. und Statistik, 1. Jahrg. p. 327. Bailly, 179, 
says this was the general division and in use among the Indians, Chaldeans, Per- 
sians, and Egyptians. 

6 Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 220. 

7Sprenger, Auslaud, 1867, p. 1065. Miidler, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 1, 70, See Ber- 
ger, Frag. d. Hipparch., 30, 31. 

8Forbiger’s Strabo, lib, ii. cap. i. § 11. 

9Sprenger, Ausland, L367, p. 1045. Lelewel, Géog. du moyen-age, vii. D’Avezac, 
Coup d’eil, etc., 271, n. 5. 

o¢¢ Kin soleches Werk zur Constatirung einer astronomischen Thatsache ist ganz 
im Geiste der Erbauer der Pyramiden. Wir kénnen sicher sein, es ist von den 
Pharaonen ausgefiihrt worden, und zwar etwa 700 Jahre vy. Chr.” (Unfortunately I 
have forgotten to note from whom I extracted this remark. ) 


H. Mis. 224 48 





TD4 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


then in vogue. Accepted as true, it was made the basis of the geo- 
graphical latitude of antiquity. The parallel of Syene was hence con- 
sidered the Tropie of Cancer, aud from this point distances and degrees 
were computed north and south. 

The only scientific method then known. of determining latitude 
was by observing the length of shadow cast, either at the equinox 
or summer solstice, by a simple instrument called a gnomon. It 
has been suggested that the obelisks of Egypt served this purpose.! 
Two varieties of this instrument are mentioned as in use among 
the ancients. One was formed by a hollow hemisphere having in 
its center an upright whose length was equal to the radius of the 
sphere; so that the proportional length of the shadow to the distance 
between the base of the upright and the periphery of the hemisphere, 
as observed at the summer solstice, gave the proportion of the 
distance of the place of observation between the Tropic of Cancer 
and the north pole. This instrument is said to have been imported 
from the Chaldeans,’ and used only by Eratosthenes among the Greeks.° 
The usual form of gnomon had a flat base, and the latitude of the 
place of observation was indicated by the ratio of the length of 
the shadow to the upright, as observed at the equinox. Whether 
this instrument was brought from the East or invented inde- 
pendently in Greece, it seems impossible to decide. There is prob- 
ably no good reason for doubting that it was already in use 
among the Chinese eleven hundred years before Christ. But with 
them directly the Greeks had no intercourse. Bailly, who finds the 
beginning of all things in the Orient and allows the Greeks no in- 
ventive genius whatever, relates that Pherecides erected such an in- 
strument on an island in the Syrian Sea, and that Anaximander 
perhaps carried the knowledge thereof to Greece,® while Pliny ascribes 
its invention to Anaximenes of Miletus, a pupil of Anaximander,’ and 
a modern investigator of great learning maintains that Pytheas ‘is 
the first of whom it is historically certain that he determined the 
altitude of the pole of a place by the length of the sun’s shadow.”7 


1Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 14. Cassini, Grandeur, etc., 33. One brought 
from Egypt by order of Augustus, was placed on what is now the Champ de Mars and 
used for that purpose by Manilius. Wolf, Gesch. d. Astronomie, 124. 

2Mannert, I. 111. 

3“Qest Vhémisphére creux de Bérose.”” Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 221. 
Ideler is of another opinion. ‘‘Sie (die Skaphe) war eine Erfindung des Aristarch 
von Samos. Von ihrer Gestalt hiess sie auch Hemisphaerium ; denn sie bestand aus 
einem sphiirischgekriimmten metallenen Becken, auf dessen Boden in der Richtung 
und Liinge des Halbmessers ein Stift, [vy@uwry, als Schattenzeiger, errichtet war.” 
Zach, Mon. Cor., May, 1811, citing as authority Martianus Capella, de Nupt., I, vi, p. 
194. Ed Grotii. 

4Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, xvii. Kirchhoff, Unser Wissen von der Erde, I. 15, 

6 Bailly, Histoire de V’astron., 197, 198. 

®Strack’s Plinius, 1. 115; lib. ii. 76-78, 

7 Mannert, I. 5. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 755 


Be that as it may, this instrument must be recognized as one of the 
most important aids to the early development of geography, and, 
whether borrowed or invented by the Greeks, they deserve the credit 
of having made the best use of it. In all probability the number of 
places whose latitude was determined by its use was exceedingly 
limited,' as the geographers employed other means also for attaining 
the same end. The rising and setting of certain fixed stars served as 
one basis for calculating the latitude of places, while even untrust- 
worthy data as to climate, wind, color of inhabitants, varieties of 
animals, vegetable products, etc., were used to supply the lack of better 
kinds of information. The ancients were right in considering the 
length of the longest day an important factor in determining latitude, 
and Hipparchus is said to have calculated what it should be for each 
degree.2 However, the want of accurate time-pieces rendered it im- 
possible to make exact observations. As to the instruments em- 
ployed for astronomical observations we know almost nothing. Hip- 
parchus, who was an ardent advocate of using the results of astronom- 
ical observation for geographical purposes, does not mention by name 
a single instrument which he employed, nor does he use even the generic 
term instrument.’ Eratosthenes used the hollow gnomon (mentioned 
above) to determine the latitude of Alexandria,‘ and at his request the 
king ordered to be made and placed on the roof of the museum the 
famous armillary spheres, with which he determined the declination of 
the Eeliptie to within six minutes of arc, a praiseworthy exactness for 
that age.’ To this may be added the known fact of Ptolemy’s use of 
the astrolabe at Rhodes® and the invention of the sun-dial by Anaxi- 
mander.? With such simple means were the beginnings of the science 
of geography made. 


Application.—It is difficult for us to realize the length of time re. 
quired to make such small- advances as have been indicated, but the 
history of other branches of science is parallel. The inertia to be over- 
come in advancing from utter ignorance of a subject to the commence- 
ment of real knowledge, and founding the principles on which investi- 
gation should be carried on, is immense. Knowledge does not spring 
into being, Minerva-like, completely developed, but resembles much 
more the insignificant acorn, which, slowly growing and battling with 
the elements, becomes in the course of time the mighty oak. Ages may 
pass in the almost unheeded dreaming and theorizing of philosophers 


! Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 44, 45. 

2Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, p. 1045. 

’Delambre, Astronomie ancienne, I, 139. At thesame time he thinks Hipparchus 
was possibly the inventor of the astrolabe, 1, 134, 

Ibid, 1, 221. 

5 Midler, Gesch. d. Himmelskunde, 1. 57, 

®Delambre, Astron. ancienne, 1, 184, 

7Mannert, I. 11, 


756 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


and investigators before a science is matured ready for prosaic, worldly 
application. So for example were the calculations (though erroneous) 
of the old Greeks one day to bear practical fruit by encouraging Co- 
lumbus to make the famous voyage which resulted in the discovery of 
America. 

These humble beginnings and the men who made them are then not 
to be despised because no more was effected, but much rather, to be 
honored that under the circumstances so much was accomplished. 
They might perhaps have made more progress, had they theorized less 
as to how far north and south the earth is inhabitable,' a matter neces- 
sarily beyond their power of determination, and instead of that have 
spent their energies in more accurately investigating that which lay at 
hand. There is however a strong temptation in all men to strive for 
the attainment of the unknowable; and, whether this tendency leads 
to religious enthusiasm, spiritualism, or philosophical dreaming, it is but 
taking on different forms of expression of the same factor in human nat- 
ure. Accordingly we must not blame the early geographers even if 
the number of places where the altitude of the pole was actually ob- 
served does not exceed half a dozen.? There were very few specialists, 
and they without co-operation; travelling was difficult and expensive, 


and general interest in geographica! theory practically null. Further-’ 


more, they knew their observations did not give perfectly exact results ;° 
but thought that Jay in the nature of the work to be done, and not in 
defects of their theories or instruments. 

Their base line was the parallel of Syene, which they reckoned in 
round numbers to be in latitude 24° N., instead of the true latitude of 
24° 5/ 23.” But they made a still greater mistake in accepting the 
same parallel as the Tropic of Cancer;* although Eratosthenes’s caleu- 
lation is supposed to have given 23° 51/ 19/’.5 for that line, and Ptole- 
meus quotes Hipparchus as employing 23° 51/ 20.”° After the twenty- 
fourth parallel, the one most frequently referred to was probably that 
of Alexandria, the great commercial center of the age, from which voy- 
agers toward all directions calculated distances, which calculations were 
much relied upon for fixing latitude. It was accordingly recognized as 
of prime importance to determine its true latitude, the result showing 
30° 58/5 instead of 319° 11,’7 according to recent observations. Rhodes, 
through which the “Diaphragm” passed, was said to be on the thirty- 





1See Grosskurd’s Strabo, pp. 117 and 118. 

2 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 44. Mannert, 1. 95, seems to be of another opinion 
when he says: ‘‘ Hipparchus. hat das wichtige Verdienst weit mehreren Orten ihre 
wirkliche Lage der Polhéhe nach anzuweisen, als es Eratosthenes bei wenigeren Er- 
fahrungen thun konnte.” 

3 Sprenger, Ausland 1867, p. 1066. 

4Manunert, I, 102. 

5 Delambre, I, 87. 

6 Berger, Frag. d. Hipparcnh., 48. 

7 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 46, n. 4, 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 157 


sixth parallel,' although they knew that that was not exact.2 Other 
points whose latitude is given by Hipparchus are Athens, 36°; Alex- 
andria in Troas, 41°; Byzantium and Massilia (Marseilles), 43°; Syra- 
cuse, 36° 44’; mouth of the Xanthus in Lycia, also 36° 44’; and Baby- 
lon, 33° 30’. One of the easy-going methods of the early geographers 
was to bring as many places of importance as possible on the same 
parallel, of which there are several lists. That this at best could 
be only an approximation to the truth, and that opinions would neces- 
sarily vary, is amatter of course. One well known case gives a strik- 
ing example, viz: Strabo’s rather sharp criticism of Hipparchus for 
placing Byzantium on the same parallel with Massilia and then him. 
self making the still greater error of placing the former to the north,‘ 
while in reality it is more than 2 degrees farther south... Hipparchus 
dreamed of the possibility of fixing the locations of all places on the 
surface of the earth by the use of a common standard, viz, that of lat- 
itude and longitude, ® and did all in his power to show his successors 
how to attain that possibility. But all were not willing to follow the 
lines laid down by him, and even so good and late a geographer as 
Strabo combated his theory, while not being able to propose a better 
and in fact adopting in great part that which he condemned.’ First 
at the hands of Marinus of Tyre ® and of Ptolemy ° was made a prac- 
tical application on a large scale of the ideas of Hipparchus, which 
even now form the basis of our usage. 


Maps.—The use of maps dates from a very early period. Like first 
essays in general they must have been very crude. In the first place 
their makers had an extremely imperfect knowledge of the earth, and 
what is not accurately known can not be pictorially well represented. 
Moreover, there is an inherent difficulty in the matter, owing to the 
sphericity of the earth, whose form necessitates distortion of some sort 
when represented on a flat surface. If drawn in perspective, as one 
looking at the earth from some distant point in space would see it, the 
portions toward the circumference of the resulting circle become falsely 
curved and much too narrow for their length. If drawn according to 
Mercator’s projection, the meridians remain parallel instead of converg- 
ing at the poles, and so give a false picture of the comparative breadth 
of bodies of land and water at the equator and to the north and south. 
So each possible kind of projection on a plane surface has its peculiar 





' Ptolemeus, Geographia, lib. i, cap. xx. 

* Hipparchus gave 36° 20’ (Berger’s Hip., 72). 

’Grosskurd’s Strabo, 1. 219, 220, lib. ii. cap. iv. § 27. Forbiger’s Strabo, lib i. cap. 
4. § 4. p. 100. 

4Grosskurd’s Strabo., I. 1889, lib. ii. cap. iv, § 8. 

5 Delambre, p. 257, makes it a criticism of Pytheas. 

® Berger, Frag. d. Hipparch., 20, 21. 

7 Berger’s Hipparch., 44, 

® Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 51. 

*Ptolemsxus, Geographia, lib. i, cap. xix. 


758 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


accompanying distortion. As to how the earliest maps were drawn, we 
have no exact information; but they were in all probability mere 
sketches of the outlines of known lands, with a river and a city here 
and there indicated, without any thought of perspective.' As to who 
projected the first map of the world based on scientific principles, mod- 
ern critics are not agreed ; but it seems probable that it originated with 
Eratosthenes and was greatly improved by Hipparchus.2. This was 
called a “ planisphere ” and supposed the known world hollow as seen 
from a point on the opposite surface of the earth, directly vis-a-vis to 
the center of the part represented.? Hipparchus, dividing the distance 
between the equator and the poles into 90 degrees, according to the di- 
vision of the entire circle into 360 degrees, drew for each degree a paral- 
lel of latitude, and, knowing himself the true latitude of but few places, 
gave the astronomical conditions for determining it as groundwork for 
his successors.* Strabo,we have seen,did not favor Hipparchus’s mani- 
fold divisions of latitude ;° but he himself did not attempt to project a 
new map, preferring the easier method of making changes in that of 
Eratosthenes.® 

However, in the text he goes into some detail as to his ideas of map- 
making, prefers on the whole a globe of not more than 10 feet diam- 
eter, and considers the next best thing a drawing of at least 7 feet 
diameter, on which the lines of latitude would be parallel and the me- 
ridians converge;’? the two ‘main lines,” evidently the parallel and 
meridian of Rhodes, to be at right angles.2 Marinus of Tyre, with 
much better information than Hipparchus, tried to realize the lat- 
ter’s ideal of representing all places by their latitude and longitude.® 
Having nothing direct from him however, we pass at once to his 
successor and improver, Ptolemy.'? With this great scholar, classical 


1Mannert and Bailly under “A.” Ukert, Geog. d. Gr. & Roémer,.1. 81, referring to 
the anecdote of Socrates leading Alcibiades to a map. 

2Berger, Fragmenta d. Hipp., 29, 73. Mannert gives Anaximander the honor of 
having made a globe, I. 11; also Bailly, Hist. d’astron, 198. Delambre says of Hip- 
parchus: ‘‘C’est d’apres la projection dont il est auteur que nous faisons encore 
aujourd’ hui nos mappemondes et nos meilleures cartes géographiques” (Astron. an- 
cienne, I. Xv). 

3P’Avezac, Coup d’eil, etc., p. 275, calls it “la nouvelle projection d’Hipparche.” 

4 Berger, as note ‘‘A.” 

5 Tbid., p. 44. 

6 Grosskurd’s Strabo, 1. Kinleitung, § 7. p. xxx. 

7 Tbid., 1.191. 

8 [bid., 197, 198. 

9Mannert, I. 7. 

10 Thidem, 1. 8: ‘‘Der Ruhm der Erfindung (eines neuen Systems) bleibt dem Mari- 
nus, aber die Ausbesserung des noch ziemlich rohen Entwurfs, ist das Verdienst 
seines Nachfolgers Ptolemiius Alexandreia in Aegypten. Mit vorziiglichen mathe- 
matischen Kenntnissen ausgeriistet, mit mehreren neuern Reisebeschreibungen ver- 
sehen, wagte er sich an die Umarbeitung des marinischen Werks. Er ergiinzte das 
Unvollstiindige, verbesserte die Fehler welche er entdeckte, gab allen Orten eine 
bestimmte Lage, und zog die zu grossen Messengen seines Vorgiingers von der Liinge 
und Breite der bekannten Erde mehr in das Engere. * 


ee 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 759 


geography reaches it highest point of development.!. He not only 
possessed all the available knowledge of his time bearing upon the 
subject, but based his work so thoroughly on scientific principles that 
its revival in modern times gave the starting point to many of the im- 
provements of the new geography. That his maps were but improve- 
ments on those of Eratosthenes? and Hipparchus,*® and not absolutely 
new, is not matterof censure. He recognized the justness of their prin- 
ciples and simply added thereto what his taient and the better facili- 
ties for obtaining knowledge afforded by his time and circumstances 
rendered possible. He not only wrote the principles of map-drawing, 
but put the same into practice, producing a very fair representation 
of the then known world, and he added thereto special maps on alarger 
scale to the number of twenty-six. Here it is not in place to go deeply 
into the details of Ptolemy’s projection, which however is interesting. 
- The ground-plan is that of an open fan, the radii forming the meridians 
of longitude, the lines parallel to the outermost curve representing 
the parallels of latitude. Of these there were four principal ones, 
the outermost being the supposed southern limit of the habitable zone. 
From the center of this line to the point forming the pivot of the fan 
was a line to be divided into one-hundred and thirty-one equal parts. 
Starting from the south, sixteen of those parts bring us to the equa- 
tor, on which 180 degrees of longitude were marked, forming the ex- 
treme limits east and west of the known world. Counting then thirty- 
six parts toward the north, came Rhodes, whose parallel was the most 
important line of ancient geography. Twenty-seven parts more bring 
us to the parallel of Thule, the limit to the north of the habitable world. 
The other parallels were those of important places, without an attempt 
to make equal divisions, as is done with the meridians, although at one 
side the parallels are marked at distances of 10 degrees. At the other 
side an unequal division into climates is indicated. Theoretically, 
however, Ptolemy advocates the division into equal parts by parallels 
of latitude. He gives also rules for another kind of projection in 
which the meridians should be curved lines, as this would better rep- 
resent the middle latitudes. At the same time he says that this pro- 
jection is much more diflicult to draw. Here we have the best pro- 


'Mannert, 1.153: ‘‘Nach Ptolemiius wagte sich niemand weiter an die Verbesser- 
ung der Geographie. Anstatt manche seiner Angaben zu berichtigen, nahm man 
dessen Werk fiir das non plus ultra der Wissenschaft, und hielt es fast fiir Siinde eine 
seiner Behauptungen nicht gelten lassen zu wollen; und desto mehr, da ein grosser 
Theil der spiitern Gelehrten die Griinde derselben nicht verstunden.” 

2? Mannert, I. 96. 

3 Berger, 30, Note 1. ‘‘ Es (das Verfahren des Ptolemiius) giebt fast die ganze Hip- 
parchische Lehre wieder.” 

4 Zach remarks that the special maps are not drawn according to Ptolemy’s own 
proposition (Mon, Cor. Jun., 1805, p. 504). 

® Ptolemiius, Geographica, lib. i. cap. xxiii. 

® The first maps based on this projection were drawn by Nikolaus Donis (1482), 
(Mannert, 1. 178, 179), 


760 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


duction of classical geography. As far as latitude is concerned the 
theory is completely developed, while the practice remains extremely 
imperfect. Though recognizing the usefulness of equally distant par- 
allels,he makes his drawing moreeasily by adopting only those of known 
places. Furthermore, he still clings to the old idea of divisions into 
climates, the absurdity of which he would have appreciated if he could 
have seen the modern isothermal lines. 

How much or how little geographical knowledge the Greeks derived 
from the Orient or from Ancient Egypt, it is at this day impossible to 
determine. Of one thing we may be certain, viz, that it was at best 
only fragmentary. With this as a starting point, they, in the course 
of centuries, developed a sound theory as to the form of the earth, 
then proved it mathematically; though often going astray, as one does 
in the beginning of every science, they arrived at a fair, almost an 
accurate, computation of the earth’s size. Though acquainted in 
reality with only a small portion of the globe, they hit upon the only 
truly scientific method of indicating position on a body which, having 
neither breadth nor length, presents a puzzling problem. As far as 
circumstances permitted they put their theories into practice,! and 
laid down many of the lines on which modern scholarship is still de- 
veloping the science. 

In the mean time a movement had begun in Palestine which was to 
produce great changes in the civilized world and from whose influence 
the subject now under consideration was not to remain free. Rejecting 
almost as a whole the literature and art with which they were familiar, 
as an inseparable part of that heathenism which they were struggling 
to overcome, the church fathers sought to find in the Bible the only 
source of true knowledge.? They accordingly rejected the doctrine of 
the sphericity of the earth, which had become, at least among special- 
ists, firmly established, and with childish religious arguments, settled 
for themselves and their followers the whole matter, e. g.. by asking, 
‘‘ How, on the day of judgment, could the people on the other side of 
a ball see the Lord descending through the air?”*? or maintaining that 
if there were antipodes Christ would have gone to them.’ They were 
not united as to what form the earth really has, one believing it to be 
square, another circular, because the Bible uses the expressions ‘ the 
four corners of the earth” and “circle of the earth.” The latter being 
the more popular, the so-called ‘“‘ wheel maps” were accordingly much 
in vogue,® while again the Tabernacle was thought to be a mystic 





1“Tn fact, when we come to examine their geographical proficiency, we find it in 
exact relation to the poverty of their geometrical means.” Leakes, Journ. R.G.S., 
183951 ps, 14. 

2Exceptions to be noted infra. As to their rejection of Greek geography, see 
Latroune, 602. 

3 Kosmas, quoted by Giinther, Studien, etc., 3. 

4 Doctrine of Procopius von Gaza, Zéckler, Theol. und Naturwiss., 1. 127. 

5Santarem, L’histoire de la cosmographie, I, 107, 112. 

6 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, 100, e 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 761 


symbol of the earth, and that the latter must therefore be rectangular 
and twice as long as it is broad.' In the north was a lofty mountain, 
behind which the sun took his course at night in order to appear 
again the next morning in the east.2. That the earth was the center of 
the universe could not be doubted by an orthodox Christian.’ It 
stands to reason that with such conceptions of the world there was 
felt no necessity for the use of parallels of latitude, and this branch, 
together with the whole science of geography, fell into decay during 
the period of the supremacy of the church. Nothing more is heard 
of astronomical observations to determine the location of places; the 
gnomon, the sphere, together with most of the products of Grecian 
culture, are buried in the dust, awaiting resurrection at the hands of 
another race, itself now in the bonds of darkness, but soon to start on 
a course of conquest over men and ideas unprecedented in its rapidity 
and brillianey. 

Though a wrong conception of the form of the earth was generally 
accepted by the Christian Church up to the time of the great dis- 
coveries and circum-navigation of the globe, there were not wanting at 
periods a few great minds which had a clearer idea of the truth. 
Clemens, Origen, Ambrose, Basil, John Scotus Erigena,’ the Vener- 
able Bede,® Virgilus of Juvavo,? Adam of Bremen,® and some others 
are mentioned as having testified to a belief in the rotundity of the 
earth. One fact notwithstanding remains certain, viz, that the church 
officially opposed the doctrine in spite of the contrary opinion of a few 
learned fathers, and the science of geography failed to receive any ad- 
dition “to the knowledge which the ancients had of the globe and the 
habitable zones.” ” 

The Jews believed the earth to be fat and Jerusalem in the center,! 
which idea was adopted by the earlier Christians along with the rest of 
Jewish doctrine; and we find accordingly a number of crude maps of 
the world with Jerusalem in the center and Paradise to the east, which 
on account of its importance was placed at the top of the map.” With 

'Peschel, Abhandlungen, I. 76. 

? Theory of Kosmas. Latronne, 610. 

°’ Latronne, 604. 

‘Gtinther, Kosmog. d. M. A. Rundschau. 

*Latronne, 317. Fiir Geogr. und Statis., Iv. 313. 

® La terre ‘‘est au milieu de celui-ci [le monde] comme le jaune est dans l’muf. ? 
Quoted by Santarem, L’histoire de la cosmographie, 1. 25. 

7Giinther, Studien, etc., 6. 

8 Tbid., 8. 

’Pérenneés, Biog. universelle, x11, p. 387, mentions also as holding this belief St. - 
Grégoire de Nysse, St.-Grégoire de Nazianze, St.-Athanase; that St.-Hilary and 
Origen mention the antipodes. 

'‘OSantarem, L’histoire de la cosmographie, 1. 22, 151. 

1 Ukert, 1.7. 

12“ Sachez que la Bible nomme l’Orient le devant; le sud la droite; le nord la 
gauche.” Lelewel, Table xiv, p. 15, quoting Meir al Dabi Hispanus, 1362. 


762 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


such fundamental ideas it was not possible to bring into harmony the 
work of Ptolemy, and we accordingly find other maps preferred ; ! 
though it is but just to add that the Roman itineraries were more 
practicable for travelling, and probably also more easily acquired than 
those of Ptolemy. On the other hand, if we turn to the greatest 
known geographical work of Christendom in the Middle Ages, that of 
the unnamed geographer of Ravenna, written in the seventh century, 
we find ‘“‘no notion of geographical latitude? The French geog- 
raphers of the twelfth century paid no regard to the relative position 
of cities,’ and the English, even in the following century, gave their 
entire attention to the itineraries.t| As navigation increased in activity 
there came into popular use among the mariners the so-called compass 
maps, which, disregarding projection, latitude, and longitude, were 
based on observations of the compass, starting from one or more fixed 
centers. These maps generally neglected the inland, but in course of 
time came to picture very accurately the most frequently visited coast 
lines. Lelewel (11, 16, n. 32) maintains that this kind of map is very 
ancient, that one in fact served as a model for the world-map of Era- 
tosthenes, but he fails to mention his authority for the statement, 
and the writer has not seen elsewhere the suggestion of such an 
idea. Furthermore, as we have no evidence of the Greeks having 
. possessed the compass, how can they have drawn ‘compass maps,” 
whose foundation is not a general idea of direction in reference to 
the equator and the poles, as was the case in Greek maps, but rather 
of direction from given local centers, if we may be allowed the expres- 
sion? : 

So we see that Christendom, as a whole, remained for centuries in 
ignorance and neglect of the principles of geographical latitude, though 
it had conquered the very region where in better days the theory had 
been perfected and the practice greatly advanced. Preceding the dawn 
of the Renaissance travelling became more common; the cultivation of 
geography followed as a matter of course. Already in the thirteenth 
century works on geography began to multiply,’ interest in the sub- 
ject increased, and progress in knowledge of facts was made, though 
but little in theory until the beginning of the fifteenth century, when 
Ptolemy was translated into Latin,® which act signalled the commence- 
ment of a new era in the science. 

To understand how Grecian knowledge was preserved during this 
period and handed on with additions to the later world, it will be 
necessary to turn the attention fora moment to another field of activity. 
The Arabs, converted to Mohammedanism, having made immense con- 
quests in arms and established a great realm, turned a part of their 
energy to intellectual pursuits. Having produced too little of their 


1 Lelewel, Br. Ed., 1,, xix. 4 Lelewel, I, 4. 
2 Ibid., 1, 5. 5 Santarem, 1, lv, lvi. 
’Santarem, 1, 188. 6Lelewel, Br, Ed., 1, 71, 


ee 


ett 


oe 





GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 763 


own to act as a foundation of future development, they drew from a 
rich fountain ready at hand—Greek literature and science—which 
through the medium of translations they soon made their own. Not 
only did the extent of their possessions and trade demand considerable 
geographical knowledge, and at the same time provide much of the 
material for it, but a stringent rule of their religion, requiring all 
prayers to be said with the worshiper’s face turned toward Mecca, 
made necessary the determination in every part of the realm of the 
exact direction toward the holy city. Although they were at first 
guilty of the same fundamental errors as other Oriental nations in 
conceiving the earth as a great plane or as having the form of a shield 
or a drum,! they came into possession of Ptolemy’s work, probably as 
early as the beginning of the ninth century,’ and from that time the 
rotundity of the earth was among them an almost universally accepted 
fact. That geography received a large share of attention is shown by 
the considerable number of works on the subject written by them, 
which have come down to us. One author, citing the Koran as au- 
thority, calls geography “a science pleasing to God.”* They not only 
established by observation with the gnomon the latitude of a consider- 
able number of places, but discovered also the error of one-fourth of a 
degree inherent in all observations with that instrument, because the 
shadow measures the angle to the uppermost edge of the sun instead 
of its center.t| Having a passion for astrology and a climate favorable 
for observing the heavens, they made rapid progress in astronomy, 
and accordingly in the theoretical part of geography connected with 
it; but the geographers seem to have been unable both to value this 
knowledge rightly and to use it in the preparation of their maps. To 
read the praises of their work by one*® who has made a specialty of it 
and constructed maps on nineteenth-century lines as an illustration of 
their production, must give a false idea of their true position in the 
history of geographical development. He names Ptolemy’s great work 
a monument monstrueux,” and finds the purported translation, known 
as “yvasm,” much better than the original, the translators having 
adopted its principles without its errors of detail.6 Though not a 
single Arabic map now known has a net representing latitude and 


'Giinther, Rundschau, 4, 345. 

2 Peschel, Erdkunde, 132. 

3 Tbid., 105. 

4 Ibid., 134. 

® Lelewel, Géog. du moyen-age. 

6 [bid., 1, 24. Contradicting himself he speaks of it as ‘‘Vouvrage géographique 
d@’un anonyme intitulé 67605, préférable & la géographie de Ptolémée.” D’Avezac, 
293, 294, is decidedly of another opinion: ‘‘ Mais les échantillons de cartographie 
arabe qui sont parvenu jusqt’A nous se bornent en général A de bien grossiéres 
esquisses, sans exactitude en proportions d’ancune espéce.” Again: ‘Il faut bien 
reconnaitre que leur réle [des cartes arabes] est absolument nul dans Vhistoire des 
projections terrestres,” p. 295. 


764 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


longitude,! Lelewel says that the ‘produits cartographiques de cette 
époque prouvent que toutes les cartes arabes furent élaborées sur les 
latitudes et les distances.”” He seems to have been unaware of the 
fact that the geographers regarded as too confusing—and so neglected 
to use on their maps—the mathematical determination of places fixed 
by the astronomers.’ They employed theoretically the division of the 
circle into degrees and minutes for giving in lists the position of in- 
dividual places, but seem to have preferred as a general division of 
their maps that into climates, of which they reckoned only seven, con- 
necting them with the seven planets. Though in the ninth century 
they were satisfied with a degree of accuracy in determining latitude 


approaching to one-third or one-sixth of the truth, they improved 


greatly later, and made some very exact observations, including two 
correct to the minute, viz, those of Toledo and Bagdad.’ 

It is to this people that we must look for much influence, direct and 
indirect, in the renaissance of classical learning in Christian Europe. 
As early as in the tenth century we catch a faint glimmer of reflected 
light in the field of geography in a globe made for Pope Sylvester 11,° 
who had studied in Mohammedan Spain. In the middle of the twelfth 
century there was to be found at the Court of Roger a copy of 
Ptolemy’s geography, and there still exists a thirteenth-century copy 
thereof in Venice ;* but being in the original tongue, which was as a 
sealed book to the Italians of that period, it probably had no influ- 
ence on the development of the science.® The first Latin translation 
of Ptolemy was made in 1405 by a Florentine named Angelo, and 
gradually found its way into all the countries of Europe.? This was 
contemporaneous with the opening of the period of oceanic discoveries 
under Henry the Sailor of Portugal. From this time the influence of 
Ptolemy was great,” gradually driving out the itineraries and works of 

1 Peschel, Endkunde, 146. 

2 Bresl. Ed., 1, lxxvi. 

3Peschel, Erdkunde, 146. 

4Lelewel, Br. Ed., 1, xxxviii. Lelewel, Table v, gives the climates of Abraham 
Bar Haiia Espagnol, 1136, bordered respectively by the equator and the parallels of 
15°, 24°, 30°, 36°, 40°, 45°, and 48°, for which he calculated that the longest day of 
each would be half an hour longer and the shortest half an hour shorter than that of 
the next one to the south. Aboulfeda, 1331, gives another division as follows: I, from 
122° to 204°; II, to 27°; III, to 334°; IV, to 383°; V, to 432°; VI, to 474°; VII, to 
504°. (Lbid., Table xiii.) 

5 Peschel, Erdkunde, p. 136 n. 1. 

®Santarem, I, 184. 

7Lelewel, Br. Ed., 11, 122. 

8Tn the mean time much had been learned from the Mohammedans; and Lelewel, 
1 xXciv, finds a direct connection between their work and that of Delisle, D’Anville, 
and Bonne, and says, also, p. Ixxxii: ‘‘ Les notions cartographiques d’Alfragan, 
d’Albateni, d’Arzakhel, passaient dans la langue latine, par les ouvrages de Gérard 
de Crémone (1187), de Sacrobosco (1250), de Bacon (1294), de Cecco (1327). 

9Tbid., 11, 123,124. 

10Santarem, 1,177. Lelewel, Br. Ed., 1, 104. 


a -_ 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 765 


like class, to make way for those constructed on the more reliable 
method, because based on scientific principles;! and his was destined 
to become the fundamental work to which the maps of modern geogra- 
phers might be added as a supplement.? If. this substitution of 
Ptolemy’s method was at first disastrous in producing maps less prac- 
ticable and perhaps also less accurate than those in vogue for mariners, 
it was due to the fact that the mariners had in their compass maps exag- 
gerated the size and importance of the bodies of water at the expense of 
theland.* Accordingly it was necessary to take this apparent step back- 
wards once for all, in order to establish for the future correct lines for 
the development of the science. For some time there contiuned to be 
published maps of the Middle Age type, as Fra Mauro’s map of the 
world, 1459, and Bennicasa’s nautical map, circa 1476;4 and even at 
times such were issued in the same work with re-productions of 
Ptolemy’s maps, as in the work of André Bianco,’ 1436. But at the 
end of the fifteenth century the work of the great Grecian was so 
widely circulated, at least among scientists, so generally accepted, 
that from that time we may consider the rotundity of the earth-as 
scientifically established® in Christendom, and therewith the theory of 
latitude. That was however only the beginning. The real latitude 
of but comparatively few places had been determined, and that gener- 
ally inaccurately, while there still remained the great work of measur- 
ing exactly a degree of latitude and thence calculating the size of the 
earth. 

Herewith we enter upon a-new era in the development of geograph- 
ical latitude. The first essential for the required accuracy was improve- 
ment in the instruments and methods of astronomical observation. 
The gnomon is at best but a crude instrument, and the practice of 
waiting for noon on the four days of the year when the suw’s position 
was accurately known hindered the accumulation of observations 
which is necessary to exactness. Not only were new instruments there- 
for invented, but the astronomers turned to the observation of the pole 
star, by which it is easier to determine latitude, and later came the 
tables of the daily position of sun and stars in the heavens, which 
enables us to determine with accuracy the latitude any day or night, 





1 Lelewel, Br. Ed., 1, 125. 

2—D’Avezae, 300. 

>Lelewel, u, 47, draws the contrast as follows: ‘‘La géographie des Arabes, 
savante mais embrouillée, était éminemment continentale; celle des latins Vexpéri- 
ence, mais réguliere, exclusivement nautique. Celle-la, suivant les regles dela haute 
science, sur des bases vicieuses, fournit des produits variés et discordants, s’emplit 
@inextricables erreurs; cette autre, marchant vers le grand chemin, par des sentiers 
étroits mais bien battus, élabora Vunique produit pour toutes les écoles qui se dis- 
putaient V’exactitude de son dessin.” 

4Lelewel, Br. Ed., 11, 105. 

5 Tbid., 86. 

°Giinther, Studien, 11, 


766 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


provided the sky is comparatively free from clouds. Not only is the 
position of each individual place of importance for the science of geog- 
raphy, but the distance between places, as well as their direction one 
from another, is also of great weight. So long as navigation was 
confined to coasting, simple compass-directions and compass-maps 
answered all necessary requirements; but when mariners began to 
strike out into the ocean, where they might wander for weeks without 
seeing land, and it was found that the compass did not always point 
directly north, but is liable to considerable variation, the old method 
no longer sufficed; a method of determining latitude at all times 
became a pressing want, which, as is generally the case, resulted in 
corresponding new inventions. The natural curiosity of civilized man 
causes a longing to know the size of the planet on which he dwells. 
This knowledge can be most readily gained by measuring accurately a 
degree or rather various degrees of latitude. To accomplish this, gov- 
ernments have provided immense sums of money, and scientists have 
borne—not only without murmur, but with enthusiasm—the heat of 


tropical summers and the cold of polar winters, the winds and fogs of 


the mountains, and deluging rains in the plains, have suffered from 
hunger and thirst, and even met bravely at their post, the one uncon- 
querable, Death. It is to the contemplation of this gigantic work, 
already continued for more than three centuries and still being vigor- 
ously pursued, that we now turn. 

It may be well however to say first something as to the principles 
which lie at the foundation of this work. 


Position of the tropics.—It was matter of very early observation that 
the sun changes from time to time its position in the heavens in refer- 
ence to the stars, and that this change is a regular one, and the period 
of time occupied in returning to the same position determines the length 
of the year. The path thus formed is called the Ecliptic.!. An imagi- 
nary line on the surface of the earth formed by connecting those points 
over which the center of the sun passes vertically at noon on each sue- 
cessive day of the year, receives the same name. In connection with 
this change of the sun’s position, it was noticed that the length of the 
shadows cast on the earth at noon at different seasons of the year is 
variable,’ and this fact gave the first means of determining absolute 
position on the globe. Noting in Egypt, where no shadow was east, 
only on one day of the year, gave the position of the northern tropic. 
Half the difference between this point and that over which the sun 
stood perpendicularly when farthest south, (accordingly when the 


1 Briinnow, Astron., p. 75, defines the Ecliptic as ‘‘ der Kreis den der Mittelpunkt der 
Sonne, vom Mittelpunkt der Erde gesehen, im Laufe eines Jahres unter den Sternen 
von Westen nach Osten beschreibt.” 

? That the sun’s course is not parallel to the Equator is said to have been discovered 
by Anaximander of Miletos (Strack’s Plinius, lib. ii, 8 6, Vol. 1. p. 78). 


——— 


ee 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 767 


shadow at the first point was the longest), gave the position of the 
equator, or the middle distance between the poles. So there was one 
point on the earth, viz, that of the Tropic of Cancer, apparently fixed,! 
and a relation was established between the position of the sun at two 
other points, and the length of shadows cast on the earth. This may be 
called the first foundation stone of scientific geography ; for without 
such a sure grounding in nature itself, the science is impossible. Pre- 
supposing that the rays of the sun come to us parallel to each other, it 
happens from the nature of a sphere that the ratio between the length 
of a shadow at noon, cast by an object perpendicular to the plane of 
the horizon to the object itself, is equal to the ratio of the distance 
between the place of observation and the point where the sun casts no 
shadow. Having thought out this principle, the earliest astronomers 
waited for noon at the summer solstice to make their observations, and 
somewhat later came to use also the winter solstice and the equinoxes 
therefor. But the position thus gained was not absolute and unchange- 
able, as the ancients supposed. 

In the first place, accuracy of observation was not possible, owing to 
defective instruments; they supposed the position of the tropic marked 
by the position of the upper edge of the sun at the summer solstice, 
instead of by its center. And in the second place, they could not sus- 
pect that the ecliptic plane is itself subject to a secular variation of 
between one and two degrees in about ten thousand years; as a result 
of which—during the historical period—the earth’s axis has been 
slowly becoming more perpendicular to the plane of its course around 
the sun. The obliquity is now 24’ less than it was 2,000 years ago. 
This causes a slight approach of the tropics toward the equator and of 
the polar circles toward the poles. Syene, whose position was accepted 
as marking that of the tropic, lay in 24° 5’ 32” north latitude, and ae- 
cording to modern calculations was under the edge of the sun at the 
summer solstice about 700 B. C., when the obliquity of the Ecliptie 
was probably 25° 51/2) Though Eratosthenes determined with a fair 
degree of accuracy the obliquity at 23° 51’ 19.5, the ancients gen- 
erally accepted the round sum of 24 degrees. Later classical authors 
made no improvement on this, and these figures passed with the remain- 
der of Greek learning to the Arabs. Though the latter added little or 
nothing to the theory of the Greeks, they were much better observers. 
Accordingly we find Albategnius in the second half of the ninth cen- 
tury observing with carefully divided parallactic rules the distance 
between the sun and the zenith at the solstices. The difference he 
found to be 47° 10’, from which he determined the obliquity of the 
Kcliptic to be 23° 35’... Delambre names this “the most trustworthy 
ancient observation,” and comparing the result with that of his own 





1 Later it will be seen that this point is not stationary, but slightly movable. 
2Neglected to note author. 
*Delambre, Astron. du xyi1™ siécle, p. 6, 


7168 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


work in 1800, determines the diminution of the obliquity at 0.505 per 
annum. He adds however that one can not say that the Arabian 
observation was exact to the minute.! Remarking that their result did 
not agree with that of the Greeks, the Arabs thought that the “ obli- 
quity of the Ecliptic oscillates.” ? 

However, it was not until toward the middle of the eighteenth century 
that the diminution of the Ecliptie obliquity was generally admitted.® 
Louville was the first who attempted to measure the amount of the move- 
ment and announced in 1716 the result, 60’ acentury.t| The elder Cas- 
sini believed it to be 45’,° which is practically that at present accepted.® 
However, opinions have varied much; Ximines in 1756 calculated it to 
be 30.7, Hornsby (1769) believed it to be no more than 32” or 34” in 
the century, although his observations had given 3” per annum.’ La- 
lande gives 33/.33, Delambre, 46” to 48”, as the result of observations ; 
but the latter accepts as the best those of La Caille, 44” per century.® 

It belongs also to the childhood of the race to have noticed that some 
stars never go below the horizon and that one seems to be stationary, 
round which the others revolve. This star marks the prolongation of 
the earth’s axis to the north, and pre-supposes its rays to come from 
an infinite distance and fall on the earth parallel to each other. It 
happens then, from the nature of a sphere, that it can not be seen from 
the equator, or further to the south; but in proportion to the distance 
of the observer north from the equator that star appears above the 
horizon. This fact gave a second principle founded in nature on which 
to build the science of geography. This star however is not abso- 
lutely stationary in the sky, but itself describes daily a small circle, so 
a simple method was invented to find the center of this circle, which 
then should be the absolute north pole. This was to observe the alti- 
tude of any one of the circumscribing stars when at its highest and 
lowest points, 7. e. at its culminations, and halve the result, which gives 
a truer north point. It was the good fortune of the English astron- 
omer-royal, Bradley (1692-1762), to discover that even this point is not 
absolutely fixed, but describes periodically a small ellipse. Even this 
is not a regular curve, for the line is a wavy one. 

Still a third method of determining latitude was employed as early 
as the time of Poseidonius (first century B.C.) which was however at 
first so crude as to be perfectly unreliable in its results, but which in 
the end was so far useful as to call attention to the fact that other stars 


1Delambre, Astron. du xviir¢ siécle, pp. 13, 14. 
2 Ibid., p. 200. 

3 Tbid., vii. 

‘ Thid.,-p. 317: 

5 Tbid., p. 262. 

6 Tbid., p. 406. 

7 Tbid., p. 405. 

8 Ibid., pp. 697, 698. 

9 [bid., p. 594, 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 769 


than the circumpolar ones can be used in determining latitude. This 
method was to observe certain stars which in one place just graze the 
horizon and in another appear higher. The altitude in the second place 
gives the difference in latitude of the two places of observation.! 


Instruments.—No one art or science is so independent that it can stand 
or fall, advance or retrograde, without influencing and being influenced 
by the others. Accordingly we find progress in the knowledge of geo- 
graphical latitude dependent not only on that of general information 
regarding the earth’s surface, but also on that of astronomy, and even 
of mechanics, the latter being necessary to increase accuracy of astro- 
nomical observations, on which all the rest depends. The beginnings 
with two kinds of rude gnomons have already been mentioned. To 
the Chinese was known a third sort, more accurate because provided 
toward the top with a small hole, through which the sun shone, thus 
terminating the shadow to be measured at the point corresponding to 
the center of the sun. The Arabs also made use of this sort of gno- 
mon, but it seems doubtful if the Greeks ever came to a knowledge of 
it. Eratosthenes employed besides the gnomon the armillary spheres 
already mentioned, with which he observed the obliquity of the Ecliptie. 
Further progress was marked by the introduction of the astrolabe, the 
first mention of which is made by Ptolemy, who says he used one 
at Rhodes, which however may have been invented by Hipparchus.? 
Between this and modern times, the only improved instruments for ob- 
servation are the similar but more complicated torquetum of Regio- 
montanus (1436-1476), and the quadratum geometricum, which was 
known to the Arabs, but is generally ascribed to the invention of Pur- 
bach* (1425-1461). In about 1600, observations at sea were much 
improved by the invention of a portable quadrant by the English sea- 
captain, John Davis. In the mean time the instraments for use on land 
were being made larger and larger, and, though admitting of more ac. 
curate division, they became unwieldy. Then came the application of 
magnifying glasses, to which Huyghens first applied the cross-threads 
to mark the mutual focus of the two glasses of the telescope; and in 
1667, Picard first applied (in concert with Auzout) the telescope to the 

1Tn recent times it has been customary to observe any selected star, measuring its 
distance on the meridian from the pole or zenith. The latitude is found by compar- 
ing the relative position observed with the star’s absolute position, which will be 
fuund in tables prepared for that purpose. On account of atmospheric refraction 
stars near the zenith are now generally chosen for such observations. 

2Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 184. 

3 Wolf, Gesch. Astron., p. 126. 

* Tbid., p.378. Encye. Brit., art. ‘‘ Navigation,” speaking of Davis’s The Seaman’s 
Secrets: “There is a drawing of a quadrant, with a plumb line, for measuring the ze- 
nith distance, and one of a curious modification of a cross-staff, with which the ob- 
server stands with his back to the sun, looking at the horizon through asight on the 
end of the staff, while the shadow of the sun from the top of a movable projection 
falls on the sight box. This remained in common use till superseded by Hadley’s 
quadrant.” . 


H. Mis, 224 49 





770 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


quadrant.'. The great English astronomer, Hadley, worked a revolu- 
tion in observations of latitude at sea by publishing in 1731 the de. 
scription of the octant,? now known by his name,’ though it was proba- 
bly invented by Newton.*— By means of flat-surface reflectors the ob- 
server is enabled to see apparently in the same line the two objects 
whose angular distance he wishes to measure. The angle between the 
two objects observed is measured by double the angle formed by the two 
reflectors of the instrument, according to a well known law of reflected 
light, which may be expressed as follows: ‘‘ The angle between the first 
and last direction of a ray which has suffered two reflections in the 
same plane, is equal to double the angles formed by the reflecting sur- 
faces.”> During most of the eighteenth century, the English not only 
made great progress in astronomy, but were decidedly the leading mech- 
anicians,® so that their instruments were greatly sought for, even in 
foreign countries. The necessity of having large instruments for ob- 
serving latitude came to an end with the invention of Borda’s circles 
in 1790.7 This instrument was not only made with extreme care and 
with very minute divisions, but its form permitted a continuous series 
of observations, each angle commencing where the preceding ended, 
instead of the instrument being turned back to the starting point for 
each new observation, as was the case with the sectors.’ In the pres- 
ent century there have been constant improvements and alterations in 
the forms and accuracy of observing instruments, a closer considera- 
tion of which lies outside the scope of this article. The latest improv- 
ment in principle seems to have been the invention of a reflection cir- 
cle as a substitute for the sextant, which is provided with two nonii, 





1Delambre, Astron. du xvi, siécle, p. 618, note. 


2The instrument in reality was only an octant, or formed an are of 45°, but since, 
through the principle of reflection, it could measure 90°, it is often called Hadley’s 
quadrant. 

3Delambre, Astron. du xvu1™, siécle, p. 688. 

4 ‘He (Newton) also invented a reflecting sextant for observing the distance be- 
tween the moon and the fixed stars, the same in every essential as the instrument 
which is still in everyday use at sea under the name of Hadley’s quadrant. This 
discovery wascommunicated by him to Dr. Halley in 1700, but was not published or 
communicated to the Royal Society till after Newton’s death, when a description of 
it was found among his papers.”—Encye. Brit., art. ‘‘ Navigation.” 

5 Herschel, Pop. Astron., §157, p. 122. 

6 Zach, Mon. Cor., 1804, p. 277. 

7 Tbid., p. 271. 

8 Delambre (Base du systéme métrique,1, 97,93), thus speaks of the possible accuracy 
of this instrument: “Les deux miens [instruments] étaient divisés en quatre cents 
degrés subdivisés chacun en dix partiés; ce qui faisoit en total quatre milledivisions 
tracées sur le limbe. Le vernier les partagoit encore chacune en dix partiés, sans la 
moindre incertitude, et ’on pouvoit méme estimer, sans se tromper de deux en trois, 
les millidmes de degré. Quatre alidades, placées presque 4 angles droits, divisoient 
encore l’erreur ; en sorte que ce n’est pas trop de dire que l’instrument donnoit les 
milliémes de degré. Ainsi, faisant abstraction des erreurs de la division, on auroit 
un angle & trois ou quatre secondes prés, par une seule observation.” 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. “a 


directly opposite to each other, by which method each counteracts the 
possible error of the other.’ 

With the advance toward perfection of the instruments of observa- 
tion has naturally gone hand in hand the progress in the accuracy 
of the astronomical observations themselves. Though Hipparchus 
was far ahead of his predecessors in the kind of instruments he used, 
his observations were still liable to an error of balf a degree.? Lelewel 
gives the latitude of several places according to two Arabian authors, 
which vary in each case three (!) degrees or more.’ There is a long dif- 
ference between this and Picard’s results, whose observations, accord- 
ing to his own statement, did not vary one from another more than five 
seconds.¢ Somewhat more than a century later Delambre made about 
twelve hundred observations to determine the position of one of his 
stations, and found them accord to within half a second.2 Another 
series gave a variation of only one-third of a second,’ and still a third, 
consisting of eighteen hundred observations, made by Delambre and 
Mechain, showed a difference of but one-sixth of a second in the results 
of the two observers.7?. These are the achievements of the most careful 
observations with the finest instruments. About the same time Bohnen- 
erger, writing of ordinary observations with the mirror-sextant, gives, as 
the greatest possible error in observing the altitude of the sun, 23.5 sec- 
onds,’ a tremendous advance on classical and medieval results. How- 
ever, all modern observers do not find the same happy agreement in 
their observations as did Mechain and Delambre. Even at the begin- 
ning of this century a complaint is made that the latitude of the best 
astronomical observatories is scarcely within three to four seconds cer- 
tainly fixed, while that of Paris had varied between 1667 and 1721 a 
quarter of a minute,? and that of Berlin still later varied a whole 
minute, according to the observations of two astronomers.” 


Tables of positions of stars.—Of great importance for the determina- 
tion of latitude, are the tables giving the exact position of the sun and 
stars. Hipparchus calculated the length of the longest day for each 
degree of latitude and inso far used the sun’s position for geographical 
purposes. Butit is in modern times that man has first felt the necessity 


1*¢Besonders bequem sind die von Pistor und Martin’s erfundenen Reflexions- 
kreise, bei denen der kleine Spiegel durch ein Prisma ersetzt ist. Diese haben iiber- 
dies den Vortheil, dass man damit alle Winkel von 8° bis 180° messen kann” (Brii- 
mow, Astron., p. 540). 

2PDelambre, Astron. ancienne, I, Xii. 

3Br. Ed., I, xlviii. 

4Picard, Mesure de la terre, 22. 

5 Delambre, Base du systéme, I, 77. 

6 Thid., 72. 

7Delambre, Base du systéme, I, 94. 

8 Ortsbestimmung, 145. 

9Zach., Mon. Cor., April, 1804, p. 270. 

10 Thid., p. 284. 


W122 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


of being able to determine each day and even moment his latitude; and 
with the occasion of the necessity, were invented the means of meeting 
it. Not only were new instruments of observation placed at the dis- 
posal of astronomers and mariners, but tables of the daily positions of 
sun, moon, and stars, have been worked out with ever-increasing ac- 
curacy, so that what was once a matter of impossibility to the best in- 
formed astronomer and mathematician, viz, to determine any day his 
geographical position on the earth, is now an easy matter for any mar- 
iner of fair education. Though such tables were constructed by the 
Greeks and Arabs, we must look to the French astronomer, La Caille, 
and the German, Tobias Mayer, for the first approach to accuracy in 
this regard.'! The former, using alike the work of his predecessors and 
his own numerous cbservations, constructed about the middle of the 
last century a table of 397 stars, which receives the highest praise from 
Delambre. Mayer took up the work where La Caille left it, and sim- 
plified the mathematical formule, receiving a prize’from the English 
government for the benefit therefrom to navigation. This work was 
then collated with the observations of the astronomer royal of England 
by the mathematician, Mason, whose name in America is so well known 
in connection with the Mason and Dixon’s line. The accuracy of the 
tables was thereby increased to such an extent that Maskelyne ex- 
pressed the belief that the greatest error would not surpass thirty sec- 
onds. Later laborers in the same field have materially diminished even 
this small margin of possible error.° 


Refraction —Several causes united to make possible a degree of accu- 
racy which for ages was held to be unattainable. Among the most po- 
tent of these factors were the discovery by Bradley of the aberration of 
light and the nutation of the earth’s axis; and the great progress made 
in determining accurately the amount of refraction in connection with 
astronomical observations. As the latter was a matter of slow develop- 
ment, it may be advantageous to consider it Somewhat more in detail. 
Astronomical refraction has been defined as the amount which the rays 
of light are bent from their entrance into the atmosphere to us.4. The 
first recorded notice taken of this phenomenon was about the time of 
the Christian era, when Cleomedes, in his work Circularis Inspectio Me- 
teorum, relates an account which he had received of an eclipse of the 
moon taking place when both sun and moon were visible above the hor- 
izon. Though disposed to doubt the truth of the story, he gives a pos- 
sible explanation of the phenomenon in remarking: ‘ Even as a ring in 
a vessel will be raised visibly above the edge by water poured in, so 
can the sun be seen by refraction when it is in reality still below the hor- 
izon.”° The fact of refraction was known to Ptolemy, and that its 





1 Delambre, Astron. du Xvi11™e siécle, viii. 4 [bid., 717. 
bid. OLD: > Bruhns, Strahlenbrechung, 6. 
3 Thid., 634. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. LO 


quantity decreases from the horizon to the zenith, where it disap- 
pears.! However, though he had a better idea of the subject than the 
earliest of ied astronomers, he failed to discover any of the laws of 
its action.2, The subject was merely mentioned by Sextus Empiricus, 
inawork entitled Adversus Astrologus (in the third century);? was taken 
up by Alhazen about 1100, in his work on optics; then remained un- 
noticed till the Nuremberger astronomer, Walther, about 1500, com- 
menced to estimate, at least near the horizon, the effects of refraction.‘ 
He was probably the first who ever really observed astronomical re- 
fraction, which he had done before becoming acquainted with the an- 
cient works wherein it is mentioned.? About a century later Tycho 
Brahe was lead to a re-discovery of the phenomenon while trying to de- 
termine the latitude of his observatory. For greater accuracy he made 
observations of a circumpolar star and of the sun at the solstices, and 
found a difference of four minutes in the results. In anew instrument, 
built with more care for similar observations, showing the same diver- 
gence, he believed the difference to be caused by refraction, and fell to 
making a special study of the subject, from the results of which he con- 
structed the first table of astronomical refractions; but he not only 
missed an important truth, which had been already guessed by Ptol- 
emy, viz, that refraction ceases only at the zenith, but he believed 
that refraction for the sun and the stars ceases at different altitudes, and 
found the latter at an end of 26 degrees above the horizon, while at 45 
degrees the sun’s rays still suffered a refraction of five seconds.6 Here 
was indeed a valuable beginning, but the whole matter rested upon an 
empirical basis; for as yet there was no conception of the laws of the 
action of light. The first of these, that of the relation of the angle of 
incidence to the angle of refraction, was first published by Descartes 
in his Dioptrice, though the honor of precedent discovery belongs to 
Suellius, who unfortunately died before he could publish his work.’ 
Tycho himself remarked that refraction is not always the same, but of- 
tered no explanation of the fact. Cassini and Picard found that it was 
greater in winter than in summer, by night than by day, and by a happy 
chance the latter was led to the true explanation of this irregularity ; 
for, observing once at sunrise, he found the horizontal refraction sud- 
denly change twenty-five seconds, which could have no other cause 
than the increased warmth of the air,® caused by the appearance of 
the sun. Two other laws of nature discovered about the same time 
aided materially in increasing the knowledge of astronomical refrac- 
tion, the first being the one discovered by Edmund Mariotte, that the 


!Delambre, Astron. du xvi1™’ een le 774 

2 Bruhns, 8. 5 Tbid. 
4Delambre, Astron. du xvii", siécle, 775. 
5Delambre, Astron. du moyen-Age, 339. 


6Delambre, Astron. du Xv111™ siécle, 775. 
7Bruhns, 24, 25. 8 Thid., 31. 


(74 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


density of the air is proportional to the pressure resting upon it, and 
the second, that established by Hawksbee’s experiment in 1702, viz, 
that the refracting power of the atmosphere is as its density. 

In order to render practical—for determining astronomical refrac- 
tion—the knowledge gained by these various discoveries it was neces- 
sary to have the means of arriving at the amount of pressure on the 
great body of atmosphere through which the light comes to the 
observer, and also of measuring the temperature of the atmosphere. 
These means were provided just at the right time by the invention of 
the thermometer by Drebbel in 1638, and its perfecting nearly a century 
later by the labors of Fahrenheit and Réaumur; also by the (if possible) 
still more valuable invention of the barometer by Torricelli in 1643. 
Thus at the beginning of the eighteenth century we find all the means 
at hand, by which the cause and amount of astronomical refraction were 
to be determined with the greatest accuracy, supplying the last requisite 
to the exact determination of geographical latitude. Halley, by his ob- 
servations in 171415, was led to the conclusion that the change of 
refraction is proportional to the change in the height of the barometer,’ 
which was for astronomical refraction only the confirmation of the law 
already proved for terrestial refraction by Hawksbee, viz, that refraction 
is proportional to the density of the atmosphere, while later in the cen- 
tury Euler called attention to tue fact that refraction is almost exactly 
in the inverse ratio of the degrees of heat, when the star is not too near 
the horizon.*? Thus a large body of facts had been gradually brought 
together, which was then systematized, and thereby was made possible 
the establishing of theories as to the action of light on its way through 
the atmosphere. Theyin turn became the foundation for calculating 
accurately the amount of refraction when the conditions of the observa- 
tions were known. The details of the matter lie outside of the scope of 
this article; but a few of the most important points are worthy of a 
moment’s attention. Though Kepler brought his great talents to bear 
on the subject he failed to add anything to its elucidation. Tobias 
Mayer (already mentioned) was the first to give a rule for calculating 
the amount of refraction in connection with the variation of the barom- 
eter and thermometer.’ Oriani in 1788 showed that the change of 
density of the air is without influence on refraction from the zenith to 
a distance of 70 degrees® (though of course the regular increment of 
density and refraction continues), and Laplace showed that the same 
is true to 74 degrees,’ and in fact he takes no account of the variation 
of density in his formula up to 80 degrees. This probably accounts for 
the fact that some early tables were quite accurate up to that point, as 
was the case with Kepler’s.2 The genius of Newton and of Huyghens 











1Bruhns, 40. 2 Thid., 41. 
5’ Delambre, Astron. du xvmr™ siécle, 785, note by Mathieu. 
4Bruhns, 15. 5 Ibid., 78. 
6 [bid., 74. 7 Ibid., 36. 


8 Tbid., 119. 3 Ibid., 19. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. ld 


was brought to bear also on this subject, and though starting with an 
entirely different hypothesis, their results were both quite accurate. 
The former, believing light to be a material substance, supposed that 
the heavier medium attracted more powerfully and thus produced re- 
fraction; the latter, having proposed the wave theory of light, taught 
that it is more difficult for the waves to force their way through a dense 
medium than through one less dense; that their motion is thereby re- 
tarded, and when striking the denser medium at an oblique angle that 
their direction is changed. 

The earliest astronomers who considered the subject supposed the 
atmosphere of the same density everywhere, and hence presumed that 
‘the light-ray was only bent once and formed a straight path through 
the air; but from the time of Newton and Huyghens this idea was 
shown to be untenable and that the path is really a curve. What the 
exact nature of this curve is it is extremely difficult to determine, on 
account of the presence of a large number of possible disturbing ele- 
ments. With the gradual increase of accuracy, the older tables of 
Cassini, Bradley, Berg, and Burckhardt and others have given way, 
one after the other, to ever newly appearing ones. The present ones of 
Laplace, Bessel, Schmidt, and Ivory are models of accuracy and fully 
answer the needs for furnishing the amount of refraction in all cases.' 


Progress of determining the latitude of fixed points.—At the renais- 
sance of geography, almost the entire political face of Europe was found 
changed from what it had been when Ptolemy’s work was written. In 
that work but few latitudes had been given, and these were generally 
seriously lacking in exactness. The Arabs had added considerable 
thereto, but in the region foreign tothose with whom the advancement of 
the science now rested. At first the modern geographers dared not dis- 
pute the authority of the great master, and the first to print a map with 
corrections offered therewith excuses for breaking with the tradition. 
The need of accurately fixing latitudes was soon felt. The gnomon was 
revived and made larger and better. Even as late as the elder Cassini, 
a gnomon of 20 feet in height was used to determine the latitude of 
Bologna;? and still later (1744) Lemonnier added to his gnomon a burn- 
ing glass of three inches diameter and 80-foot focus, by means of which 
latitude could be as accurately determined as by the great quadrants 
of the time. But the days of gnomons were numbered, and the newer 
instruments took precedence. There followed a general improvement in 
the determination of latitude by observation, a few examples of which 
may be of use to show the rate of progress. 

Surveys.—In the history of geographical latitude the most conspic- 
uous role has been played by the surveys which have been made to 


1 Bruhns, 181. 
2 Cassini, Grandeur de la terre, p. 375. 
3Delambre, Astron. du XVIII siécle, 180. 


776 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


determine the length of a degree, and therefrom, by further deductions, 
the size and form of theearth. The principal aim of this great work 
was, to be sure, purely scientific; but thatit has a most practical appli- 
cation also is pithily stated by Maupertuis as follows: ‘Sur des routes 
de 100 degrés, en longitude, on commettroit des erreurs de plus de 2 
degrés, si naviguant sur la sphéroide de Newton on se croyoit sur 
celui du livre De la grandeur et figure de la terre: and combien de 
vaisseaux ont péri pour des erreurs moins considérables.! -For ages 
those who believed in the rotundity of the earth thought it to bea 
perfect sphere; butin the seventeenth century the two great physicists 
of the day, Newton and Huyghens, again starting with different hypoth- 
eses, came to a like result, viz, that the earth is not a true sphere, but 
rather a spheroid, flattened toward the poles. The announcement of 
these theories, nearly at the same time (1686 and 1688, respectively), 
caused great excitement among the astronomers and geographers; two 
camps were formed contending respectively for the old and the new 
theory and each demanding proof of its theory by surveying: for if 
the earth is flatter toward the poles, a degree of latitude will be longer 
near the pole than near the equator. France, which was already the 
leading country in such work, offered a good field for it; the French 
astronomers were eager to undertake it, and Louis X1v authorized the 
survey of a meridian extending throughout the land. The northern 
and southern stretches being put under leading specialists for survey, 
the result showed the degree to be longest in the southern section; a 
repetition only confirmed the result. If the surveys were correct, this 
proved the earth to be elongated toward the poles, instead of flattened. 
Great was the delight of the French at this defeat of the foreign 
theorists. But the latter contended that the matter was by no means 
settled ; that the only sure method would be to make surveys near the 
equator and near the pole, and await the result. This plan was carried 
out during the first half of the eighteenth century, and resulted in the 
complete triumph of the defenders of the theory of flattening toward 
the poles. This point settled, the earth was still supposed to be a per- 
fectly symmetrical figure; but as surveys becaine more extensive and- 
more accurate there appeared inequalities which were not compatible 
with that theory, and it is now generally accepted that beyond the 
irregularities of mountains and valleys, discernible to every eye, the geo- 
detic form of the earth is also irregular. 

We have already seen that astronomy gives us the means of deter- 
mining accurately and with comparative ease the latitude of any one 
place. If then the latitude of two places which are on the same merid- 
ian is known and the distance between them is accurately measured, 
supposing the earth to be a perfect sphere, a simple arithmetical cal- 
culation will give the earth’s circumference; for the latitade being 
expressed in degrees, of which 360 form the circumference, the distance 





'Maupertuis, Guvres, 11, 82. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. T77 


between the points of observation will be to the entire circumference as 
the difference in latitude is to 360 degrees. The earth being a spheroid 
makes the calculation much more complicated, though the same princi- 
ple of proportion between distance and degrees of arc remains as the 
basis thereof. Butinasmuch as it is known that the earth has consider- 
able irregularities, it is not possible to determine its exact form from 
one or two measured lines; but for entire accuracy the whole surface of 
the land should be surveyed. To carry out as far as possible this object, 
there was formed in 1861, the Middle European Commission for meas- 
uring degrees. 

This commission working steadily from year to year will acadualty 
cover the entire surface of Europe with a net-work of surveyed tri- 
angles, and thus be able to add greatly to our knowledge of the true 
form of the earth. 

The improvement in measuring distances on the surface of the earth 
has kept equal pace with the advance in astronomical accuracy. The 
ancients accepted the distances as reckoned by travellers or at best the 
land measurement of government employés on a line not straight. 
The Arabs measured one or more lines of a degree’s length, by what 
means we do not know, and with so little accuracy that there was a 
difference in the results of three-quarters of a mile. The first measure- 
ment of modern times was made in the sixteenth century by counting 
the revolutions of a carriage wheel on an ordinary road. Finally in 
1615, in The Netherlands, was made the first application of trigonome- 
try to land measurement, and though the result was not nearly so 
accurate as that of the wheel measurement, a new principle had been 
introduced, which was destined to revolutionize investigations of this 
nature, and by gradual improvement in its application, to furnish re- 
sults so accurate as to leave practically nothing to be desired. This 
principle is that which forms the foundation of trigonometrical sci- 
ence, viz, that the value of a line and two angles of a triangle being 
known the other quantities can be determined. From that time this 
has been the method employed, with the exception of the attempt by 
Mason and Dixon to measure an entire degree in Pennsylvania, which 
failed to produce an accurate result, and of Norwood’s survey from 
London to York in 1634~35. The best method having been discovered, 
there remained still the possibility of enormous progress in accuracy, 
especially in two directions: (1) in measuring the angles of the tri- 
angles; (2) in measuring the base-line. These have now been brought 
to such perfection that a leading authority is of the opinion that 
further improvement in this direction can not increase the accuracy of 
the result so much as the outstanding uncertainty due to irregularities 
in the form of the earth.! 

Before passing to a chronological consideration of the most impor- 
tant surveys made to determine the length of a degree, it may be well 





' Bessel, Gr Pencssanc 428, 


Gist © GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


to say something of the work in connection with measuring a base line 
and fixing and measuring the triangles connected therewith. In the 
first place, choosing the ground for the entire survey is no easy mat- 
ter. Two points nearly or quite on the same meridian should be sought, 
which are favorable to the astronomical observations necessary to de- 
termine their latitude; near the course of the line there should be a 
convenient plane, as flat as possible, advantageous for running the base 
line in a direction favorable for connecting it with the main series of 
triangles, while the tract as a whole should be of such a nature as to 
permit the making of triangles as large as_ possible, i. ¢., furnishing 
high points at long distances with uninterrupted view, with all the an- 
gles as large as possible, for the measurement of very acute angles is 
more liable to error than that of large ones.!. The situation of the base 
line once selected, its end points are marked with the utmost care by 
contrivances which vary according to the ideas of the surveyor. In 
order to keep the true direction with perfect accuracy while measur- 
ing, the line is staked out with the utmost care, wooden stakes being 
driven into the earth at short distances, and nails driven into the top 
of the stakes to mark the exact point where the line passes. Then fol- 
lows the actual work of measuring. That this may be accomplished 
with the most extreme accuracy, a great variety of rules have been con- 
structed from time to time, the standard of length generally being the 
toise of Paris, or of Peru, as it was called after the completion of the 
Peruvian survey. The first care is to procure a rule as nearly as possi- 
ble just so long or double so long as the standard and determine its 
absolute length. Then, since the substance thereof (of whatever sort) 
is liable to variation of volume dependent on change of temperature, ex- 
periments must be made to establish the amount of this variation, and 
a thermometer is so attached as to give the temperature of the instru- 
ment. There must be an attachment to the rule which enables it to be 
placed at a perfect level, or if not, then to measure the amount of the 
declination. An arrangement for placing it firmly on the ground and 
at the same time for changing its level must also be thought out and 
constructed. Furthermore, since it is practically impossible to place 
one heavy rule against another without displacing more or less the one 
already in situ, ingenuity has been taxed to invent methods by which 
the main rules could be placed in line without touching and the small 
intervals be accurately measured. ‘This difficulty can be obviated by 
the application of the principle of wheel measurement, by which, a per- 
fectly smooth way being constructed between the two points whose dis- 
tance is to be measured, a cylinder, of special construction, the length 





' Bouguer (Figure de la terre., p. 79) says in this connection: ‘‘Ces erreurs, quoique les 
mémes, produiront cependant ensuite différens effets, selon que les angles seront plus 
ou moins grands; une minute apporte beaucoup plus de différence dans le sinus d’un 
petit angle que dans le sinus d’un grand ; et les cétés qu’on caleule par le moyen 
des triangles, doivent étre sujets 4 la méme erreur que ces sinus, puisqu’ils changent 
dans le méme rapport.” See also pp. 83, 85, 88. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. tie 


of whose circumference is accurately known, is rolled over the way, 
thus producing the effect of a continuous rule. This has been applied 
with good result, though it has not been used frequently. As the work 
of measurement can not be completed in one day, it is necessary to 
mark with care the place of quitting at evening, for commencing in the 
morning. This is done, when measuring with rules, by dropping a 
plumb line from the end of the last rule placed at evening and mark- 
ing the spot where it falls on a plate sunk into the ground, which is 
then carefully covered, so that neither storm nor wandering beast can 
change its position during the night. With all these precautions and 
the most careful noting of every circumstance that can in the least in- 
fluence the result, the line is generally measured twice, and as a con- 
trol of the accuracy of the measurement, there is often measured a sec- 
ond line distant from the first. 

Added to this is the labor of running the net of triangles between 
the ends of the line to be surveyed and connecting it, as accurately as 
possible, with the base line. The points for the angles of the triangles 
having been selected, there are the necessary preparations for observa- 
tions to be made, including, where necessary, the building of wooden 
towers of greater or less height. As the summits of mountains are 
frequently selected therefor the difficulties of procuring all necessaries 
of life and for the work are thereby materially increased, while the 
violent action of the elements often disturbs and sometimes destroys the 
work of a long period. The stations established, it remains to measure 
the angles, not only once, but a number of times; and not only two 
angles of each triangle (which theoretically would be sufficient), but in 
order to insure the greatest possible accuracy, all three are measured 
with extreme care. For this work, the improvement in signals and 
instruments has been immense. 

These surveys have led to some valuable observations on the varying 
conditions of the atmosphere. Perhaps the most interesting of these 
after those relating to refraction are those which prove a periodic dis- 
turbance or movement in the atmosphere, even on so called still days. 
There are four phases daily, two of agitation and two of quiet. The 
period of greatest quiet or of least motion is in the night, for which 
reason it has often been found advantageous to make the observations 
at that time, using artificial lights as signals.' 

After the angles have been measured it is necessary to calculate the 
difference in altitude of the various observing points, in order to reduce 
all to the same plane, when these, together with the base line itself, are 
reduced by elaborate mathematical calculations to the level of the sea, 








1 An excellent illustration of this was given in carrying the French-Spanish merid- 
ian to the Balearic Islands. ‘Die Dreyecks-Seite von Sierra Morella bis Silla de 
Torellas auf Mayorca betriigt 93080 Toisen. Ein einziges Reverbere auf Mayorea hat 
man auf der spanischen Kiiste mit Fernréhren drey Stunden lang gesehen.” Zach, 
Mon. Cor. Junius, 1803, p. 569. As early as the time of Picard it was found advan- 
tageous to use fire signals at night. See Picard, Mesure de la terre, p. 9. 


780 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE.,. 


on which level and changed to an are the length of the line whose value 
is sought is determined. 

There still remains the astronomical determination of the latitude of 
the end points of the surveyed line, which is done by a great number 
of observations, the mean is accepted as the final result. The differ- 
ence in latitude compared with the length of the surveyed line, gives 
the mean length of a degree of latitude in the meridian line surveyed. 

More than two thousand years have elapsed since the first scientific 
attempt to measure the size of the earth. Interest in the matter has 
increased with the spread of knowledge, while vast improvements in 
science and art have gradually rendered possible the solving of the 
problem with great accuracy. The commencement of this grand work 
was made by Eratosthenes (276-196 B. C.), the librarian of the famous 
library at Alexandria and a man whose talents found occupation in 
several fields of science and art. Accepting the common belief that 
Syene was on the Tropic, he observed at Alexandria with the hollow 
gnomon at the summer solstice and found the shadow to be one fiftieth 
of the circumference. The distance between the two places he valued 
at 5,000 stadii, from which he deduced the earth’s circumference, 
250,000 stadii. How he arrived at the valuation of 5,000 stadii is 
matter of dispute. General Baeyer, according to whose calculations 
there was a failure in the given size of the earth’s circumference of 
only 8 geographical miles,' says he measured with rules, but fails to 
give any authority for thestatement; against which we have the author- 
ity of Martianus Capella forthe much more probable statement that he 
learned the distance ‘per mensores regios Ptolemwi,”? and of Strabo, 
who says he calculated it from the course of the Nile,’ while Kiepert 
is of the opinion that he reached his result by comparing many inaccu- 
rate lengths of the ways, gathered from various sources ;* to all which 
may be added the assertion of Marcian of Heraclea, that he stole the 
whole calculation from his predecessor, Timosthenes.° However this 
may be, the result remains the same, that in Eratosthenes’s time there 
was an attempt by scientific method to arrive at the size of the earth, 
by which the circumference was determined to be 250,000 stadii, to 
which he added 2,000 stadii, in order to have the convenient number 
700 for the length of each degree. One is naturally curious to know 





1Behm’s Geog. Jahrb., 1870., 11, p. 155. 

2Zach., Mon. Cor., 1811, p. 469. 

3Ideler, Zach, Mon. Cor., May, 1811, p. 469-70. ‘Nach Strabo rechnete er auf den 
Lauf des Nil von dem kleinen Kataracte in der Gegend von Syene bis an seinen 
Ausfinss 5,300 Stadien. - - - Denn Danville versichert durch ein genanes Studium 
des iigyptischen Terrains zwischen Syene und Alexandrien nach der Richtung der 
Wege 640 rémische Meilen oder 5,120 Stadien, und in gerader Richtung 560 rémische 
Meilen oder 4,480 Stadien gefunden zu haben.” 

4Alte Geog., 5. 

‘Journal R. G. S., 1839, Ix, p. 7, note. 

6Delambre, Astron. ancienne, I, 221. Lelewel, Géog. du moven-dge, ix. Sprenger, 
Ausland, 1867, p. 1067. Grosskurd’s Strabo, 1, 214, 215; lib. ii, Abt. iv, § 25. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 781 | 


how this first essay compares with those made recently with the appli- 
cation of all the means for securing accuracy known to modern science. 
The comparison is not however so easy as at first thought appears 
and leading specialists are by no means in unison on the matter. The 
real difficulty lies in our not knowing the value of the stadium which 
was employed as the standard of measure.' In order to bring harmony 
into classical accounts of distances, French authorities adopted the 
idea that there were different standards in use, even to the number of 
eight.2, German investigators were rather inclined to scout this 
method as an easy one for avoiding a dilemma, while an English writer 
puts all differences down to ignorance on the part of the Greeks, and 
adds: ‘“* The more frequented the route, the more populous the country 
through which it passed, the more civilized and lettered the people, 
the more nearly we find the reported distance to approach that stand- 
ard [600 Gr. feet] of the stadium.”* But the excavations at Olympia 
have revealed the fact that the stadium there was 192.27 meters long, 
instead of 176.76 meters, as was earlier thought to be the case;* and 
Dr. Dorpfeld, one of the directors of the excavations, assures the 
writer that this length differs from that of all other stadii found in Greece. 
This proves at least that there existed in Greece itself different stand- 
ards; but whether there were five or eight, or more or less,° it is not 
within the province of this article to decide. The idea seems to be 
modern; for, though some classical writers seem to employ different 
standards, they do not expressly mention the existence of such. Hum- 
boldt says he finds the first trace of the opinion broached by Mossen 
Janne Ferrer in a letter to Columbus on the means of tracing with pre- 
cision the line of demarkation which should divide the globe between 
Spain and Portugal.® 

With these preliminary remarks we turn to the conclusions arrived 
at, which vary according to the hypothesis of each writer. The two 
extremes are represented by General Baeyer and Sprenger. The first 
finds an error of only one seven-hundredth of the distance measured, 
and says this proves that the ancients went to work with great care and 
understood quite well how to measure,’ while Sprenger maintains that 
Eratosthenes simply re-discovered the method for measuring the size 
of the earth, and proved it mathematically ; that he however made no 


1Quant 4 sa division du degré en 700 stades, elle n’a pour nous aucun sens, puisque 
rien ne détermine le stade dont il s’est servi” (Delambre, Base du systéme métrique, 
1, 3). ‘Auch wissen wir nicht ob er iigyptische oder olympische Stadien meinte, 
oder ob er wie Ptolemius zwischen beiden keinen Unterschied machte” (Sprenger, 
Ausland, 1867, p. 1065). 

2Tdeler, Zach, Mon. Cor., May, 1811, p. 456. 

3 Journal R. G. S., 1839, rx, 11. 

4Lelewel, Géog. du moyen-4ge, xxi. 

5Tdeler, Zach’s Mon. Cor., May, 1811, p. 456. Grosskurd’s Strabo, Vorrede, 1. §. 10. 
p. lxiii. 

6 Humboldt, Géog. du xv™ siécle, 1, 327-328. 

7 Behun’s Geog. Jahrb., 111, 1370, p. 155. Add quotations from Pt. i, p. 17a. 











782 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


actual survey, but relied blindly on the map of the world.'! Between 
these two extremes are found those who prefer to take the results as 
they are reported to us, and interpreting them in accordance with what 
is known as to the then condition of science, come probably nearer the 
truth. Thus attention is called to the sources of error in the work: 
that the length of the are between the end points, Alexandria and 
Syene, was accepted as much greater than it is, Syene lying north of 
the Ecliptic; that these places are not on the same meridian,’ and, fur- 
thermore, that no account was taken of the apparent radius of the sun. 
With these important sources of error at hand it may well be accepted 
in accordance with the opinion of Lepsius,’ Giinther,* and Ideler® that 
the error amounted to about 14 per cent., for which however consid- 
ering all the circumstances, we are not justified in complaining of the 
work. 

Though this was the nearest approach to the truth made in ancient 
times, there were other figures accepted by various classicai writers, 
and one which later received more general acceptance among the an- 
cients and exercised more influence in modern times. Thisis that which 
gives to the earth the circumference of 180,000 stadii, generally attrib- 
uted to Poseidonius, and probably verified by Simplicius. The former 
enters into considerable detail also as to how he arrived at another re- 
sult, 240,000 stadii,® and then he rejects it without explanation in favor 
of the much smaller and less accurate estimate, namely 180,000 stadii. 
Simplicius, on the other hand, describes minutely the manner of arriv- 
ing at this result. ‘The astronomers sought out, he says, two stars ex- 
actly one degree apart, found the places where these stars passed 
through the respective zeniths, and by ‘‘ operations” measured the ter- 
restrial distance, finding it to be 500 stadii.?’ Delambre is positive that 
this was only imagined and never carried out. But why not? <Ac- 
cording to a calculation of Alexander von Humboldt, this is as nearly 
accurate within 7,000 toises (though on the other side), as the measure- 
ment of Kratosthenes.? When one considers the great crudity of the 
means then at command, it is a perfectly possible result of an actual 
measurement. If it rested on no good foundation, how came it that 
the great authority of Eratosthenes and Hipparehus, still followed in 
other respects, was rejected by Ptolemy and his successors as to this ? 





1 Ausland, 1867, p. 1066. 

2Grosskurd’s Strabo, lib. i. Abt. iv, p. 99, An. 2. 

3In Zeitsch. fiir aegypt. Sprach und Alterthums-Kunde, xv. p. 7. 

*In Rundschau fiir Geog. und Statistik, 11. Jahrg. p. 335, where he gives a masterly 
résumé of the subject. 

5 Zach, Mon. Cor., May, 1811, p. 474. 

6 Sprenger, Ausland, 1867, p. 1067. This is the value accepted in Babylon three 
hundred years before Christ. Ibid., 1068. 

7Ideler, in Zach’s Mon. Cor., May, 1811, p. 478, 479. 

8 Astron. ancienne, I, 304. 

9 Humboldt, Géog. du xv™ siecle, 11, 326, 327. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 783 


Aristotle and Archimedes, for instance, thought the earth to be much 
larger than the measurement of Eratosthenes showed it to be; and 
their abstract calculations, notwithstanding their general authority, 
gave way in this matter before the better grounded result. {s it likely 
that this latter would in turn be rejected without what was at least sup- 
posed by the learned to be equally well-founded reasons ? 

Thus stood the matter at the close of classical times; and the litera- 
ture of the subject was inherited by the Arabs, when they reached 
their flourishing period, along with the great mass of Greek learning. 
One of the early caliphs, Almamoun (813-833), who took an active inter- 
est in scientific matters, ordered (A. D. 827) the measurement of an arc of 
meridian in order to determine independently the size of the earth. 
Several different accounts of how this order was carried out have come 
down to us and vary considerably the one from the other. There 
seem however to have been two separate and distinct measurements 
made, resulting respectively in 57 and 564 Arabic miles for the value of 
a degree of latitude.’ As the mean, 562 miles was adopted officially 
for the length of a degree. But what was the true length of the Arabic 
mile? It contained 4,000 so-called black cubits; a cubit, 4 palms; a 
palm, 4 polles; and a polle, 6 barley grains laid side by side. But all 
barley grains are not equal in thickness and as this variable quantity 
is the foundation of the numerical system, modern experts have differed 
greatly in the resulting value of a degree of latitude, the one giving it 
at 54,563 toises, another at 63,750 toises, etc.2. The method of procedure 
was in each case as follows: Two parties were sent to the same start- 
ing point and, having there observed the altitude of the sun (by what 
means is not known), the one party measured® toward the north, the 
other toward the south, till by new observations they found they had 
advanced 1 degree, where they ceased work and reported the distance 
measured.* iibu Jounis, who furnished the most detailed account of 
the operation, describes also the precaution necessary to insure accu- 
racy in the result, but leaves us in the dark as to whether or not these 
precautions were actually observed.® Albategnius, who in most respects 
was among the most accurate of the Arabic scientists, gives the length 
of a degree at 85 miles, which however may be the result of a typo- 
graphic error in the printed translation;® while Edrisi is said to have 





'Delambre, 66, quotes ‘‘Abilfedea” (Aboulfeda) as saying that the astronomers 
found only 56 miles for the value of a degree. 

2See Posch, 28 et seg. Delambre, Astron. du moyen-age, 66. 

3 Peschel (133) and Delambre (78) give different accounts of the manner of meas- 
uring the line, the one by rules and stakes, the other by long cords, placing each 
time the end of the last at the middle of the preceding to preserve a straight line. 
Delambre gives another version, pp. 97,98. 

*Delambre, Astron. du moyen-Age, 78; Bauernfeind, Die Bedeutung moderner 
Gradmessungen, p. 10; Posch, Geschichte und System der Breitengrad-Messungen, 
28 ff; Peschel, Erdkunde, 133; Giinther, Studien, etc., 59, 60. 

5 Delambre, Astron. du moyen-Age, 78. 

5’Delambre, Astron. du xviir™ siécle, 15. 


784 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


given 75 miles to the degree.‘ and Aboul Hassan, 663 miles.2 The 
measurement of 56% miles to the degree, which seems to have been 
most generally accepted by the Arabs,’ is nearer the truth than either 
of the two generally accepted classical ones, as the error is probably 
only one-tenth.! 

This, then, is the best result of Mohammedan science added to the 
knowledge of classical antiquity. Christian Europe had as yet done 
nothing toward solving this problem ; was even disposed to regard as 
heretical a belief in the foundation principles thereof, until cireum-navi- 
gation of the globe proved beyond the possibility of a doubt the rotund- 
ity of the earth. In the same decade in which the first voyage round 
the world was completed, Jean Fernel, a French physician, undertook to 
measure a degree of latitude, whose result, by amarvellous series of com- 
pensating errors, turned out to be extremely accurate. The actuality of 
this measurement also has been doubted;° but his relation is so cir- 
cumstantial in all its details that it seems difficult to doubt his having 
in reality carried out the plan he describes. Remarking that different 
authors give varying lengths of the degree of latitude and that even 
among the best, one did not know which to choose, he determined him- 
self to make the experiment, and he found by a careful calculation the 
length of a degree to be 68 Italian miles, 954 feet, which equal 544 
Roman stadii, 4517 feet.6 Taking from Paris a carriage on which he 
had made an attachment for counting the revolutions of one of the 
wheels, he drove on theroad toward Amiens which led directly north, 
until by observation he found he had passed a degree of latitude. His 
carriage wheel had made 17,024 revolutions. The diameter of the 
wheel was 6 feet and a little more than 6 digits; hence the circumfer- 
ence 20 feet or 4 paces ; which gave for the whole distance, 68,096 paces 
or 68 Italian miles, 90 feet,’ which, reduced to toises and taking into 
account the alteration made in the length of the standard toise in 1668, 
gives 57,070 toises for the length of a degree in the latitude of Paris.’ 
Bessel calculates that the true length is 57,055 toises.2 According to 
Picard’s calculation, Fernel measured a line of only 56/ 36,” which short- 
coming was compensated by calculating the direct distance too long.” 
Peschel! calls attention to the fact that he made an error of twelve min- 








1Lelewel, Bres. Ed., 1, lviii-ix. 
>Delambre, Astron. du moyen-age, 188. 
> Thid, 66. 
‘Peschel, Gesch. der -Erdkunde, 135, following Boeckh’s calculation. Bauernfeind 
thinks only 6 to 7 per cent. Die Bedeutung moderner Gradmessungen, p. 11. 
5 By Snellius ; and Peschel thinks the suspicion “nur allzu begriindet” (Erdkunde, 
394, n. 3). 
6 Lalande, quoting Fernel, Histoire de Académie des Sciences, 1787, p. 217. 
7 Ibid., p. 219. This is 5} ft. less than above given on p. 217. 
8 Ibid. 
° Kalender, etc., von Sachsen, 1876, p. 58, or 57,057 toises, Peschel, Erdkunde, 394, 
An. 2. = 
‘0 Picard, Mesure de la terre, 28. 
1 Erdkunde, 394, n. 3. 


~ 


Pp. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 785 


utes of are in his latitude of Paris, and Bauernfeind' calls it “‘einen vol- 
lig werthlosen Versuch die Grésse der Erde zu messen.” Fate was 
kinder to Fernel than his critics, and he cannot be deprived of the 
unique honor of having first given to the world the nearly exact length 
of a degree of latitude.’ 

Almost a century later (1615) Willibrord Snellius,a famous Dutch 
physicist, made his celebrated trigonometrical survey of a line between 
Bergen-op-Zoom, Leyden, and Alkmaar, which line, according to his 
calculation, has a length of 34,018.20 perches of the Rhine. The dis- 
tance in latitude he determined at 1° 113’; and this, compared with the 
distance surveyed, gives a mean value of the degree of latitude of 28,- 
500 perches=55,100 toises of Paris. The result was, according to more 
recent calculations, 2,000 toises too short, an error of nearly 34 per 
cent. He himself was persuaded that the result was not accurate and 
therefore undertook a second survey in 1622, but was prevented by 
sickness and death from completing it with the necessary calculations.® 
The base line was only 326.43 perches long (=631 toises and about 1 
foot), an extremely short scale, considering the imperfection of his in- 
struments and the fact that his triangles contained very many acute 
angles. 

The first English survey of a degree of latitude was made by a 
sailor, Richard Norwood, who determined astronomically the latitude 
of London and York, then measured with a chain the intervening dis- 
tance, allowing in his calculations for the unevenness of the land, the 
windings of the way, and also for refraction, declination, and parallax. 
He found the difference in latitude to be 2° 28,’ instead of 2° 25’. His 
measurement gave 367,176 feet for the degree of latitude, which, aliow- 
ing 2.1315 English yards to the toise, gives 57,420 toises as the value of 
a degree. He had been led to make the survey from the practical 
need of information as a mariner, and published the results thereof in 
1637 in a work entitled “The Seaman’s Practices.”? 

About the middle of the seventeenth century (1645) Father Riccioli, 
an Italian Jesuit, ran a series of triangles in the neighborhood of 
Bologna, measured a base of 1,094 paces 24 feet, and by observations of 
a number of stars for determining the distance in latitude between the 
end points of his line, arrived at very different results, so that taking 

1 Bedeutung, etc., 39 u. 22. 

2 Lalande, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy., 1787, p. 222; Jordan, Vermessungskunde, IU, 4. 

°> Cassini, Grandeur, etc., 364. 

+ Peschel, Erdkunde, 396. Bauernfeind (as above, p. 39, n. 20) says } of the error 
was in the geodetic work, 4 in the astronomical observations. 

5 Bauernfeind, 15, 16. 

6 Peschel, Erdkunde, 395, n., quotes Maupertuis, Figure de la terre, p. viii, as giv- 
ing as the result of this survey 367,196 feet 57,300 toises for the degree of latitude, 
an evident arithmetical error in reducing to toises, even if the number of feet given 
were correct. 

7The writer adopts the account given in the Encye. Brit., art ‘‘ Navigation,” and 
Jordan, Vermessungskunde, 11, p. 78, for the value of the toise. 


H. Mis, 224-50 


786 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


them separately the value of a degree would vary, according to Cassini, 
from 56,130 toises to 62,000.' Riccioli’s own ealculations, combining all 
the elements, gave 62,650 toises for the value of a degree, an error of 10 
per cent.2. He seems not only not to have observed all three angles of 
each triangle, but also to have employed very acute angles, even as 
small as two degrees, which practice, as before remarked, increases 
greatly the liability to error. 

The year 1669 is memorable as that of the first survey woh is used 
as a Starting point for the best of modern work. It was conducted by 
Jean Picard, a French physicist, who, by improvements in instruments 
and methods, showed a decided advance over any of his predecessors. 
The line extended from Malvoisine to Sourdou in Picardy, which points 
were connected by a series of thirteen triangles, two of which were 
principally for verification.? Cassini complains of him that he ob- 
served only two angles in each two triangies, and only one angle of a 
third triangle.‘ This serves to show that up to that period even the 
most careful savant had not arrived at the recent conception of extreme 
accuracy. Cassini himself, as we shall see later, made a survey which 
was by no means faultless. Picard based his calculations on the 
measurement of two base lines, each of which he measured twice. The 
principal one was on the highway from Villejuive to Juvisy, the ad- 
vantage of which for the base line was one of the reasons for choosing 
this region for the survey.° Here he measured with two wooden rules, 
each 4 toises long, a line which, according to the first measurement, 
was 5,662 toises 5 feet long, the second, 5,663 toises 1 foot. He 
adopted the mean of 5,663 toises. His second base had a length of 
3,902 toises.6 His calculations gave as a result 57,057 toises for the 
length of a degree; but he adopted the more convenient number of 
57,060.7. Later he remarks that on the ocean the length would be 8 
feet less, but thinks this unworthy of consideration.’ It may be well 
to add that though he was acquainted with the fact of refraction, and 
discovered the influence of temperature thereon, he takes no notice of 
it in his calculations, nor did he make allowance for the precession of 
the equinoxes or the aberration of light, and was still ignorant of the 
flattening of the earth at the poles; consequently calculated on the 

basis of the absolute sphericity of the earth. Later Maupertuis made 
~ a calculation of the length of a degree, based on Picard’s geodetic work, 
but taking into account the precession of the equinoxes and the ab- 
erration of light, and found it to be 57,183 toises;® or according to 
another calculation, including the effect of refraction also, he finds the 
value of a degree to be 56,925 toises.'"° As Picard was the first to ap- 





‘Cassini, Grandeur, etc., 365-8. 6 Tbid., 3. 
2 Jordan, Vermessungskunde, U1, 4. 7 Ibid., 22. 
3 Picard, Mesure de la terre, 7. 8 Ibid., 23. 
4Cassini, Grandeur, etc., 331. 9 Maupertuis, Guvres, Iv, 330. 


5 Picard Mesure de la terre, 3. 10 Tbhid. 111, 167. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 787 


ply the telescope to the quadrant, he was enabled to make more accu- 
rate observations than his predecessors; but it is not to be wondered 
at that he committed an error of a few seconds. He acknowledged 
himself that he could not be responsible for errors of 2 seconds, not- 
withstanding his exactitude, which error would make a difference of 32 
toises on each observation.! This error however was happily com- 
pensated by his toise being about one-thousandth shorter than the 
standard.” Recent authorities find the length of a degree at this 
latitude to be 57,011.825 toises,* so that Picard’s error amounted to 
45.175 toises, or 0.79 per cent. 

To settle a point of such importance Louis xiv ordered (1700) a 
survey of a meridian line stretching throughout the entire length of 
France. As early as 1680 a survey had been commenced with the 
ideaof giving it this extent, but had been discontinued without coming 
to any result. Now the line was divided into two parts, the one ex- 
tending from Paris north to Dunkerque, the other from Paris south to 
Collioure. Tie survey of the first was intrusted to La Hire, and was 
found to have an amplitude of 2° 12’ 9” 30/4 and a length of 125,454 
toises, which, reduced to sea-level and calculating on the basis of the 
sphericity of the earth, gives to the degree 56,960 toises. Jacques 
Cassini conducted the survey of the second and much longer line, found 
its amplitude to be 6° 18’ 57” and its length 360,614 toises, which gives 
for the degree 57,097 toises.2. Combining the two surveys, one has a line 
with an amplitude of 8° 31’ 11/3, with a length of 486,156 toises ; this 
gives as the mean length of a degree 57 ,061 toises, which approaches so 
nearly to that determined by M. Picard that it was thought it should 
conform to it.6 A base of 7,246 toises 2 feet was measured? for the 
southern division, which varied 3 toises from ‘‘the calculated length con- 
tinued from Paris,” in consequence of which various corrections in the 
observed angles were made, by which the result was brought very near 
(a trés peu prés) to that measured on the ground.®? For the northern 
division, Picard’s old base-line from Villejuive to Juvisy was adopted 
without re-measuring, and a second base-line near Dunkerque was 
measured for purposes of verification. This had a length of 5,464 
toises 3 feet,? which was within almost 1 toise of the length found by 
calculating the line from Picard’s base. All the angles of each tri- 
angle of the entire survey were actually observed," and, for purposes of 


1 Cassini, Grandeur de la terre, 183. 

2Mechain, et Delambre, Base du systéme, etc., I, 7. 

5 Bessel’s calculations in H. Struve, Landkarten, p. 61. 

4Cassini, Grandeur de la terre, 292, 

5 Ibid., 178-181. Quoted all together in Maupertuis, Guvres, tv, 327, with 9 30” 
false. 

6 Thid., 302. 

7 [bid., 123. 

8 Tbid., 125, 126. 

° [bid., 270, p. 237. He gives 5,564 toises. 

10 Joid., 331. 


788 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


comparison, nine triangles of Picard were also inclosed in the net.! 
Great was the exultation of the French, for the results of this unprec- 
edentedly great undertaking showed not only that the earth was not 
flattened at the poles, as Newton and Huyghens taught, but that it 
was actually elongated in that direction. Doubts were naturally ex- 
pressed by the Newtonians as to the accuracy of the operations by 
which the result had been obtained. To satisfy these there were repe- 
titions with different instruments and different methods, the entire 
work continuing at intervals from 1701 to 1736, and always with the 
same result, viz, that the more southerly part gave the greatest length 
of a degree.? Still the party of theory was not to be quieted, objecting 
that the portions of the meridian were too near together to afford in- 
controvertible proof of the earth’s form, and maintaining that the 
true solution could only be furnished by surveying one meridian line 
near the equator and another near the poles and comparing the re- 
sults. This opinion gradually gained force, till finally the French 
government undertook to provide the means for carrying out this proj- 
ect, and the French Academy of Sciences to furnish the specialists to 
conduct with commanding ability the operations. 

For this purpose two expeditions were fitted out with all the care 
possible at that date, to secure accuracy in the result of their respect- 
ive surveys. The first set out for Peru in 1735, but did not return till 
1744. In the mean time a second expedition had been sent to Sweden, 
where it finished its work and returned to France in 1737; the result of 
the latter survey as compared with those in France showed beyond a 
doubt the flattening of the earth at the poles, without awaiting returns 
from the equator. The instigator and chief of this enterprise was 
the famous mathematician, Maupertuis, whose quarrel with Voltaire at 
the court of Frederick the Great is probably much better known than 
his perils and hardships’ in surveying a meridian line which crosses the 
polar circle. His line was a short one, extending from Tornea to the 
mountain Kittis, with an amplitude of only 57’ 283,” the mean result of 
the observations of the same two stars at both end stations. The mount- 


1 Cassini, Grandeur de la terre, 237. 

2Maupertuis, Giuvres, 111, 37. 

3 He gives (CHuvres, l11, 146)a graphic description of some of his trials. Hesays: 
“Je ne dirai rien des fatigues ni des périls de cette opération (mesurer la base) ; on 
imaginera ce que c’est que de marcher dans une neige haute de 2 pieds, chargés de 
perches pesantes, qu’il falloit continuellement poser sur la neige et relever ; pendant 
un froid si grand que la langue et les lévres se géloient sur-le-champ contre la tasse, 
lorsqu’on vouloit boire de l’eau-de-vie, qui étoit la seule liqueur qu’on pit tenir assez 
liquide pour la boire, et ne s’en arrachoient que sanglantes; pendant un froid qui 
géla les doigts de quelques-uns de nous, et qui nous menagoit 4 tous momens d’ac- 
cidens plus grands encore. Tandis que les extrémités de nos corps étoient glacées, le 
travail nous faisoit suer. L’eau-de-vie ne put suffire 4 nous désaltérer; il fallut creuser 
dans la glace des puits profonds, qui étoient presque aussit6t refermés, et d’ot Veau 
pouvait a peine parvenir liquide 4 la bouche; et il falloit s’exposer au dangereux 
contraire que pouvoit produire dans nos corps échauftés cette eau glacée,” 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 789 


ainous nature of the region favored large triangles, generally of a form 
advantageous to the ease and accuracy of observation. The frozen 
surface of the river Tornea offered an excellent opportunity to measure 
a base line; so good in fact that Maupertuis neglected to take any ac- 
count of its fall. This action has been censured by later mathemati- 
cians, who have consequently corrected his result by 5.355. toises.' 
His base line was 7,406.86 toises long, the two measurements differing 
only 4 inches’ from each other. Calculating from this basis, he found 
his meridian line to be 55,0234 toises long, which, compared with the 
amplitude,’ gives the length of a degree of latitude crossing the Polar 
circle 57,438 toises.6 Comparing this result with Picard’s measure- 
ment and leaving out of the reckoning the aberration of light, which 
was unknown to the latter, Maupertuis’s are would have an amplitude of 
57/ 25,’ and this, compared with the length, would raise the value of a 
degree at the polar circle to 57,497 toises or 437 toises greater than P1- 
card’s result in France; and, taking theaberration into account, Mau- 
pertuis’s result differs 950 toises from that which it ought to be, follow- 
ing Cassini’s calculations based on the supposition of the earth being 
elongated at the poles.° 

The expedition to Peru met with a series of difficulties, which, com- 
bined with party strife and the length of the line surveyed, detained the 
experts nine years; so that the principal question, which caused their 
going, viz, as to the form of the earth, was already settled forever before 
their return, and the results achieved only served to add another factor 
toward arriving at exactness in the solution of the matter. A couple of 
Spanish representatives also took part in the operations. The company 
was provided with several quadrants, on one of which was the first 
micrometer ever so applied. Their astronomical observations were 
made with a sector of 12-foot radius, and their base line was measured 
with wooden rules 20 feet long. On the ends of these were fastened 
projecting copper plates, so arranged that, in measuring, those of neigh- 
boring rules stood at right angles to each other. In measuring, three 
rules were laid on the ground in a straight line, level being secured by 
means of wedges. The line was maintained by means of a stretched 
cord, and the surveyors had to lie on the ground ‘pour les disposer”.’ 
They knew that these rules were subject to variations according to 
changes in the humidity and temperature of the atmosphere, and found 
themselves ‘obliged to examine each day and often several times the 
little equation or correction that was necessary to apply to them.”® For 





1 Zach, Mon. Cor., Januar, 1806, p. 20. 

? Maupertuis, Giuvres, Iv, 301. 

3 [bid., 111, 152, adopts amplitude of 57’ 27,’ that given by observation of only one 
star. 

4 Tbid., tv, 331. 

5 Ibid., 111, 167, 163. 

6 Bouguer, Figure de la terre, 60, 61. 

7Tbid., p. 40. 

8 [bid., 40, 41. 


790 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


this purpose they had a bar of iron whereon was marked a toise. This 
was kept in the shade in the guard tent, but no regard seems to have 
been paid to the fact that the iron also was subject to constant changes 
in length. In computing the final result an allowance was made for its 
expansion by heat, probably for the average temperature of Peru above 
that of Paris. This toise was afterward adopted as the standard of 
measure under the name of toise of Peru, and with it all subsequent 
surveys have been compared. All the angles of each triangle were 
actually observed, many of them twice, with different instruments and 
by different observers, and some of them even three times.' Experi- 
ments were made to determine as nearly as possible the constant fail- 
ure of the quadrants, which of course was taken into account in the 
observations, besides which other corrections were made to reduce the 
sum of all three angles to 180°, the amount of this last correction sel- 
dom reaching 30 seconds.” The first base line was measured by two 
different parties starting at the opposite ends, and had an extent of 6,272 
toises. The second line, for verification, was 5,259 toises long, which 
according to Bouguer was within 3 to 4 feet, according to La Condamine, 
within one toise, of the trigonometrically calculated length. The entire 
line had an amplitude of 3° 7 3.”3,3 crossed the equator, and measured 
176,940 toises, according to Bouguer,' or 176,930,according to Condamine.° 
The operations were carried on at an altitude of more than 1,000 feet 
above sea level, to which all measurements must be reduced. Accord- 
ing to actual measurement the first degree from the equator is 56,767 
toises long, from which 212 toises were subtracted to reduce to sea 
level, and 6 to 7 toises added for expansion of the standard in the heat, 
giving for the true value of a degree of latitude at the equator 56,753 
toises.6 The entire operation was subjected to a searching criticism at 
the beginning of the present century, in the light of more recent re- — 
searches, with the following result: ‘*‘ Wenn wir daher nach sorgfalti- 
ger Erwigung aller vorher erérterten Umstiinde der Ungewissheit in 
der Grosse eines Breiten-Grades am ASquator noch auf 80-100 Toisen 
festsetzen, so glauben wir keine Ungerechtigkeit gegen die franzosi- 
schen und spanischen Messkiinstler zu begehen, deren Arbeiten keines- 
wegs aus Mangel an Geschicklichkeit, sondern enizig wegen Unvol- 
kommenheit der damaligen Instrumente nicht den Grad von Genauig- 
keit haben konnten, der zu einer Gradmessung erfordert wird.”? 

The next great survey was also the work of French savants, but was 
undertaken for a different purpose. It was now admitted on all sides 
that the earth is flattened at the poles; but there was in France at 

1 Bouguer, Figure de la terre, 100,101. 

2 Tbid., 104. 

3 According to Zach’s calculations, 3° 6’ 0.9. Mon. Cor., Oct., 1807, p. 320. 
4 Tbid., 153. 

5 Posch, 47. 

® Bouguer, 272. 

7 Zach, Mon. Cor., Oct., 1807, p. 325. 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 791 


least a strong desire for a more correct determination of the size of the 
earth than had yet been made, in order to deduct therefrom a stand- 
ard of measurement founded in nature, so that if ever lost it could be 
recovered; and further that there might be a standard which was in 
its character not national, but universal. This was one of those plans 
for universal improvement so rife at the beginning of the French Revo- 
lution, and the one perhaps of all which has been most permanent 
and wide-spread in its results. The work of carrying out the project 
was intrusted to Delambre and Mechain, two prominent scientists of 
the day. They surveyed a meridian line extending from Dunkerque 
to Barcelona, with an amplitude of 9° 40’ 24.75, and a length of 
591,584.72 toises. The line was later extended to Formentera in the 
Balearic Islands, but too late to change the result, which had been 
accepted for the standard of measurement. For this survey the most 
careful preparations were made to secure the utmost accuracy. Instead 
of the old-fashioned quadrants and sectors, with their unwieldly bulk 
and subject to a variety of changes from temperature, position, their 
own Weight, etc., the then newly invented repetition circles of Borda 
were used with excellent result. The same expert also provided rules 
for measuring the base line, which were of a pattern entirely new and 
capable of an accuracy hitherto impossible. The measuring part was 
formed of platinum, whose relations to the toises of Peru and Lapland 
were accurately determined. Upon this a rule of copper 16 inches 
shorter was fastened securely at one end. The ratio of expansion of the 
two metals and the difference of length at a fixed temperature being 
known, an observation of the temperature and of the difference of their 
lengths by means of a vernier provided for that purpose, which was 
fixed to the metal and protected from the sun’s rays, gives the amount 
of expansion at the moment of observation. Here was also adopted 
for the first time a plan which afterwards became universal in such 
operations, namely in measuring the base, to place the rules ata dis- 
tance from each other to prevent the effect of the shock of contact, and 
measure carefully the interval. For this purpose there was attached 
at one end of each rule a small slide, accurately divided into hundred- 
thousandths for measuring minute distances, and provided with a 
microscope for reading them. After both rules were placed in line this 
was moved forward with the greatest care till it covered the interval 
between the rules, and the distance was at once read off and noted. 

In reference to the actual labor in determining a meridian line, De- 
lambre remarks:' “De toutes les opérations qui concourent a la 
mesure des degrés du méridien, les observations de latitude sont celles 
qui demandeut plus de précautions, plus de soins et plus de temps.” 
As an example of the extreme care taken in this work, may be cited the 
fact that to determine the latitude of the Panthéon at Paris, Mechain 
and Delambre each made eighteen hundred astronomical observations, 


' Base du systeme, U1, 158, 


792 GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 


the results agreeing to the sixth of a second.! This was to establish 
the exact position of one point in the middle of the surveyed line; and 
similar observations were necessary at both ends of the same. Two 
base lines were measured, 6,075,90 and 6,006,25 toises long, respect- 
ively. In fixing the permanent ends thereof and in the work of 
placing the rules in the true direction, etc., this survey furnished the 
model for the future; and though more recent experts have changed 
details of practice, they have offered nothing new in principle. In 
reducing the length actually measured to the true basis of the survey, 
certain slight alterations were necessary, which were made with the 
greatest nicety. For instance, the line of Melun was not perfectly 
straight, but was broken at one point by an angle of 179° 10/ 49/.09, 
which necessitated calculations to give the length of the corresponding 
straight line; even the thickness of the cord bearing the plummet was 
subtracted, and corrections for temperature, for inevitable errors in 
tracing the line, and for the thickness of the rules, were added.?, When 
all this was done it remained to reduce this to the are of a circle and 
then to sea-level. Delambre says that the greatest error to be feared is 
that of the “ vernier des languettes,” or slides for measuring the inter- 
vals between the rules, which error will not surpass one inch in 6,000 
toises, z3s'500 Of the whole length.2 Work of such nicety is necessarily 
slow, and it need not surprise one to learn that it took forty-one days of 
actual work from 9 o’clock A. M. to sun-down to measure one line, and 
that the greatest attainable speed was to place in a day ninety rules 
end to end, or in other words—measure 360 meters.‘ 

Equal care was taken in locating the triangles, as witness a search 
of six days for a place from which at one time three important points 
might be seen or the measuring an angle 170 times (!), because of 
the peculiar effect of the sun’s light at different times of the day on 
a belvédére, which formed the point of a neighboring angle. With 
Borda’s circle was observed not only the angle between the two lines 
of the triangle, but also the zenith distance of each point. The size 
of the angle was determined by the use of a series of twenty angles in 
favorable cases, and of repeating doubtful cases at different hours of 
the day.6 The result of the survey was to give to the forty-fifth degree 
of latitude the value of 67,027 toises. 

Thus the eighteenth century proved conclusively what the genius of 
the seventeenth had only made probable on theoretical grounds, 
namely, the flattening of the earth at the poles. It remained for the 
nineteenth not only to determine exactly the quantity thereof, but to 
bring to light another fact not dreamed of heretofore, 7. ¢., that the 
earth, even in its geodetic lines, has no regular geometrical figure 
whatever. This was the finishing touch to the dream of the Pytha- 


1 Base du systéme I, 94. 4 [bid., 85, 86. 
2 Tbhid., 11, 41-45. 5 Tbid., 1, 75. 
3 Tbid., 111, 165. * Tbid., 1, 117. 


7 


GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE. 793 


gorean school. First, it was proven that the earth is not only not 
the center of the universe, but that it is merely as a grain of sand in 
the illimitable ocean of space. Then its sphericity gave way before 
the genius of Newton and the work of French enthusiasts. Finally 
the gradual increase in accuracy in all branches of science deprived 
us of the last poetic idea as to its form, struck the death knell of the 
Pythagorean theory, and left us with the bald fact that our beautiful 
earth cannot lay claim to any ideal form. 





EIN 2 xX, 


A . 
Page. 
Abnaki Indians, pictographs of, study of .-_----.--------_--_-_-__--_____-__..-- 56 
Aboriginal pottery collections of National Museum, statistics of accessions _.___- 40, 41 
presented by Dr. Featherstonehaugh -_-__- ..-------_-.--_- 42 
Academic publications received by library --_-_---__--_____-_____-___- eae 25, 84 
Academy of Sciences at Berlin, account of_-____-___-._---_.----___----------- 89 
Accessions to collections of Bureau of Ethnology -__--._------------.--------- 63 
National Museum, list of -___-.---------_. ------_- 7 
library of National Museum -_-._______._-_-----... -.---------- AT 
National Museum collections, statistics of -....----------------- 40, 41 
Smivghsonian Wibranye sees ee a eee eee 23, 25, 83 
Act of Congress establishing Zoological Park _-__.--__--_---------------------- XXXIV 
incorporating American Historical Association -__.--_.___.----- xxxv 
making appropriations. -._-._._.-----xxi, xxil, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, 
XXXlil, XXXiV, XXXV 
Adams, Herbert B., lecture, The State and Higher Education ._-____--_-_.---__-- 695 
Addresses: 
Adams, Herbert B., The State and Higher Education ___.__-__-_-_-_-_------ 695 
Burdon-Sanderson, J. S., Elementary Problems in Physiology ---__-..----- 623 
Lovering, Joseph, Michelson’s Recent Researches on Light .-..---.-_------- 449 
Roscoe, Eenry H., Phediite: Work of a Chemist.2-->-- =< 2 ee 491 
Thiselton—Dyer, H. T., Botanical Biology__---.-------__--_--.---.------ 399 
Turner, Sir William, On Heredity ze: 2:2 be ee ae ee ae ee ae Wee 541 
Virchow, Dr. Rudolph, Anthropology in the Last Dyenityy Vearss 2. 22..522=5, 9) 505 
Aerial locomotion, paper on, by F. H. Wenham. -___- ._____-..--------------- 303 
Africa, explorations in, by W. Selcott Williams-__.--_._..-_...____________.- 8, 9 
Agassiz, Louis, and Spencer F. Baird, Natural History iilciratious , prepared 
RUT DAU sCUIT eC Ul OURO tier eae eee te ae ee Oe ee 69 
FAO ONES OLGl EN SAlaTICS) Ola =. 55 ee See ne ee ee 74 
general, of Colonial governments, act as exchange agents____-_---_--- 80, 81 
Agricultural Department, co-operation of____-_- Sa Ie eet SO Bey che 45 
High School at Berlin, account of - 2.5.4 =.-- 9.2222 Sek ek 121 
Agronomic-pedological Institute of the Agricultural High School of Berlin, Ger- 
PANY, ACCOUNY Ole) ee er. S94 So Sanaa ese eeeen et Hons wewset 124 
Alabama, ethnological collections from______-__-_-_.--__ --_-___ eee ee 42 
Alaska, Copper River, natives of, paper on, by Henry T. aiten Bee oo ee 70 
explorations inj by Ws L.. Howard 2 -2...625.2.-.4.-2<-----222----4<- 51 
Albatross collections transferred to National Museum _._--__-__-___------_.-_- 42 
Alfaro, Anastasio, gold ornaments received from ___________..--_.-_------_-__- 63 
loaned specimens to Bureau of Ethnology ---._------------- 63 
Algae collections presented by F. S. Colling......._--.---..---2------ ee -_-- 44 


796 INDEX. 


Page 
Algonquin bibliography, by J.C: Billing, 22" 2 22a ae eee 62 
Allen, Dr. Harrison, delivered lecture on clinical study of the skull_______-__-_- 50, 52 
Aluminum, alloys of; paperion. by Jeb. Dacvensa= eee aoe eee 725 
paperion, iby Hii@. Hovey, Ss222- ss ee ee ee ee W221 
American Geological Society, Council of, met at National Museum _-----~--_-- 50 
Historical. Association; incorporationvof 22222. — 92625 == =e KY 
Institute of Mining Engineers’ collection added to Museum ~ -_--_-~_- 5 
Ornithologists’ Union met at National Museum ._--_.----.--------- 50 
Anatomy, ot Astranvia Dantes. === ase eee Ua bas opis one ee Bee eee 69 
Anderson, William, paper on molecular structure of matter -__.-_-_ ..--.--_-- TW11 
Ancell, James /B.; acts ofas: regent = <5 ae eee eee ee xii, xili 
Angel, G. W. J., presented series of dried coleoptera___.---.----_-------.-.-- 43 
Animal physiology, Institute of, of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Ger- 
Many account Ofsos- 2 eas shee nee eae ee ae See ee ee eee 125 
Anthropology; \bibliorraphy: ol <2 225 sso 28a see eee oe eee 621 
in the last twenty vears, address by Dr. Rudolph Virchow -__--- 555 
prehistoric, collection of National Museum, statistics of accessions. 40, 41 
progress'in, by, Otis; 1.) Masonic 2 22 sa. 2 eee eee nee 591 
Antiquities, spurious Mexican, paper on, by William H. Holmes.____--__------ 70 
Apparatus collection of National Museum\-——..2- = {S22 = Se eee 40, 41 
the late William Shaw loaned to institution._-----___- i 
shedierected in'Smithsonian Grounds72 322 soos os see ee a 
Appropriation by Congress for widow of Professor Baird-__----_---.-_ ----_-- 32 
for American Historical Association - ------------ oc AO ea OR XXXV 
imsufucient,.eflect. Oke -o 6. 422 iL ees ache Be ee eee ee eee 20, 79 
International exchanges -------- XXl, XXX1, XXxili, 3,4, 17,18, 19, 20; 21574575276 
NationalyMusemmes = =e see. 2 ee eee XXiV, XXVii, xxviii, xxix, xxxiv, 3, 4 
heating and ichtin gees 2 eae eee _---XXVili, xxx, xxxli, xxxiv, 3, 4 
Fish Commission, for repair of armory -------- —-- Pete ee Ceo Xxxiv 
furniture and fixtures .__--- -_ See ee XK Vil) KIRK, RRA ORV, coe 
livingianimals#--22 2 32S e = eee eeeeee ae Be cn SSE ee 3,4 
postage! ===. ==- 22222 = Pe ee A Sn a= Soe ee xxxiv, 3, 4 
preservation of collections__-_.-------~--- EXLV, XXVI, XXX, KKK oS 
printing and) binding: 222 222 es ae eee. ee eee Xxxiv, 3, 4 
North-American’ Ethnologys= oe eee =o XX1]) XXXID XXXII one 
Ohio* Valley; Centennial “Exposition! 222-25-- + 2s. sae e= ee eee 52 
required for purchase of exhibition. material ..--_-.---. 2522-2222 2 54 
Smithsonian building 324. 2 22 ee ee ee Oe ee ee ee Xxiv, xxxi 
statueto:Brofessor Baird. 222,25. 32-2 lai se eee 32 
Zoological, Park=2==— 22 -—= a ee Xxxiv, 31 
Aquarium. at Berlin, Germany, account of-=__ 2-—- (22253 e a ee ee eo. 2 
Archeological collections, principal accessions to.__-=.--_=---<-..--- = 2-2 as 42 
Archeology, Scandinavian, paper on by M. Ingwald Unsot--------------..--.-- 571 
Argentine: Republic, exchanges with\== soos" == -e se ee oe ee eer 77, 78 
Arietidz, Genesis of, memoir on, by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt___-_.-------_.----s-- 69 
Arlington National Cemetery, a proposed site of astro-physical observatory ---- 33 
Armory building assigned by Congress to Fish Commission ~-_-_-_-------------- 5, 6,7 
Art collections presented to Smithsonian Institution -_...-.__...--_------------ 32 
work of Ojibwas, studied by Dr. W. J. Hotimaniees= soe = eee 57 
Assistant Secretary placed in charge of exhibit at Marietta Exposition _-_-.-__- 53 
Assyrian objects, casts of, presented by Prof. Paul Haupt---------.------ .--_- 42 
Astrangia Danze, anatomy! Of ------- 23-2 - = ne ee ee 69 
Astronomical Journal, subscription for twenty copies--.--.--.-.-...-..------- 33 


INDEX. 797 


Page 
Astronomical obervatories, report on, for 1886, by George H. Boehmer__----_-_-_- 70 
Astro-physical Observatory at Potsdam, Germany, account of ___ -_---.____-__- 133 
proposedgerectiouiOlis.. J-6~.2--- os eee et te aes 33 
observations, temporary shed. for ....__..--..---.------.---..-- 33 
Australian Museum at Sydney, contributed collection of birds. _________.-_-__- 43 
B. 
Bailey, se. 5..00 CO. orant freevtreicht..- 2-2... 222s 525 Jae. ees 21, 79 
Baird, Spencer F., annual report of, for 1886 .._._..__---.-----..---_.--- el 70 
and Louis Agassiz, natural history illustrations prepared un- 
deminer Girechlon Ofe=soe = ee eee = oe ae ee ee 69 
STU UO UO = ee eee ee ere ee ere ee ae ne 32 
widow of, appropriation for relief of_-._-..-_---_-----_--_... 32 
Baldwin Locomotive Works, present model of locomotives -_____-___. --__-_____ 44 
Base line established by United States Geological Survey in Smithsonian Grounds. 0 
Batrachia of North America, Professor Cope’s work on -____-___- eer ieee 10 
Beck, Senator, bill for establishment of Zoological Park -_-___.___. -_________ 27 
Bejuestot James Hamilton, amount of..22.-22- 22222-2202. .2se8h e228 e 2 xix, 2,3 
DIMeGH Hane ~AMOUNUOl sc. 26 20-8 oe ee eo ene ee xix, 2 
PMIthson, BMONN b Ol 2: - 28 ee oS 55 eke oe Se sees xix, 2 
Berlin, Germany, scientific institutions at, account of ___ ______-_-____ Le 89 
Bern, University of, sends dissertations .. ._-.___- sSeee ee 25, 84 
Bibliographical work of J. C. Pilling--_-___..-.-______ ee) fee eee 62, 65 
Bibliography of anthropology, 1889 ._____-.__--.-___----- ee ae ee eee 621 
astronomy for 1887, by William C. Winlock -__.-.---. __-.--_- 70 
chemistry for 1887, by H. Carrington Bolton-___---.-.___.. __- 70 
meteorolory for 1889, by ©. L. Fassige uo. -..422uc2.2-s2-.-. 271 
Natronali Muscumeesse. -- 255) 2252 ee al 
Nortb American Indian languages, by J, C. Pilling .-__ ________ 65 
Bisons, American, described by Dr. V . F. MeGillycuddy ----.-___._-___-__ 25 
Blanford, H. F., lecture, ‘‘ How rain is formed ’’-_-.--__---_ ..---____--______- 287 
Bleismer, Rev. C. A., translation of Virchow's address, ‘‘ Anthropology in the 
Masi twWenbyg years mene ee Men ee ee ee ee ee a 555 
Blytt, A., paper on the movements of the earth’s crust -._. ~---_-.-__-__.__ .__ 325 
Board of Regents. (See Regents. ) 
boas. Dr canz, exploranions Dy... no coe e a eho seun a ee ean cleos ee osoe cules 60 
Boehmer, George H.: 
Additions and corrections to list of foreign correspondents by ___.---_____..- 70 
Report on astronomical observatories for 1886 by----------------.------_- 70, 71 
Report on Smithsonian exchanges for 1887 by --__---__ .----_-_-_.--_-_-_-_-__ 70, 73 
Systematic arrangement of list of foreign correspondents by--______-_____- 70 
SANS ex uL ONG yee ee ee ee ee ee ee enc 2S ut 89 
Bonn, University of, sends dissertations ..__...___.....-.... ----.------------- 25, 84 
Books deposited in Library of Congress . ...-___-__.---_..------ 2 _- 22, 25, 83 
inaccessibility of, in Library of Congress -._-_---_. --.--.------_----__- 22yeo 
retained: for, Museum: libranye sets es ee es ee oa 
transferred to Surgeon-General’s library_..... ..., ----_--___ ----- saa 20, 8d 
Boscovich’s theory, by Dr. William Thompson ____...--__.-_-.--_------_----_- 435 
Botanical biology, address by W. T. Thiselton-Dyer_______.-. ....._-_--_-_----- 399 
Garden in Berlin, Germany, account of._.___.._-_- ..__ ---_--.-___-- 113 


Institute of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of. .... 117 


798 INDEX. 


Page. 
Botanical Museum of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of__.. ._- 14 
Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, grant free freight 222 - 222 2 2s 2s See ssbes 21, 80 
Breckinridge, Hon. W. C. P., introduced bill relative to establishment of Zoolog- 
ical Parle sg Rees Thee 2h a ese 27, 29 
remarks relative to Zoological Park _------------ 31 
British Colonies, the crown agents in London the exchange agents for ---------- 80 
Brown; Vernon H., &'Co;, grantifree freightes 2 2= =. == == a ee 21, 80 
Brussels‘exchange treaty of 1886, 22"2 222 222 2 Poe ee ee eee 18, 20, 76 
Building, additional: requiredfor Museums eee se oe ee Oat 
expenditures for.- =. 222225. 223¢ 22s Sees 5 ee ee SEK: 
material, testing station for, at Berlin, Germany, account of____---.-- 133 
Building-stone collection of National Museum, report on, by George P. Merrill __ Al 
Bullay He J.,cerants treettreigh ts 2a" Bae eee ante ee ee ae 21, 80 
Bulletins of Bureau ofoEthnolosye 222522 = ase es eee ee ee 65 
National Museum, account of - .__----~------- he Si we ne See eee 13 
history of publications of __--/-~---.-.-- 47, 48, 49, 71 
Burdon-Sanderson, J. S., address ‘‘ Elementary problems in physiology’’_-..-.. 423 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing at Berlin, Germany, account of --__-_. ---.-- 143 
Bureaus of the Government, co-operation of2—_* :222 22222 22 2s See 45 
receive appropriation for exchanges -- -- .- XK, ASS 
Cc. 
Calhoun County, Illinois, mound explorations in - -_...-.---------~------------ 55 
California, ethnolosicalicollections from. === == === 225 - 2S 262 ee 42, 63 
perforated stones from, paper on, by H. W. Henshaw--------------- 65 
Cameron; R..Wi.;& Co., grantifree, freight! =. = 22 ee ee 21, 80 
Carbon process prints, presented by J. H. Osborne -_--------------=------ .--- 44 
Castsipresented!iby Prof. Pauleauptes== 2. <2 - eee ee ee 42 
Catalooue entries made in the Museum. —=-~ ______ 2522325 ae 42 
of exhibit for Ohio Valley Centennial Exposition ---__-------------- AT 
minerals and ‘their synonyims; byiT-abeleston...2 222-222 ewe 47, 71 
publications of the Smithsonian Institution, by William J. Rhees _.- 70, 71 
Cazaux sel. orants) free treip htes 2S = Sess ee ee eer ee Re 21 
Centennial: Exposition of the Ohio Valley... 22_=-=-=-=- == === -5=20== Soe 47, 51 
G@entral.America, correspondents: ines 222 223-62 2 Sn eee eee 76 
exchanvesiwith #2222222: 2-32 eae eee 77, 78 
Central Telegraph Bureau at Berlin, Germany, account of -__--..---. ---------- 139 
Chandler, Prof. Charles F., presented collection of photo-mechanical process 
WOPk 2002. a eo St thee es See See UE ee ee 44 
Chemical Institute of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Germany, account 
Of (ook ee eek See See ee ee eee ee ae 2 13 
institutes of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of.____ 112 
laboratories connected with Technical High School at Berlin, Germany, 
account Of 2-8 22 L322 Se ee ae eee 131, 1382 
Chemist, the life work of a, address by Dr. Henry E. Roscoe .-----~----------- 491 
Chili? exchanges with. .< == 22). 52 ee ee eee 77, 78 
China, ethnological collections from -__- - ee we covet ape see Bt oats Ree eeien 42 
exchange lagencyin- 2. 222-2 eee ee eee ae 77, 78, 80 
explorationsin> baa. W.. Rockhill27<222- 253 yee Se eee 9 
Cincinnati Exposition=. - =) 2-2 Se aS ee oe eee 45 
Classified service of the Museum .--. {45-22 5225. 2 ae eee ee ae 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 
Clay, Col. Cecil, presented full-grown moose -...--..---- ---- eee eS 99 Saree SL, 43 


INDEX. tao 


Page 

@lericaléforce of library. 2-2 2222 Ss oe Sa Bose ebeccanesctotccswstecuss 24 

staff of National Museum, salary schedule fore. ee ee os Oe al 

Clinical study of the skull, lecture on by Dr. H. Allen --.--..--_------------- 32 
Coast and Geodetic Survey continues pendulum experiments in Smithsonian 

hud ding yer Se ee ta ee ae ee eas ent 32 

Superintendent of, co-operation of .__-- .-_.------- 45 

Codve on, WV .a6 presented American eliks-e. 22-2 222 225 eee 25, 43 

Coins, collection of, presented by Hon. W. T. Rice ------------.----- .-------- 44 

Coleoptera presented by G. W. J. Angell] ..-..-_. .-..---. --------- ---- +..--+--- 43 

Collections waccessions)t0),- 2-5-2255. soe ese cee See eee see eee 40, 44 


preservation of, Congressional appropriation for _--xxiv, xxvii, xxix, xxxi, 
Xxxiv, 3, 4 


estimate of cost submitted to Congress_-____-._____- 4 
Golomibis exchanees Withiec sg! ose os coer occ ce Beas serch akcedad MTS 
Colorado, ethnological collections made in .__.-.---_.-.----------.=-..-.=-+--- 63 
Columbium, index to literature of, by Frank H. Traphagen .__--------.------- 69 
Commander Islands, bones of Pallas cormorant collected at _-___ ~___. -_---- -_- 43 
Commensals in the pearl oysters, paper on, by R. H.C. Stearns ---_-----_. -_-_- 70 
Compagnie Générale Ebisatlanbigie, a ireeHrelshites== ss s-= eee ee co 21, 80 
Compensation Of employes: oa. sect. A Ol co, Polio pee BSE ee anes 74 


Computation Institute of the Royal Observatory at Berlin, Cannan account of 109 


Congress of orientalists; ald given t0-2=-.2- 2. 2222.02 ee age es 15 
Congressional appropriations. (See Appropriations and Acts of Congress. ) 

Contributions to Knowledge, accountof ____._.__-_._---.---- .------.---___- 11, 69 

published durine the-year-==222 2052-22 see eee 69 

North American ethnology, published by Bureau of Ethnology - 65 

Convention Ob Brnissels, Of: 1880 U.S o2 22s seen eee ee eee 18, 20, 76 

relative to international exchanges-_-__-.----- --.-------.------- 76 

Co-operation of Departments and Bureaus of the Government_ __-__ -_--___.. 45 

Cope, Prof. E. D., work on reptilia and batrachia of North America.__--__._..__ 10 

Copenhagen, Denmark, exchange agency in -__------------- Oe eee eer ae 77, 80 

Coppce, Ur. Henry, acts of, as rerent . 2. =. 25. < S298 ee xi, x 

eulogistic remarks on Dr. Asa Gray ---------..----------- xiii 

member of committee on eulogy of Dr. Asa Gray -___---__- xiii 

member of executive committee -____- eS AS Sen ee xil 

Correspondence, character of, and attention to ------.----------.-----..------ 34 

Correspondents of exchange service .---.-- ~....-------------------- eee lo 

Costa swica, sexchange agency IW... 4.5 cee oo te cease bbe e ec cen s seus 43, 80 

Courtesies extended to museums, etc._...-.---..------. ~-._.--.-----_------- 50 

Cox, Hon. Samuel 8:, acts.of, as regent ..-.-.-..2<22222-2-. 2-2-6. 222 55 xii, xiii 

CER GIy 0 fee eee ee ee ee er eee 1 

motion, electing Chancellor of Institution ___.___-.-_____ XV 

offered resolution to appropriate income____..--__--_-___ xvi 

remarksion Zoological Park-2-22222-2— .2 2 2....i-~-=2- Xvi 

Cox, W. V., appointed to take charge of exhibit at Marietta Exposition ___-_._- 53 
Crawford, Dr. John M., explorations by_-.____-__-..----..--.-2--------------- 

Crown agents for the colonies, London, act as exchange agents --___--....------ 80 

CoiamexchanreacenGy lill= === a, eee ae ee eee el ee 80 

Callom; Hon. Shelby M., acts of, as regent -...=2.~.<! ..<.......--...----.--.-Xii, xiv 
offered resolution relative to deposit of books by Ameri- 

CanGHIstonicalpASsoclatOn ==22.- 422222252 -——— 2 eee xvii 

remarks ony Zoological (Park: 2: 2... .os-2--- 2 2a Xxx 


termiasimepentvexpired2--. 4252 ~~ 2 22S Sess 23) ee 1 


800 INDEX. 


Page 
Cunard Royal Mail Steamship Line, grants free freight.-.-._._._..__--------__- 21, 80 
C@urators\of ex chan es psa eae ee esuwe = Soe seen 16 
Curtis, George E., report on progress in meteorology --_......-_._..-.---.-.---- 205 
D. 
Dagger, J..H.,.paper.on alloys ofaluminum) 2223522422232 ee ee eee 725 
Dallas, W. 8., translation of paper on the movements of the earth’s crust_--____ 325 
Dead Letter: Officesco-operation! of a= 2 = == =e ee ee ee ee ee 45 
Deficiency, estimated; forexchange services so: =e ae ne eee 20 
Denmark; exchanges with: = 2222242252225 se ooo a ease ness Se ee 77, 78, 80 
Denison; Thomas: serants freefrelthts 22. ae ae ee ee 21, 80 
Department'of Acriculture, co-operation of 22 ee == ee 45 
livin ovanimals;: <= 2 peces= ee ee ee ee eed 25, 26, 27 
State; co-operation 0f-22.2 255 25S ea eae eee 45 
Departmentalsexchanses) explained == 2-25-52 aa ee 17, 18, 19 
Departments of Government, co-operation of _..----.-.- 2--<== 2-2 =. ==5- =~ 258 45 
receiving approrriation for exchanges -__. ---_---------------- 17, 18, 75 
Depositories of parliamentary, exchanves=222>s- 22s eae ae ee : 77 
Dibble, Hon. S., letter to, relative to establishment of Zoological Park. __...-- 27, 28,29 
remarks relative to Zoological Park ._...-.-----.------------ 31 
Disbursing clerk:of, Institution’ appointed 2=-==2)52- 225.5 eee ee eee 5 
Disbursements of: publicimoneys#s=225 222522 eS ee eee 3 
Distribution, geographical, of correspondents .__--.--.. .-.------=-=-+--------- 76 
ofsduphicate:specimens2ss- se as — ene aa a ee 46 
ot Museum publications, plan recommended --___------_-------_- 47 
of.publications;;planwfor= <2. 226 ee ee ee eee 13, 47 
District of Columbia bill, amendment by Senator Edmunds-_--_---~___----_- 29, 30, 31 
ethnological collections made in____--------------------- 63 
Documents, official, international exchange of __---._--..--. .--.-=s---=---22=- 76 
Domestic correspondents of Smithsonian Institution_________.._------ ----_--- 75, 76 
exchange‘ packages|sent. 22022 a ee ee ee “oui 
Dorpat, University of, sends ‘dissertations (22 22) Sees ss)- Se eee 
Dresden, Saxony, depository of United States official publications in .__-_----_- ade 
Drugs, collection of, obtained from Kew Gardens-----...---.---------------- 44 
presented) by: Dra Jz Wa Jewetts.-- 2) ose eee 44 
Dunedin, New Zealand, Otago Museum at, sent collection of New Zealand fiahend 43 
Duplicate specimens, distribution of .2--2.-- =o 52. fo See eee 46 
Dutch Guiana, exchange agency in --__--. Sen teeeOie ena eese ssa eae eaee 80 
E. 
Earll, R. E., placed in charge of exhibit at Ohio Valley Centennial Exposition __- 53 
Earth’s crust, movements of the. Paperon, by A. Blytt .-_-_ --------------- 325 
Earthworks at Fort Ancient, Ohio. Paper on, by William M. Thompson .------ 70 
Paper on, by.C., (Thomas 22-222 eee 65 
Eastman Dry Piate Company presented kodak camera --__--.-------. -----. ---- 45, 46 
Ecuador, exchanges with... 2.2. 22222 a ee ee -77, 78, 80 
Eddy, William Az, paper-on:the Hiffel Towers 3-282 es eee 736 
Edmunds, Senator, amendment to bill relative to Zoological Park._-------- 29, 30, 31 
Eells, Myron, paper on the stone age of Oregon ._-- ..-- --------~-----.------ Thuy zi 


Egleston, T., catalogue of minerals and their synonyms ------------------ ---- 47, 71 


INDEX. cOl 


Page. 

Bev pt. etnnolorical collectlons from: <2 2) a5 522 == oo oe See cee oe 42 
exchanrehavency Mle 222 eee eee ae ee een oo eee ae eee oee 80 
Egyptian objects, casts of, presented by Prof. Paul Haupt-----------------.-- 42 
Eiffel, G., paper on the Eiffel Tower.__..---------------..- Tog = See ee 729 
Eiffel Tower. . Paper on; by William A. Eddy..--..-..----.----s..-.---..-. 736 
Paper on, by G. Eiffel_____- Re eS ee Se ee 


Electrical oscillations, ifertz’s researcheson. Paperon, by G. W.deTunzelmann. — 145 
Elementary problems in physiology. Address by Prof. J. 8. Burton Sanderson. = 425 


Elks, American, presented by Hon. W. F. Cody ----.------------------------- 25,43 
Endicott, William C., letter to Secretary of Institution relative to site for astro- 
physical observatory .-. .. 22-222. .-see een ee a Mn ae ES oO 
Erlangen, University of, sends dissertations -_-. --.-----------. oan og 20,84 
Estimates presented to Congress for cost of— 
Intermeatlonal(ex@hances so. 2. £5. ose ssase ees sk esce gee Sse se eee 4, 18, 75 
North American ethnology --__-.--.---..-------- Be te ete ke eee es 4 
RNGubTOs aMIVIUISEUL Mi eeteteta Sens 1. 2 ae 6 pe OL ek Bon Ree eee 4 
Ethnography, Museum of, at Berlin, Germany, account of -------- .----.---~-- 136 
Ethnological collections, principal accessions to ---_._-_------.- .------------- 42 
Hthnolosyburenu, of, publications 0f-22.5222 24-2 22<2220 2-22.58 on2- oeeee mi 
North American, Congressional appropriation for .~_- xxii, Xxxi, xxxiii, 3, 4 
contributions to, published by Bureau of Ethnology 65 
estimate of cost of submitted to Congress.____ ___ 4 
Eulogy of Dr. Asa Gray, resolutions of Board of Regents .--_.--.-.---.-... --.- xiii, xv 
Evarts, Secretary, letter to Secretary of Smithsonian Institution —..--__-22-.__- 17, 76 
Bxchanves'of Institution, expenditures tor —2< 2222-2252 e262 < atone besos NX 
Exchanges, system of— 
Hitlestis GL.ditimsing KnowWwledg@- ccs =. aS eeee dees Hacc: tases meas 15 
appointment of John Quackenbush as agent ..__--_-..---. ------.------_- 16 
appointment of W. C. Winlock as curator -_---._-------- 3a: 2a eee ee 16 
appropriations and expenditures -_xxi, xxxi, xxxiil, 3, 4, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 74, 75, 76 
assumed by GoOvernnlenty asses ons. Soke So aa ee ee 2 ee _- 15,16, 17 
companies crantine free freight.o-—., 5-5-2. .cesosse0 0 ee 2 eee ae 21,79, 80 
Congressional appropriations for __-.----..------------.------ 17,18, 19, 74, 75,76 


Conuvenimon au Brusselsic - 22.2262. 2tb2cehenoebcot sree ecceoessse. a, OO 
death ot Drs dete Kidder. curator]. 222-5 -22- 62 352 eee eee Se LOGO. 73 


COS OLSCRYWICO—ee = = 2s oa a aise ete oi ia en es ee eee oe 
CORTES POMC CL CS 50 Leanne crea ae eet ees ee ee ae 16,75. 76 
estimatesspresented, to Convress.. -2-- S2—- 2-22 tote. esl ls nes. ee 18, 75, 76 
EX PelSes Olm= s2 224588 je ke oe See a Sees tose ee a Sees 16 
fOTElONVACENCESes a 2 ease se wee oa eee ean mee eee een eee ONO 
geographical distribution of correspondents ____-.--..--------_--- <a 7 
OLOmelal GOCUMENTS: 222222522 ence nee soe Sane eee See seen 20, 76 
WackaCes SON aULOAC, - 222.52. 252s cee ets cee eae e ee ce eee eek ee LO Te 
patliamentary-exchanees2 =... =< =..25-- 22-2 oo ee oe ee epee se 25k vi 
Pee CS, Es 5a a ee rae ho 20 
proposed new plan’: 2. .-s2s:is2- see ne ee ee ee see e oe cee tee sa Se 19 
TEPORVIOL GULALOL 2/12 chien omam sg cole cece. thie ase eesecuseseeGse. Sate sess 73 
Repore Dy ORs We, delle WA Er eS Sate So ae ee ees en ee 70 
ME MOUCOT SCCHCLANY ONbow a= ates ort eres eee ee ee a SS Se 15 
rules'for transmission 2s= == --=...2e22252-5-4 eee eee coe ada oe tee 81 
SHIPMenits. LOOLEIOMECOUN TIES == ae see ace noe ee eee eee aa 
SUAMISUL COOL: = 2 eee ee = re re, i Oe et ce eee 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,78, 79 
PIANSAC DONS OM OCC Meats ae ee Me EE Sete Oe os oe ociac acme asoy 73 


H. Mis, 224——51 


802 INDEX. 


Page. 
Executive committee, membersiofime= ss s2 sen re eee a ee xii 
statement of expenditures for International Exchanges_xxi, Keke 
statement of expenditures for North American Ethnol- 
OY: Se ee BEL oe Se Se CIS ae arena nee pa RON I EROKOKT 
statement of expenditures for Smithsonian Building re- 
Palos Se ee RE Sees ae a Le Se ae eae ee cee KOK LV ENOR OKT 


statement of expenditures for National Museum-_-_-_-. XML VA NeKeRT 

to advise Secretary as to expenditure of income--_.__--_. xix 

Exhibit at Marietta Exposition. --_._ ._-___- Bc aca ss RS a er 53 

at Ohio Valley/\Centennial exposition’ =-=2 55 =e. 25 es ee eee 53 

for Ohio, Valley Centennial Exposition, catalogue of___------.-------- 47 

Expenditures of; Smithsonian Instijutione <= -2 <= 3 -se ease ee ee XxX 
of exchanges, American, etc. (see Executive committee. ) 

Hxplorations by Drs JamesiGrant Beye) == S5s 5 ee ae ee 9 

Boas, Drwiltan2 cs 2. see sere ae ee ee ee eee eee 60 


Crawford yDry John Mies 22 or a eae see ee eee Nene 9 
Curtin; wdierentiah\. 2S = eo Se ee ee OD 
Eemurrerty:Ji@ bans Wiss. soe te eet ee a mene ee 55 
PowkesGerard..0= cis 2S Se ce fees er ates eee ay ee 55 
Gatschet AS): 222: 25-8, Se 5 ee ee eee ee 59 
Re nish iw eV) cee py es en a ee rte Ti 
Hewitt: wie Ne nee Bi ey is ne oe ae ee ee 59 
Hullebrand:; “Wis sso ae et 2 he ae a ee ee ee 5 
HMofiman, Dro Word 22S te ee oe eee ss ee = ee ORT 
HowardsQWw.. Li. 2 soe ee oe tee ee eee ee ee RCN 


Jenkins OCR... 5222.5 ones eee sane ee eee eee eee 10, 51 
MailillenysrColGarnick! = 22555 so Se ee Se ee ee ee eee 56 
Merrily Georsei Res we sn Bye Re et eee eee ree 51 
Middleton antes al) eet se 2 ecru et pee 57 
Mindeleff, SVictorse, = =e ots . (a eee 60 
Mooney, Jiamesie 22 soe eerie a a). ae ee ee 58 
MioserscIsle ut; cley eye nee eee ee ee ee 10 
Post, hredernickih se eee) 2 Ne ieee eee 10 
Reynolds; -Elenry, Ie ses =e ee Sh. coe eee ee 55, 56 


Rockhill Ye Weow: 222 aaron eee oe eee ne 9 
Stephen, Ao "Mo. See a eee ee eee = eee 60 
Thomas, Cyrus 3522s e os eo eee eee ee 55 


Williams; Av Raleott > 2) 5 25S ees =a ae = ae ee Ste 
Wilson, -Phomas 222252 = eee eee 51 
Expositions: 222205562 = See See ree a Se 54 
unsafe condition of bulldingsh 2 9) a2 eo = ee 54 
appropriations required for new material_—-----..-_---_-.=-2.---=- 54 
loss! tocolllections:oniaccoumtiof sss ee 54 

iY. 

ais 

Fernow, Dr. B. E., appointed honorary curator ---------- eS See ee ee 45, 51 
Fewkes, J: Walter, explanation of platesshy, -.222- 32222" 22-8232 69 
Fire-proofing of Smithsonian building, continuation of--_-_.~.__....---------_~- 4 
Fish Commission added to collection of National Museum. ____-_-___- ----- --_- 42 
Congressional appropriations to repair Armory building --_--~- XXXIV 
occupies Ainmory. bil din pe = oe ee eee 565) 
Flora of North America, copies of, presented to Mrs. Gray --..-.-- ----------- xii, XV 


INDEX. $03 


Page. 
Florida, archeological specimens from ___.----------------------------- .--42, 43, 63 
Flugel, Dr. Felix, acknowldgment of services rendered ___.---------~-------..- 719 
exchange agent of the Institution .__- ....-.--.-..----------- 80, 81 
Foreign correspondents of Smithsonian Institution -.._ _____------------- sa- 40,46 
Foreign exchange agents, salaries of_.._. -..-_.__.-2....-2---_2--4.~--5¢---<- TA 
Governments. official publications sent to.___.----------------. -.---- ae 

MG UMASS) TAC Oo Wye ae ee ne ee a 
offices acting as exchange agents...__-_..-..--.---- -------------------- 80, 81 
HOTECU eas, Hbanbs treemreiOhtw = 225255. 5 22252 se sad Fhe eee eee 21, 80 
Fort Ancient, Ohio, earth works at, paper on, by William M. Thompson-.------- 70 
France, exchanges with -..-.-----_- Bee eee Sega as en ee Bree ae eee 
Free freight granted by transportation companies .__.....--__---------~------ 21, 79 
Freiburg, University of, sends dissertations ___.__._._____--.__.____---_-______ 25, 84 
eto MbmCOSu Olean ae wate ce oe a eS ee oe eee 20, 74, 75 
free, granted by ds anasoitat ation Companies _.._--..--.~----- «2.25.25 21,79 
Fuiler, Chief Justice Melville W., elected Chancellor of Institution __._.._._____ xv, l 
president of Board of Regents -_-__. xii, xiii 
Funch, Edye & Co., grant free freight -__.---------__.--__-..--------------- 21, 80 
Funds administered by Institution .___..._.____..________- Xk, KX), eM) RLV, AK 
Furniture and fixtures, Congressional appropriation for -xxvii, xxix, xxxiii, xxxiv, 3, 4 
estimate of cost submitted to Congress. __-_----------.- 4 
of Institution, expenditures for _.._.._-----.--------... xx 
of National Museum, salary schedule for._.._-..-___- 35, 37, 38 

Ga 
Garden, Botanical, at Berlin, Germany, account of ..-------.----------------- 113 
of University at Berlin, Germany, account of .-----------.------ ---- 116 
Zoological, at Berlin, Germany, account of_.---------------. Sees, LO 
Gardening, Royal School of, at Berlin, Germany, account of -___-_--____-_____ 127 
Gem collection of National Museum, report on, by George F. Kuntz. -__. -____. a 
Genealogy of man, the last steps in. Lecture by Dr. Paul Topinard_-________- 6o9 
Genesis of the Arietidie, memoir by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt? ...--2-2-022 222 LLL 69 
Geodetic Institute, Royal, at Berlin, Germany, account of.____..--__-__-.______- 135 
Instruction, Institute of, of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, ac- 
COMIN Oe oe eee re a ne Mae, 126 
Geographical distribution of correspondents .__-.-----------.----.-------___- 76 
latitude, paper on, by Walter B. Scaipe .-----.---. -__-_.-____- 749 
Geological Congress, International, American Committee of, met at National Mu- 

SCUM poo o2se= = - = Rae er oe ge 50 
Institute at Berlin, Canna account of. ____. ey a oo 123 
Survey added to collections of National Museum __.-_-...-.---___- 42 
established base line in Smithsonian grounds —._...--___. __. 33 
Geology collection, principal accessions to -.-.---.-. .----------.--_.-L eee 44 
Georgetown, British Guiana, exchange agency in _-_-_-_----_-___..-_____-____. 80 
Germany, exchanges with ._____...-_--.. .._---_-_------.- es pe Ss 2 oe TIS 78 
Gibson, Hon. Randall L., acts of, as Regent .-_-_- .----.-------_-_---______.. xii, xiii 
appointed: Regent)..2--..2.-009_24__ 2: .-.24.-..L28 1 
Giessen, University of, sends dissertations ___..___._----------_.-------.----. 25,84 
Gilts to department of living animals. _____ - See eet ee ee ee 25 
Goole, G. Brown, assistant secretary of the eeitanon eae $0. So aa ee xi 
Gottingen, University of, sends dissertations. -____...____-_____.-.---..-..... 25, 84 


Government, charge of exchange service assumed by--_-_ .-----.----..------15, 16, 17 


B04 INDEX. 


Page. 
Government, bureaus, appropriations for exchanges. -___-.-.----__-_-- RXMI, ta ee 
Departments and bureaus, co-operation of_._--_---------__-._._-- 45 
establishments acting as exchange agents ____._____..___-.____-. 80,81 
should pay for Smithsonian building -__----.-.._.-.-__.--_----- 2 
Governmental exchanges iS S52 2b Sa a ae ee a ae a 16 
Gray, Dr. Asa, death of, announced, and resolutions of Board _._-__. -----.-____- xiii 
work of, printed at expense of Institution_----5_-— ===" = 222 : 14 
reat Britain, exchanges with 22 2222-< <2 2 ose) 23s eee ee ee ee 77, 78 
Greece, exchanges! with== 2222 2. fae oS a ea ee ee ree 77,78 
and Rome, time-keeping in: agree bya He An Seeliy 54425 eee oe 377 
Guadeloupe exchangesagvencysin) === se ee ee 81 
Guatemala;exchangetacency In 525 = ae a es een ee 81 
Guttstadt, Prof. Albert, paper on the national scientific institutions at Berlin-__ 89 
H. 

Habel. bequest, amount ’of.2c- 2-225 - <== 45272 wy. eh ee ee Ss 
Hague, The, Netherlands, depository of United States official pabheatiens eae ba 
Hayti, exchanges with_--_-___-_- Wie SAL See Sie bce ees Re a Wat 
Hamburc: exchanges with: <2 22 <2 ss Se eae ae ae eS 
Hamburg-American Packet Company grant free freight__--._..__.---.--------= 21, 80 
Hamiltonibequest, amount.of 222 5222s Sek See enc ee ee X1x, 2 

Haupt, Prof. Paul, designated representative to Kighth International Congress of 
imOrientalists ies oes-- 22 252 EOE OO Gere At rae Wen A Sv on 8 EN 51 
Hawantl, exchangesiwith. 22. 22355520 else oe eee ee, Se ee ae RT 
Heating and lighting, Congressional appropriations for__ xxviii, xxx, xxxii, xxxiv, 3, 4 
estimate of cost submitted to Congress_-. .----_---.----- 4 
service of National Museum, salary schedule for -__--___- 35, 38 
Heidelbero® University of, sends dissertations. 2 225-25 s. eens COMO 
Helsinefors, University. of, sends dissertations: —22- 252" = see Se eee ee 25, 84 
Hemenway expedition, exchange privilege granted ______.__.. --.------------- 15 
Helmholtz, Robert, memoir of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff_____- -_------_-..---_- Bon 
Henderson & Brother grant free freight __ --_-----.~ ew Sl Se ey | er ae a ol eo) 
HMeredity<) Address by Dr.) William Rurmers22 "see e282. 8 ee eee Odo 
Hertz’s researches on electrical oscillations, by G. W. de Tunzelmann___~_---_- 145 
High School, Technical, at Berlin, Germany, account of-..222--..._ 522-5222. -2 9 130 
Hillliers George: death rots 22 25 Ue Se eee aa ocean Te ee 16 
aietorical Association, Renee Gonareeienal pe respecting incorporation of__ xxxi 
Hobart Lown; Tasmania, exchangesasencyin 22220 eee eer eee ee iar ml 
Horn, Dr. George H., work of, printed at expense of Institution ~-----__.._-_-- 15 
Hornaday, William T., paper on how to collect mammal skins -__--- --___----- ro 
proposed plan for Zoological Garden ---..-------=- -=-- 26 

Hough, Walter, translation of Topinard’s lecture on the last steps in the gene- 
alogy of’man.2.2).2-. 22-2 Joe Lee eee ee ee ee ee OOO 
House of Representatives, floor of, privilege of, pending -___-__.---_----.-- .-..- 33 
Hovey, HaiC@son aluminum... 222222520 oo ee ee ero 
Hungary, exchangesawith 22-22) 22) ano. 222 bee eee aomoll 

Hupa Reservation, Ray collection from, paper on, Pa, us it Masonee se eee 7 
Hyatt, Prof. Alpheus, memoir by, on Genesis of the Arietida - -.-__. ---- ------ 69 
Hydrographic office at Berlin, Germany, account. of ~--..--.----=---=-22-5 s=2 138 
I 

Tllustrations,. listiof 9.22. he ee ee ae ee ee ix 
Index to the literature of Columbium, by Frank H. Traphagen cus Sees. 2 eee 69 


INDEX, 805 

Page 

lmdinwexchanves With-s:252—-2- 50-5. 05-8 seen en en soo hee ce nee nce Wa de, ob 
Indian languages, study of, paper on, by J. W. Powell ___. ------ See a 65 
system of medicine investigated ____________..-. ---_--..----.56, 57, 58, 59, 61 
vocabularies collected by Mr. J. Curtin.__.............-..-.-------=-- 61 
obtained by Mr: He W, Henshaw 22 i205 25asse526222 = 228 57, 58 

Incaliss Hon; JohnurJ., acts of,as Regent. =-+.. 1.23.24 225 c228 Seana Ki M111 
letter to, relative to classified service ____._-.------ 34, 35, 36 


Inman Steamship Line grant free freight .._..__ _...__..._.-___------....---- 21, 80 
Inorganic chemistry laboratory of the Technical High School at Berlin, Germany, 


ACCOUNT O [ae aera Ne Ee A be nie eee ee ee ee a a aac, Moll 
Mseeticollection, extent of ..-....-.-...-- 2-2 = == See ene = 2-5-2256; 43, AC 
Institutions, the national scientific, at Berlin, paper on ----_--_------.-------- 89 
Instructions in photography given by Museum. __- ------ --- ee ee ae ee 50 

taxidermy given by Museum, 2-22 (222... 225-0 ee 50 
Instrument shelter erected in Smithsonian grounds .__. _..------..-------------- 7 
Internationa) Congress of Orientalists, aid given to.__._.__._-__-------------- 15 


exchanges (see Exchanges). 
Geological Congress, American Committee of, met at National 


WuUSCU Me 3 eee eee ce emcee cee ee eee. ee ae ee Mee a 50 
oalWmeXChaNC es Witte <= 255032 Sood s oo ene ae fo elise oe cbse See ee ane ae 77, 78 
J. 
apale ExChanres With .22-6.-5 222s. 455. con Ses 2 ob eee ne 2 nee 77, 78 
Java, exchange agency In._.......-.-..------.---+=.<-.------ joe eae ee 81 
Jena, University of, sends dissertations -........_.----.-..--...-------------- 25, 84 
Jordan, David Starr, explanation of plates by -.-.---.-----------.----------. 69 
Journal of proceedings of the Board of Regents -_----.-.----------- ---------- xiil 
Ix. 
viciider? Dr. Jerome H., ‘bequest by --+.--.-.s<---csnsesebes. ee eae oe ae 3 

curatomol exchanpes 2. 2-5-5 Soe eee ese 3,16 
CLE UN OL secre re eae ne 3, 16, 66 
me Port OW exchanges 222-22 Ee Ses 70 
Kiel, University of, sends dissertations .......__-...------.--------~--------- 25, 84 
Konigsberg, University of, sends dissertations.-_____-__-____-.---_---_.- Le. -- 25, 84 


Kunhardt-c.Co:, crantifree freight, 222 5..0. oo oe. oes eee en chk ence enn IR 8O 


§ 
Laboratories connected with Technical High School at Berlin, Germany, account 
1 ae pe eatanee) ©. eee Oe eg te 131, 132 
Langley, S. P., annual report of, to Regents.......--.-.-..-.------ ---- -..-..-~-- 1 
Secretary and Director of the Institution .........._._.-_--.-.----------- x1 


Leber TOZI1ON) me ADDIE! 228s tee ata ease oacaede owe coats snow hy BOR ee 
President of Senate relative to classified service for National Mu- 


SC UN a2 ata, Be ee eee ey eS Best. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 

member of committee on eulogy of Dr. Asa Gray ._--..-----------.------- Xili 
repowbiol, Jor 1880s 3-2. Soe en oS es oes oneal eoeaee TW 
REPOrv.OM. bulreaw Of Wthnolosy aa-.3- sey Se ee oo Sete 55 
ERC AN DCS ye a ee ee ne eA Nn See 15 

National Muse k 5s ee 8 ee a 34 


Languages. bibliocraphies,of,, by.J...©.. Pilling, ..2. 225222... 12252. -22-4222 4222 65 
Lea, Isaac, collection of shells and books added to Museum___. ~~.-.-~---.---- 5, 47 


806 INDEX. 


Page 

Isecture delivered by. Dr: InarrisomiAd emcees es eee eee ee 32 
by Blantord, TH. Es low, ralnstse ton med ee es ae ee ee 257 

Lodge, OliverJ:, Uhemodern theoryotdlicht==s= == se ==5 oe ee ae 441 

Topinard, Paul, The last steps in the genealogy of man___-_-_- soe 669 

Nectures in: National Niuseumies saa sess = eee See ea ee ee ae 50 
Leipzig, University of, sends ‘dissertations 222" 22-2) See eee ee oe eee Od 
Letter of Secretary of Smithsonian Institution to Hon. 8. Dibble -..----____. 27, 28, 29 
Secretary Evarts to Secretary of Smithsonian Institution___-___-____- 17, 76 

to Hon. John J. Ingalls, relative to classified service __-__-____-_____- 34, 35, 36 
Isiberia,exchanrejazencyin==- 222-2 sce See aN eee eee ashi ae Cae ea 81 
Iibrarian, Yeportiofo---e == =-= S222 2 25 ee Be as eee eee = 83,84 
uibrary of Congress; books deposited imis22 sna 2s ee ree a OSD 
‘eSmithsoniany Hallyninisug gested ees ae See eee ee eee Xvii, 22 

National: Museum; accessions 1022 aoe oe ew eee eee 47 

jnibrary of Smithsonian InstibwiWonees. -— a= sees eee eae ee 21 
academic publicationsiof universities).2—- | -- = 22 = = ae ee ee ee 25, 84 
ACCESSIONS tO meee ee ee ee ee eee 2a 2Oueo 
books) retained for Museum library2= 22.9 es — See ee ee ee ee 25 
books transferred to Surgeon-General’s library ....-__-_-----.------------- 25, 83 
expenditures lor2_—— 2" \- 322 as oe ee ee ee xx 
infcharce of Mr. Je Murdoch: 5-222) =. 3!2 --- 5-2 eee 24 
increased by: means of exchange system 22-225 - 22222 so eae eae Dies 
Iplanaor increuse Of = - = = S i= oy ts es ca er eee eR 

MOA CUNO NOONY Soars cae Se arene ele ee ee 23 
report of librarian .--_--------. Soe USC Eee So es ee 83, 84 

ME POL OL SCCLELATY ps Sees = eo ee en ae 21 
resolution of Board of Regents relative to accommodations -_-__--~.-------- 22 
serialsireceived Dy:-2 se 8 Ses 0 oe ook ee le ee oe ere eee 83 
Light, Michelson’s recent researches on, address by Joseph Lovering --------.- 449 
modern theory of lectureby Oliver J. Lodge: 22222 22s eee eee 441 


Lighting National Museum, Congressional appropriation for____----xxvili, xxx, xxxil, 
xXxxiv, 3, 4 


service of National Museum, salary schedule for _-_-----_-__-. ------ 35, 38 

hima Peru wexchange agency 1-95. se eee ee eee eh a 17 75, (5 

Tisbon.-Portuszal, exchange avency in--==.22-- so. eee ee ee TiO 

Thistiofllustrations: 225s 2225-25 eae sae ae ee Ree ee ix 
Literary exchanges.. (See Exchanges. ) 

Living animals, collection of National Museum, statistics of accessions -~--.~--- 40, 41 

Congressional appropriation for. 222252225 22. ese ne eee 4 

departmentof.. 2232" 56-2 23 5a ae es oa ee 25 

insufficient accomodations for_____________..------------_----- 26 

Locomotion, aerial, paper on, by F. H. Wenham--_---_--------.- eee fae eee eae 303 

Locomotives, model of, presented by Baldwin Locomotive Works ____ -_--... ---- 44 

Lodge, Prof. L. D., translation of paper on Scandinavian archaeology --—--. - ---- 71 

Lodge, Prof. Oliver J., lecture:: Modern theory of light-----------------_.---- 441 

London, England) exchange/agency ints 2222 Se es SaaS ee ee 

Louvain, University of, sends dissertations = 222 22-222 2~ ee s ee ee 25, 84 

Lovering, Joseph, address: Michelson’s recent researches on light-__-----~------ 449 

Lund, University of, sends dissertations___---___- -- SoS cs see ene ee eee 25, 84 

: M., 

Madeira; exchangempency in] =.= = oe ee ee 81 

Madrid, ‘Spain; exchange agency in. 9-22 0-6) oe eee td, OL 

Malta, exchange agency dno seees = = ae ee pens 3S SS on 81 

e 


INDEX. 807 


Page. 
Va enyanC Olen Cr dREIC Kg OPK Ol Beane meee ew) Pie gs oe eee ee ee 60 
Man, genealogy of, the last steps in, lecture by Dr. Paul Topinard -__. - .------- 669 
Manila, Philippine Islands, exchange agency in-.---------.---------.-------- 81 
Marietta centennial’exposition ....25 --22 =. 2-2-2222. senses, Seen es Seae 53 
Mason, Prof. Otis T., mission to Europe----_-- ee See a ee ee wae 51 
Matter, molecular structure of, paper on, by William Anderson ~-------------- 711 
Maunitiuswexchantemoency 1ni< = - 8 2S. oo eee eno eae fa aceon tees 81 
Medical Congress, met at National Museum --------.---..-------------------- 50 
Medical Institutes at Berlin, Germany .------------------------~------------- I 
Meetings and letters in National Museum--_-_--.----------------------------- 50 
Gleb OAc On decen tS Soo... cae eee ee X1ij 
Meigs, General Montgomery C., acts of, as Regent .-..__--.------------------ xii, xiil 
member of executive committee. ____-_--.----- xil 

offered resolution relative to Smithsonian Hall in 
new, library building=- -- .2922)-2 0 ee eV 
remarks on Zoological Park ____-------------- xvi 
Melbourne; Victorias exchanve acency In 2-322 - --=S2  e e 77, 81 
Membersiex oficuo-ot the: establishment..--= = == 22-22 222-4 ae ye eee xi 
Memoir of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, by Robert von Helmholtz ---..---------- 527 
Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer. By Prof. A. Muller_.__..-----. -__-- 507 
Merchant S. L. Company grant free freight on exchanges for Egypt. .--. .--__- 21, 80 


Meteorological Institute of the Royal University at berlin, Germany, account of. 109 
Observatory of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Germany, 


ELC OXLEY) (0 1 eee a n r 
Meteoroiocy. Bibliosraphy of. By O. Iu. Fassig..22-5 ~~ -..--..-2-_--. 2254-83 Qu 
report on progress of. By George E. Curtis._---..-.-.--..------ 205 
Mexiconethbnolocicalcoilectiow frome. 22-2226 .—— 2-5 s a Sos ee eee oe 42 
GCE TN TL sD Ne er np 77, 78, 81 
Michelson’s recent researches on light. Address by Joseph Lovering. - ~~~ -- --- 449 
Military medical institutes atpberlin, Germany .=.-=--252 === ee 121 
* Mining Academy at Berlin, Germany, account of ___-__- SS ee ees ea ee pele 
Miscellaneous Collections, account of-_-.-.-.---------~-- ---------=------- 11, 69, 70 
Models of Jocomotives presented by Baldwin Locomotive Works -_.__--. -~-.---- 44 
sModern theory of light. Lecture by Professor Oliver J. Lodge... ---..------- 441 
Molecular structure of matter. Paper on, by William Anderson -___-.- gocoan =o, ae el 
Monrovia, Liberia, exchange agency in -2_-.-.---..=----2-2--2...----------- 81 
Montevideo, Uruguay, exchange agency in -----.----_------------------.---- 81 
Montreal, Canada, exchange agency in ._-_..-. .---..--------.------------------ 80 
Morrill; Hone sustinis:, acts of, as recent -.-2--.. 2-15-5222... .-2---.-=2 Xi) xl 
bill for establishment of Zoological Pare ean See 29 

introduced bill relative to fire-procfing of Smithsonian 
WOU CY ie. 5 es A ee ee Se a 
Morton, Hon: Levi P:, became ev officio regent. ...-..------~-s--<.-=--+-+--.=+- 1 
Mound explorations By Bureawor Wthnolosy 2225, 242, 22 oe ee ee es aee 55, 65 
Movements of the earth’s crust. Paper on, by A. Blytt_-----.--..------------ 325 
Mozambique, exchange agency in --------.--------- Se ee RAED 81 
Miller, A., memoir of Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer ___- ~~ ~_ .._- She yn oe oO OT 
Mufioz y Espriella grant free freight .~....-.-----.-------.-.---------------- 21, 80 
MurdoehyJohn, in charge of ltbrary 3.22222 5235 eo e222 2-3 awe cab ee ee 25 
TEPOLG OO MDTALY 225 ose neh ee eee oa. ae ee 83, 84 
Murray, Ferris & Co. grant free freight .-_-----.---...---..----. ------------ 21,80 


Museum, Botanical, of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of..-. 114 
Minerological, of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of. 111 


808 INDEX. 


Page. 

Museum, Natural History, of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account 

Off 258 is Bee ee Sa ae a ieee ee 119 
of Ethnography at Berlin, Germany, account of =2-=22 2-22 =22=--=-= 136 
of Natural History, Paris, specimens of marble received from -__-_-_-- 44 
of the Agricu!tural High School at Berlin, Germany, account of ----_- 125 
Postal} at: Berlin, iGermany,caccowint io fs Wee ae a tee ee ee ee ne eC) 
Zoological, of Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of ___-__- 118 

aN‘. 

National Academy of Sciences met at National Museum .-._---_.--------.---- 50 
Dental Association met at National Museum ..-__-----_--------.--. 50 
Educational Association met at National Museum -_---- See ee 50 

National Museum: 

ACCESSIONS tO. e— ho Reh ee ee ee oe et ere eee ee ee ae 42, 43, 44 
Vibranyi2< 20S" Sie SO BE eae 2 eee eee 25, 47, 84 
annual-report fordi886... 2.2 5 oe ee ae ee 71 
appropriations and expenditures <25_ = 2 S250 = Se Lene eee Se er ee 
Fish Commission, to) alter Armory buildin 5525S) 2 eee ee XXXiV 
furniturerandtixbunessesst ss =e eee cee XK Vl) KIX KEK KOK 
heatinovanddiahting ess sa esas. ose ae eee XXViil, XXX, XXXii, XXXIV 
preservation of collections === 2242-52-22 = ==- == XX Vil ARR OK ROLY 
TOS CEC Me a te ere ee es eee XXXIV 
printing and binding’ 22222: S22s2 2222) 2224 eS een XXXiV 
bibliography Olees=—= ase aa ee eee SE hae ee rie 
Centennial Exhibition of Ohio Valley --.----------- AS Soh CAS RA bere ere 51 
catalogue entries 205 ese Se ee ee 42 
classifiediservice; tablesiofes=-= 2 ses 2 Lae eee eee 34, 35, 36,37, 38 
Congressionaliappropriations!tor= ss met eS ee ee eee eee 3, 4 
disbursed by Smithsonian .--_------------- 5 
distribution ofiduplicate specimens 222 24 222s. 2 ee eee 46 
co-operation of governmental Departments --_-_~_----- 2-2 j2-2=- == 4s 45 
estimatesisubmitted toiConeress a9 sete anya neater 2 ee eee ee 4 
expendituresion account) Of: isso: eee ee see eeeee. eee xx 
explorations). accountiof =2=2252 er UA ahs ue SS oes See ee 51 
governmental aid required forex hibitions) 42-25 eee ee ee eee 54 
increase of collections! == 25222 ees Su fe ee aS) ee ee ae ee 39 
labels Wnuse -2.2 42.6 Se a eee ee ee 46 
library: Of e230 26 oS 2M ee i pe a te eee ee 
Marietta Centennial’ ixhibition;displayat 225 esas eee ee eee 53 
meetings and Lect res aa ee ere ee ae eee ee te ee 50 
personnel... 42-2 ee ae ee Pc Ne ea 51 
photocrapkic exhibits 22252) Se= eee See ee eee Seer 45 
prineipalyaccessians; Corcollecti or spas ee ne 42, 43, 44 


publications) ..2..- 22.) 4352s OR ee ere eee eee 
Bulletins 223 22. ee ee I ee ee Ae ee Om 


Proceedings; ==... 2-55.82 ee eee 47, 48, 49, 71 
report of Seeretamy .. =< == << 2k ee ee pe ee 34 
TEC |S Heil GL ea ey UTI CL ra ee DOr 
Special researches esse se a ae ee 50 
statisties of accessions)-<——.3—- 2. ee Se ee ee ees 40, 41 
students aregrante@ access to collections =. 2. === = ee a ee 49 
WISHGOrS. WO. 2G tere oes ee ee eee aio 50 


INDEX. 809 


tage. 
National scientific institutions at Berlin, paper on_...--.-.---- ---- 2------- 89 
Natural History illustrations by L. Agassiz and 8, I’. Baird ~-__-..--------- 69 
Natural History Museum ofthe Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of. 119 
INCCUOLOS yi wean ee aaa ines ae eee as, Se ES ee eee 65 
. PlCtMer te ACC Clete sat) sake a Se eo nee Meee eee a BC ee 66 
DitMeshstevensOM ast ius ekenl a Fee | eS eee eee ee Se 67 
Neinerlandsexchanoes, with: .--..£0 2.2.50 See a ee ee eee I, Ou 
Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company, grant free freight --.-..--- 21, 80 
New Caledonia, exchange. agency for_..-_--..---.------.-..----------------- 81 
Newel oundland  exchance 2.¢ency lit. --- 22 otek ee eee 81 
New south Wales, exchanges with _..--.+-.. <2. -=+. <2 22 222 eee 4; (8 
New York and Brazil Mail Steamship Line, grant free freight. -._-_-.--------- 21, 80 
New York and Mexico Steamship Company, grant free freight .-_---------__-- 21, 80 
New Zealand, exchunges with___...--__________- Be ee Ss ed alomol 
North American ethnology, appropriations and expenditures -___-.-.-- ------- xxii 
Congressional appropriation for______--.----------- od 
contributions to, published by Bureau of Ethnology - 65 
estimate of cost submitted to Congress -__---.------ 4 
Indian languages, bibliography of, by J. C. Pilling --_--------- 65 
reptilia and batrachia, Professor Cope’s work on ___.~--.------ 10 
NoronGerman lloyd, orant tree frereht 2222) 22s e - ee ee 21, 80 
Norway, exchanges with .-_..=2....2- 222.2226 4-2e< Sec sees ages ass seas = Uy (oe 
Nursery, National, at Berlin, Germany, account of.__--_----_----------------. 127 
©: 
Observatories acting as exchange agents -____. --_-_.-------- -.--------------- 80, 81 
Observatory, astro-physical, near Potsdam, Germany, account of _-_-_-_-_-----_-- 13s 
astro-physical of the Smithsonian Institution -___.-_--___-_-_----- 7 
meteorological of the Agricultural High Schocl at Berlin, Germany, 
ACCOUNT Ol See eae ae ek ee SE eee ee cslkee 123 
of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of -_--_------ 108 
@cean freight, estimated cost of .. 1.222222 2.2222-- he ee een fas 2051 
Oelrichs & Co., grant free freight_._______-.....------.--.-.... --------------- 21, 80 
Official documents, international exchange of _..----__-_-- -------------------- 76 
Ohio Valley Centennial Exposition .__.....-__. -.--------.-.-------------.-- 47, 51 
Organic chemistry laboratory of the Technical High School at Beriin, Germany, 
ACCOUNU Oho asta ss eens oe ke goss ee ee OR ene ae ce 
Orientalists, Congress of, aid given to____---__---------- ie es el 15 
Oscillations, electrical, Hertz’s researches on, paperon by G. W.de Tunzelmann = 145 
Ottawa, Canada, exchange agency in _-_.._-_..__.__-----_-------- ee 77, 80 
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, free freight by -.-------- -------.---.------ 21, 80 
Panama Raiload Company, free freight by ----- eee ees 2s cats a 21, 80 
RAGIN O§ DOCS. COSU Ol o=e- omnes Se Seems sane toe eee ee Se et oe oee eee 7A 
iParaciaywexchanges) With. 2-522 e642! 0282 5a se oe eee it, 18, 8 
Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, exchange agency in-____--.---------------.-.---- 80 
Parise orance, exchanee acencyil..-32 --2-42 52.220 ese 8 2 os ee eee 77, 80 
Parliamentary documents, immediate exchange of ___- .-_--~---- an seee se 20F 2116 
exchanges, condition of 5-4 242525222. .-.._----ehee 17,18, 09s 


Pedological Institutes of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Germany, 
ACCOUMUNO tesa eta Se Sayer a ee ee a oe 123, 124 


810 INDEX. 


Page. 
Pendulum exptriments of Coast Survey continued in Smithsonian building ___- ES 
Perott, de, Joseph, translation of memois of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff ..________ 527 
Renu; exchanges withie ase ne =< mem ae Base Ala cee eee ipo ney oe ee ue ny ReeeA ON F ART 
Phelps; Hon’: Walliame Wi acts of as event, s.s-= 2= ae ae eee xii, xii 
Philippine Islandsjexchange agency inj. 2-22 2 ey ee ee 81 
Photo-chemical laboratory of the Technical High School at Berlin, Germany, ac- 

COUMTO Le» Soe am ayn fa ey eS eien See he en eee ee ree et 132 
Photographic’exhibit in: National Museums =3- 2232 <2 eee oes a eee 45 
Photography in the service of astronomy, by R. Radau ___-_________-_-____.__-- 469 
Physical cabinet of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Germany, account of. 123 
Physical Institute of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of______ 110 

Observatory, (plamsfors22) pons La see ea ae Cape ee eee ee 7 

science collection of Institution, condition of _....._.__._..__..-L_.-- 7 
Physico-mathematical class of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, account 

OLS 2 ee eee ec See ee eae eS ty A Siar Oe Eee ate re it ake Ue ed 89 


Physiology, faa Institute of, ofthe Agricultural High School at Berlin, Ger- 
MANY, -ACCOUNEO lyase ek ees a ee ee cee ee ee 125 


elementary problems in, address by J. S. Burdon-Sanderson_.______ 423 

vegetable, institute of, of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, 
ACCOUNLNOME Se Bt ee ee eS 

Agricultural High Sehool at Beriin, 
Germany, account of .____ ________- 124 
Pilling, James C., bibliographical work of --_-~- gies EA ey (ea and eee ea 62, 65 
Pim Porwood: Co:;-erant tree: freight -22—_. 222-22 3-22 eee ee een 
Polynesia-wexchanoes With s= .. ...<s20 22S seis eo Se ee ee ee ee eM On SN 
Port-au-Prince, Hayti, exchanges: with 2-222 2222 22 ee oe ee Tn 
Porter: DreNoah; acts.or, aswkecente.. 222252 22 es a ee eee eT ECT 
Poriouis, Mauritius, exchange acency an - 222 2225 2 ee ee eee 81 
Portugal. sexchanges with!: 22222. -s)i wees! Sot ee ee eee eas Se tol 
party. to, exchange: convention a=. =s2e==- — 22,2 are = 76 
Postage. of Institution, expenditures lor_-=2=-s2s--s— 25 See SaaS nee 
Postal:museum' at: Berlin; Germany, accoumtiol === =—" 5222 seen ee oe eee 142 
Postmaster-General; co-operationyot 2 s- = ae ee ee 8 ee ee ee 45 
Potsdam, Germany, astro-physical observatory near, account of ___---. ____-_._ 133 
Powell; J. W.; Director of the Bureau of Ethnology2-- 2-2-2222 2s_ 3 Se Se Ook 
collectionsireceivedstro me == 22ers eee eee 42 
introduction to the study of Indian languages --_~__.~----_- ee 65 
report on work of Bureau of Ethnology --..-.---.-.----------- 55, 71 
Preservation of collections, Congressional appropriations for -__-______.___-__- 3,4 
estimate of cost submitted to Congress... .___- .-___- 4 
Printins: Bureau ateBerlin, Germany, account ofe=e 22 eee ee eee aS 
expendituresiof Institutione ss sae = =e ae ee eee XX 
formexchange office <cOsti0 fees oe ae ae ee ae 74 
Prize questions of the Royal Frederick William’s University at Berlin __---__. 105 
Problems, elementary, in physiology. Address by J.S. Burdon-Sanderson_-_.- 423 
Proceedings of Board of Regents, journal of ,-2.=/2-=22 2 22225 Se 
National Museum, account of. eka e ae See Se ee ee CAS eR 
Progress of anthropology in 1889, by Prof. Otis T. ieson whee ee in eee 2 ee OL 
meteorologyiin 1889, by Georze:C: Curtist aso" =e yes eee 205 
Prussia; exchanges: with. 9: =_ = 2 22 Swe ese ee ee 
Publications: of the Bureau’ of Bthnology_ 2-22 2- 22— = 2 Sk eee eee 13} 65, 71 
National Museum | 6.2.02 !0 2 ae ee ee oe ee ee ea 


INDEX. 811 


Page, 
Publications of the Smithsonian Institution _._-_-_.____. Pee ee eee LO Oo AU 
AMNUAl TEPOLUS! 2 cos oe ee eee nee ka ta aoe eke eewd, 
Contributions to Knowledge --__..---------------..---- 11, 69 
Distribution of ..._..____ .._-_.--------.. .--.---.---- 13, 47 
Miscellaneous (¢ javlectinga see een ee soe e een a ee ee ee 11, 69 
Stereotype plates, storage of .-_. -....-..-.--.--------- 15 
Q 
Quackenbush, John, appointed agent ....--...----..----.--.---..--------=-- 16 
Queensland, exchanyes with --__--_------- .---- a nen Ses cans ce ee 
Quito, Ecuador, exchange agency in .___-.--....-.----_..-.._---.-------1---- 80 
R 
Radau, R., paper on photography in the service of astronomy -_~--.---------.-- 469 
Rain, how formed, paper on, by H. F. Blanford ..._-_----_-----.-------------- 287 
Reading room in Smithsonian library ------.--.-----.-----.--------.------- 23 


Reception given by Secretary ___------.--------------------------.-------- 34 


Red Stardzineerant free freight, -.22-- 2222252222522 - 2-2. 22 aee 22 eee eee 21, 80 
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution __________.____-.-___.--_____-_- Ee xil 
Buard of, annual report for 1886 ____.._------.-.-------------------- vi) 
journal of proceedings of .__-_---.--------------- Pee Se ex 
JOLT ESS Gencee ee eee e ee - 70 
SYN CG UL S10 Lite ee arene 3 2 Se xiii 
ME PONUOLSEClEUA Yi LO = =e ee a ee ae = i 
Executive COMmMIttee Of. 424-4. Sek eee eee ae X11 
Tesolubions Dy. 6226s oe ee eee oe oe ER So Re RV, NVI, RVs 
enort ofvcurator of exchanges .- 2. ==. 2 Be Se. 2 eo ssl Ses cee eS ee oes TN 
executive committee of Board of Regents ....---.--------------- -.-.--- xix 
Samuel P. Langley, Secretary, for 1888 _...-.__--...----_------------ 70 
Secretary to Board of Regents .2°_- 2222-22. 2ss2- eee ee nes ose i 
astronomical observatories for 1386, by George H. Boehmer __---.---- 70 
exchanges and library (incorporated with Secretary’s report). 
Smithsonian exchanges for 1887, by George H. Boehmer _... -_-__- ~~ -- a 
Reptilia and Batrachia of North America, Professor Cope’s work on .__..-.------ 10 
Researches on electrical oscillation, paper on, hy G. W. de Tunzelman-_~_-~ --_- 145 
Resolution by Regents relative to library. -._-__--_.__ -_~_-- ae be ee eee 22 
Congressional, respecting Ohio Valley Centennial Exposition ~____-- 52 
of Congress to print extra copies of the report. ._..---.--.-.------- li 
Resolutions of Board of Regents— 
Ones a OLD ASA GAY; ©) 2M ene sec eee eas SG 7 oe oe 
LOAD PLO pLlate wUCOME! 64 Gos ke oe ee ee eee X Vi 
to provide a Smithson hall in new building for Library of Congress ---..-.. xvii 
relative to deposit of books, etc., by American Historical Association -..--- xvii 
Resolutions of Congress (see Acts and Appropriations). 
Reykjavik, Iceland, exchange agency in -----...-...---------------------- ae 81 
Rhees, William J., catalogue of Smithsonian publications by ____------------- 70, 71 
chief clerk of the Institution ---_----._.._...-_.-----.-.--- xi 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, exchange agency in._.. ~---..--------------..--------- 77, 80 
Rock Creek vailey the site for proposed Zoological Park ._.__...--------_- ~~ -27, 28, 29 
Rockhill} Wis Wi..8ex plorations: DY <.s22 Jes. 2225. seks eon b sce acscens 9, 42 
Rome} Utalw.. exchange agency in -~ 52. 22225) oo ee eee ewe Skee see W781 


time-keeping in Greece and, address by T. A. Seely__----- .--..------+_- 377 


$12 INDEX. 


Page. 
Rooms assigned for sclenbitie sw On ky=sctos ea eee Ree ere 32. 
Roscoe, Dr. Henry E., address: The life work of a chemist ._.-.......---_-__-. 491 
Roumania, exchanges with-___-____- - Se S ENS SRE S SERRE DIESE ee ae tas 77, 78, 81 
Russia; ‘ex changes “with << L cco) Bg ee ea ae ee ee 77, 78 
Ss. 
st. Helena, exchange agency ine 3425 5 soe 2 ts see eee 81 
St. John’s, New Foundland, exchange agency in... .--.= /-2-. 2-2-2 81 
nt. Petersburg, Russia, exchange aventcy in2- 2 222252 ae es eee 77, 81 
Salaries of foreizn:agents. . = 3) 22 a a ee 74 
Institution, expenditures:for 22) 2! ae ee ee ee SK 
Salary. schedule for National Museum =~ 22222122 2 20-2 3485 364s ss 
nan. José, Costa Rica, exchangeagency in 22. Fae a ee 80 
SantSalvador; exchange agencyine 9.2) 2 es ee eee 81 
Santiago, Chilivexchanve asency in—-2 22. -6 soe ee ee es 77, 80 
saturday lecturesiat; National Museum. 2) 2220s eee ae 50 
NAR ONY Ae XC Han Ges wii bhe = seeye kes ee ee Te ey ee a a 77, 78, 81 
Scaife, Walter B., paper on geographical latitude 22... -22) 1 22 2 749 
Scandinavian archeology, by M. Ingwald Unset -___..._.-_-----.--------.--- 57L 
School for gardening at Berlin, Germany, account of _.._._.-.-__--.---------- 127 
Schumacher & (Co, prank iree freight: sees ee ee 21,79, 80 
Scientific institutions at Berlin, paper on__________-____- See ee a ee eee 89 
Seals, oriental, presented by Mrs. Anna Randall Diehl .___...._..222.-22_----- 42 
Secretary of Agriculture, co-operation of 22222-22224 Oo ee eee 45 
Secretary, letter of, submitting annual report to Congress. _.._. --__ ---- --~.---- ill 
remarks.on:Zoolopical#Park a2 222 sek er Os hee ee een een XVj 
TEportionvex changeset. ees ee ee ee ee 15 
statement relative to statue for Professor Baird _____-__--..---..--.-- xvi 
to expend income with advice of Executive Committee _________.-__- xvi 
Secretary of State, letter of, to Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. -_____ .__- 17, 76 
Seely, F. A.. address by, on time-keeping in Greece and Rome _____. __.___-___- 377 
Seminary, Mathematical, of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, accountof 106 
Denviarexchangevarency: fOr. ses a oo ee ee ee ee 76, 81 
Shanghai, Ching, exchange agency in se st 9 see ene eee 80 
Shed, temporary, for astro-physical observations.-____.__. -.-.-__----_-------- 33 
Skinner, Aaron N., translation by, of paper on photography in the service of 
ASUTONOM Yrs a8 ee SE es SOR ES Sa p= nc eee 469 
Skull; clinical study of, lecture on,by Dr. HM. Allen] =2__-=2 92 32 
Smithsonybequest."amountro fi seems oe ee eae oe 
Smithsonian building, repairs, appropriation, and expenditures for -__. ---_-__- XXiV 
FEPAUTS LEC MULME Ca ye ee ee 7 
exchanges, report for 1887, by George H. Boehmer-_ --_-_--- .--..---- 70 
fund, money paid by, on account of exchanges-__-_-.----------- 17, 18 
Grounds, base line established by Geological Survey -_----------_-_- 3 
Hall in new Library of Congress building ---.--_-.__. _._____.@- 22 
Institution, the agent of the Government for international ex- 
changes sae yar ee Se eee a eee RG epled 
disburses appropriation for National Museum__----_- ce 5 
to be custodian of the Zoological Park __-_--.- .---_.. 31 
publications gp |: - 522 eee ee ee ee 10,40 
stereotype plates;storage Of 228-9252 2 eee eee 15 
Sonrels.'A.; drawings! by: 25) Sa oe oe ee 2 eee 69 
South:Australia, ‘exchanges with 22:22 2-522 ee. ee ee by ho 


INDEX. $13 


Page. 
Spain, exchanges with ___....--.--.-------------------------- She a eter at 77, 78 
Spofford, A. R., co-operation with Smithsonian library .......--.._.2-___-__. - 24 
Standard Measures Commission at Berlin, Germany, account of___-__.___.____- 137 
State Department, co-operation of_..___------------.-----.-~...----------..-- 45 
letter to secretary of Smithsonian ineuention- Se ee ee le eS 
Eeacue proposed to Professor Baird 22... - ses1s--- 2 2Se seseeet ose esol o nose 32 
Stearns, Silas, death of .-.....-.--.2-=-2---.--.-+.-------- +222 s-- eee eee 51 
Stereotype plates of Smithsonian Institution now stored in Smithsonian building. 15, 33 
Levenson, James, necrolopy Of; +... 4 2bo =. 22 See kes 2 Ses es ee ee ee 67 
mrockholm;) sweden, exchange agency In 2.2 22 Mee os Sos oe 2 7, 
Suudemts, assistance given to 2.225.225 2522 es sl Se see ee Bee Suse 49 
Stuttgart, Wirtemberg, depository of United States official publications in __-__- rsh 
Surgeon-General’s library, books transferred to .---..------ .----------_-..-_. 25, 84 
PRennnmexcninges Wij. Aon ie oo ot swa ee semen sateen. 77, 78, 81 
Switzerland, exchanges with____--_-___-_-------- --...-__-- Meee eae eo 77,79, 81 
Sydney, New South Wales, exchange AGENCY AN Memos aaa. ee Se se Saree eee if ee 
Szold, Henrietta, translation of memoir of Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer-__-_____- 507 
oe 
Rasa a, PCR AD PCS WINE dc coca cde ru eeeeed atau besa nade a tT, 79, 81 
Technical High School at Berlin, Germany. account of__-__-. --.-__-__-__-_____ 130 
Technological institute of the Royal University at Berlin, Germany, account of. 113 
Telegraph Bureau, Central, at Berlin, Germany, account of ..._..----------____- 139 
expenditures Of INStitution = 2222 ee= ae eee ee ee ee ge xX 
Telephone service at Berlin, Germany, account of --_._.--_-_...--_---------_.- 139 
Terrestrial Globe at the Paris Exhibition, paper on.---------------..-------.. 745 
Testing station, royal, for building material, at Berlin, Germany, account of__. 133 
Thaw collection of apparatus loaned to Institution _-__-----__..-__-_._.-____- 7 
Theory, modern, of light, lecture by Oliver J. Lodge_-___.--.---------______- 441 
Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., address, Botanical Biology --_.---.-------------_- uu. 399 
Thompson, Sir William, ou Boscovich’s theory. -_..-.---_.-----------__------ 435 
Time-keeping in Greece and Rome, address by E. A. Seely---..----------___.- 3G 
Tokio, Japan, exchange agency in -.._-__-..-__--_ 2-2 eee 77, 81 
dtonerlecture fund, condition of-_——- -=5..2.2- 2.2222. eh eee ee ae, 
Topinard, Dr. Paul, lecture, The last steps in the genealogy of man_.___.-_-_-_ 669 
Toronto, Canada, depository of United States official publications in _ -___ Sa V7 
Traphagen, Frank W., index to literature of Columbium.___.-__--_. 2-2-2 69 
Translations by— 
Bleismer, C. A., Anthropology in the last twenty years_-._-.___..-.. ..... 555 
Boehmer, George H., The national scientific institutes at Berlin, Germany —_ 89 
Dallas, W. S., Movements of the earth’s crust_-..-....._.__----_-_-.._._- 325 
Hough, Walter, The last steps in the genealogy of man-_._...____-_-_____ __- 669 
Lodge, L. D., Scandinavian archeology .._.__.-.-.----....--_-----__.--.. 571 
de Perott, Joseph, Memoir of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff_..__...-_...----.__. 527 
Skinner, Aaron N,, Photography in the service of astronomy -.----._-. -.. 469 
Szold, Henrietta, Memoir of Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer Soo 2 erg 
Transportation companies, acknowledgment to, for free freight. .._....--.----?_ 21, 79 
ei teaty Ob BTUSSCIS, 01 1880.0 vaca oe ele Pe os eh a2. 2h ome 1820) 16 
Tubingen, University of, sends dissertations .-._......................-...-... 25, 84 
Tunzelmann, G. W., paper on Hertz’s researches on electrical oscillations ~_____ 145 
PuEoy OX Coan PeR WIthe 22 =5 2 Ae eh SU Ss cl eeeaaca ly T9noL 


Tumer, Sir William, address on heredity _..__........-....___------ aoe we 4 


814 INDEX. 


UL ie 
University publications received by librany.22--2——5=ae= == eee eee 25, 84 
garden, at Berlin, Germany; accountiof ——_- o_o ee eee eee 116 
library, at Berlin, Germany, account.Ole- 22222. Sse eee 106 
Unset, M. Ingwald, paper on Scandinavian archaeology --__----- eee carer se Bell 
Uruguay, exchanges with —- 2222-22 see ee ee ee 77, 81 
Utrecht, University of, sends\dissertations:-22222=2-- == 922 ee eee eee 25, 84 
Vs 
Vanden loom;.H. W., gcants treeyfrelsht)= “235 2 Se eee 80 
Vasey, Dr. George, appointed curator of botany -....--_-.----. 112-2222 oil 
Vegetable division of the Museum of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, 
Germany, account of 2s-: 22202255 (2222 eee 125 
physiology, Institute of, of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, 
Germany, account Of-220202 72 =a 124 
Royal University at Berlin, Germany, ac- 
count:Of icf -2e8s foe 22s e ee 118 
Wenezuelatexchanges Wit c2=- s- cao tees ne ee Uta 
Victonacexchanves witht <= 25 -em = 22sec ee eee ee RH Oy Sl 
Vienna, Austria, exchange agency in. 925-05 = see ee OO 
Virchow, Dr. Rudolph, address: On anthropology in the last twenty years--_-_- 553 
Visitors:to. National Museum, number.of==_- 922 €2= "=e 222 eee 50, 51 
Wis 
Washington, Lawrence, deposited a number of articles belonging to General 
Wrashinetonss== 5.225 3252 ee ee oe ee 44 
Waves, electrical, Hertz’s\researcheson 5 -__ . | 255 Ree) oe 145 
‘Welling, Dr. James/C!, acts of, as\Regent:___—_____ =.= eee xii, xiii 
member of committee on eulogy of Dr. AsaGray . --_-- xiii 
executive conimittee -— oi 2223 5a ee eee em OCT 
presented report of executive committee -_-.-.-._.-___- xv 
Wellington, New Zealand, exchange agency in.-..----_---- ------ ---=2222--=- #71, 81 
Wenham, F. H:, paper on‘aerial locomotion .._--_--.-_.-_-. = 2322. ee OOS 
Wesley, William, & Sou, acknowledgments of services rondered™ 2. ee AD 
exchange agents of the Institution .-..—.-.--.=-=2=- == 80,81 
West Indies; exchanges with :__2-.---. 3225 -..=-- wostls ie eee 76, 79 
Wiheeler, Elon. Jioseph, acts of, as Regent —_-_-- 22353". ee eee xii, xiii 
White, Dr: Andrew D:, acts’of, as) Regent = _-— = 2 ee ee xii, xiii 
elected member of Board of Regents ---------..----.--- XV 
White, Charles A., recommended acceptance of Hyatt’s memoirs --___-.------- 69 
White Cross’Line; erant free freight --- -_ - -- <=) = S22 21. 80 
Walson és Asmus, grant free freight.=5_--- 22-2 22 === Se ee 21, 80 
Walson, ‘Thomas, mission to: Hurope: ---—-. 222-2) 222 Se eee ol 
Winlock,,W. C., appointed curator of exchanges. -----. .----.---------------- 16 
bibliography of-astronomy for 1887" 2222 2ene sae eee 70 
Teporhion exchanges. = — 62 c= nye ee 73 
Wright: Peter, & Sems;}/orant free freight -.-2._..--- 2" 22== =" eee 21, 80 
Wiirtembere: exchangestwith..-..222- 2c 2222.22 See 
Wiirzburg, University of, sends dissertations -.___.-------..------ =----- eee 25, 84 





INDEX. 815 
Page. 
Y. 
Wanavocabulary, collected by Mr:-J.. Curtin’... .<5.2-222-22--.-2-..c2. 2--Lc 61 
Yarrow, Dr. H. C., collections received from .___.__-______---.__-----1-.---- 42 
Introduction to the study of Mortuary customs -___-_ ..___- 65 
ZL. 

Zoological Garden at Berlin, Germany, account of__-______-.-_.----.--------.. = 120 

Institute of the Agricultural High Schooi at Berlin, Germany, account 
Of mica Soee eae? esas oka Sk on eee 
University at Berlin, Germany, account of_._._.---.. 119 
Museum at Florence, Italy, presented specimens ____-__ -_ .. _-._.__- 43 
of Royal University at Berlin, Germany, acount Clie ee iis 
PES neem ae eee Se ae aS. 0.0/9 17 
action of Board of Regents relative to --_. _-_--_-_._...------ xvi 
amendment to bill estabiishing- -._.-_-_----.--.-----.--------- 30 

Congressional action relative to establishment of__ .__- 27, 28, 29, 30, 3 

report of Congressional Committee on Public Buildings and 
Grounds ==--- .-.._- ee ee ee 27 
pecretarys letter to Congress=26 = 2. S22 2222 see een ee 29 
MEW OU Ol ee ae eer ee ee ee 2S 
COMMISSION AP POUILEC = = eae eee ee ee 30 
occupies rooms in Sinithsonian building ..----.—..- .. ..-- 32 

Zoo-technical Institute of the Agricultural High School at Berlin, Germany, ac- 
ROUTtO lem Ike Bet ete eo MAN oo net. eo rr rn be 




















a ae ee ? 
f 


























HI 


RARIES 


| 


| 
| 


III 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


| 
| 
21 


IN LIB 


j= 
om 
” 
2 
Si 
< 


Sa a nl 
en eae ol 


ee 


; = aoa eee